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Thoracic Anesthesia Procedures
Thoracic Anesthesia
Procedures
Edited by
Alan D. Kaye, MD, PhD, DABA, DABPM, DABIPP, FASA
Vice-Chancellor of Academic Affairs, Chief
Academic Officer, and Provost
Tenured Professor of Anesthesiology,
Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Neurosciences
LSU School of Medicine
Shreveport, LA, USA
Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA

Associate Professor
Department of Anesthesiology
Perioperative and Pain Medicine
Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Boston, MA, USA
1
3
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kaye, Alan D., editor. | Urman, Richard D., editor.
Title: Thoracic anesthesia procedures /Alan D. Kaye and Richard D. Urman.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2021] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020047807 (print) | LCCN 2020047808 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197506127 (paperback) | ISBN 9780197506141 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197506158 (online)
Subjects: MESH: Thoracic Surgical Procedures | Anesthesia
Classification: LCC RD536 (print) | LCC RD536 (ebook) |
NLM WF 980 | DDC 617.9/6754—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047807
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047808
DOI: 10.1093/med/9780197506127.001.0001
This material is not intended to be, and should not be considered, a substitute for medical or other professional advice.
Treatment for the conditions described in this material is highly dependent on the individual circumstances. And, while
this material is designed to offer accurate information with respect to the subject matter covered and to be current as of
the time it was written, research and knowledge about medical and health issues is constantly evolving and dose schedules
for medications are being revised continually, with new side effects recognized and accounted for regularly. Readers must
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The publisher and the authors make no representations or warranties to readers, express or implied, as to the accuracy
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1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Marquis, Canada

To my wife Dr. Kim Kaye and my children, Aaron and Rachel Kaye, for being the best family
a man could ask for in his life.
To my mother Florence Feldman who made me the man I am today.
Thank you to all my patients that I have had the honor to take care of over the
past 30 plus years.
I am grateful to my mentors, friends, brother Adam, sister Sheree, and other family
members for your support throughout my life.
—Alan D. Kaye, MD, PhD, DABA, DABPM, DABIPP, FASA
To my patients who inspired me to write this book to help other practitioners

improve their care
To my mentors for their encouragement and support
To my students and trainees so that they can use this guide to better prepare to
take care of their patients
To my family: my wife Dr. Zina Matlyuk-Urman, MD, my daughters Abigail and Isabelle
who make it all possible and worth it, every day.
And finally, to my parents, Tanya and Dennis Urman.
—Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA

Contents
Foreword ix
Contributors xi
1. Normal Respiratory Physiology: Basic Concepts for the Clinician 1

Jordan S. Renschler, George M. Jeha, and Alan D. Kaye
2. Thoracic Radiology: Thoracic Anesthesia Procedures 17
Parker D. Freels, Gregory C. Wynn, Travis Meyer, and Giuseppe Giuratrabocchetta
3. Physiology of One-Lung Ventilation 37
Geetha Shanmugam and Raymond Pla
4. Bronchoscopic Anatomy 45
Geoffrey D. Panjeton, W. Kirk Fowler, Hess Panjeton, Yi Deng, and Jeffrey D. White
5. Preoperative Evaluation and Optimization 59
Alexandra L. Belfar, Kevin Duong, Yi Deng, and Melissa Nikolaidis
6. Lung Isolation Techniques 71
William Johnson, Melissa Nikolaidis, and Nahel Saied
7. Airway Devices for Thoracic Anesthesia and Ventilatory Techniques 81
Neeraj Kumar, Priya Gupta, and Indranil Chakraborty
8. Patient Positioning and Surgical Considerations 95
Phi Ho, Yi Deng, and Melissa Nikolaidis
9. Anesthetic Management Techniques in Thoracic Surgery 101
Henry Liu, Xiangdong Chen, Alan D. Kaye, and Richard D. Urman
10. Bronchoscopy and Mediastinoscopy Procedures 109
Justin W. Wilson
11. Anterior Mediastinal Masses 119
Kevin Sidoran, Hanan Tafesse, Tiffany D. Perry, and Tricia Desvarieux
12. Pneumonectomy 137
Lacey Wood and Antony Tharian
13. Anesthesia for Pleural Space Procedures 163
Harendra Arora and Alan Smeltz
14. Surgical Airway Management 179
Zipei Feng, Mengjie Wu, Melissa Nikolaidis, and Yi Deng
viii Contents
15. Bronchopleural Fistula 189

Jose C. Humanez, Saurin Shah, Thimothy Graham, Kishan Patel,
and Paul Mongan
16. Esophagectomy 199
Tiffany D. Perry, Tricia Desvarieux, and Kevin Sidoran
17. Lung Transplantation 213
Loren Francis and Jared McKinnon
18. Postoperative Management and Complications in Thoracic Surgery 231
Daniel Demos and Edward McGough
19. Pulmonary Pathophysiology in Anesthesia Practice 251
Gary R. Haynes and Brian P. McClure
20. Anesthetic Management Techniques (Regional Anesthesia) 273
Tyler Kabes, Rene Przkora, and Juan C. Mora
21. Minimally Invasive Thoracic Surgery 299
Joseph Capone and Antony Tharian
22. Enhanced Recovery in Thoracic Surgery 315
Manxu Zhao, Zhongyuan Xia, and Henry Liu
Index 327
Foreword
Historically, injury or disease within the chest was considered in most instances to be fatal. It
would take hundreds of years to understand human anatomy and physiology for doctors and
scientists to develop surgical techniques to provide surgeons and anesthesiologists the un-
derstanding and skills to work in a small space to treat diseases of the thorax.
Today, technological advances have paved the way for miraculous cures for infection, an-
atomical disorders, vascular abnormalities, malignant tumors, benign masses, and other
thorax pathologies. These treatments promote healing for a wide variety of clinical condi-
tions, and the evoluation of anesthesia techniques has allowed for less postoperative pain and
improved outcomes.
We hope that our book, Thoracic Anesthesia Procedures, provides an inspiration for les-
sons in thorax surgery and anesthesia for medical students, residents, fellows, and attending
staff. We have worked methodically to recruit experts from numerous medical fields and pro-
fessional disciplines. The result is an easy to read and very visual book sharing expertise and
knowledge in the field of thoracic surgery. We welcome your comments and hope you enjoy
our book focused on thoracic disease and treatment.
Contributors
Harendra Arora, MD, FASA, MBA Yi Deng, MD

Professor Assistant Professor of Cardiothoracic
Department of Anesthesiology Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine
University of North Carolina School Associate Director of Cardiothoracic
of Medicine Anesthesiology at Ben Taub Hospital
Chapel Hill, NC, USA Department of Anesthesiology
Baylor College of Medicine
Alexandra L. Belfar, MD Houston, TX, USA
Assistant Professor
Department of Anesthesiology Tricia Desvarieux, MD
Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology
Medical Center and Critical Care Medicine
Department of Anesthesiology Department of Anesthesiology and
Baylor College of Medicine Critical Care Medicine
Houston, TX, USA George Washington University School of
Medicine & Health Sciences
Joseph Capone, DO Washington, DC, USA
Resident
Department of Anesthesiology Kevin Duong, MD
Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center Resident Physician
Chicago, IL, USA Department of Anesthesiology
Baylor College of Medicine
Indranil Chakraborty, MBBS, MD, DNB Houston, TX, USA
Professor
Department of Anesthesiology Zipei Feng, MD, PhD
College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Resident Physician
Medical Sciences Department of Otolaryngology
Little Rock, AR, USA Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, TX, USA
Xiangdong Chen, MD, PhD
Chairman and Professor Loren Francis, MD
Department of Anesthesiology Cardiothoracic Anesthesiologist
Tongji Medical College Wuhan Union Hospital Department of Anesthesia and
Huazhong University of Science & Technology Perioperative Medicine
Wuhan, China Medical University of South Carolina
Charleston, SC, USA
Daniel Demos, MD
Assistant Professor of Surgery Parker D. Freels, MD
Division of Thoracic and Cardiac Surgery Physician
Department of Surgery Department of Radiology
University of Florida College of Medicine University of Florida College of Medicine
Gainesville, FL, USA Jacksonville, FL, USA
xii Contributors
Giuseppe Giuratrabocchetta, MD Alan D. Kaye, MD, PhD, DABA, DABPM,

Department of Anesthesiology DABIPP, FASA
University of Florida College of Medicine Vice-Chancellor of Academic Affairs, Chief
Jacksonville, FL, USA Academic Officer, and Provost
Tenured Professor of Anesthesiology,
Thimothy Graham, MD Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Neurosciences
Department of Radiology LSU School of Medicine
University of Florida College of Medicine Shreveport, LA, USA
Jacksonville, FL, USA
W. Kirk Fowler, MD
Priya Gupta, MD Physician
Associate Professor Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology University of Florida College of Medicine
College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Gainesville, FL, USA
Medical Sciences
Little Rock, AR, USA Neeraj Kumar, MD
Assistant Professor
Gary R. Haynes, MD, MS, PhD, FASA Department of Anesthesiology
Professor and the Merryl and Sam Israel Chair in College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for
Anesthesiology Medical Sciences
Department of Anesthesiology Little Rock, AR, USA
Tulane University School of Medicine
New Orleans, LA, USA Henry Liu, MD, MS, FASA
Professor of Anesthesiology
Phi Ho, MD Department of Anesthesiology and
Resident Physician Perioperative Medicine
Department of Anesthesiology Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center
Baylor College of Medicine Hershey, PA, USA
Houston, TX, USA
Brian P. McClure, MD
Jose C. Humanez, MD Assistant Professor
Assistant Professor Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology Tulane University School of Medicine
University of Florida College of Medicine New Orleans, LA
Jacksonville, FL, USA
Edward McGough, MD
George M. Jeha Associate Professor of Anesthesia
Medical Student Divisions of Critical Care Medicine and
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Cardiac Anesthesia
New Orleans, LA, USA Program Director
William Johnson, MD Cardiothoracic Anesthesia Fellowship
Resident Physician Department of Anesthesiology
Baylor College of Medicine Gainesville, FL, USA
Houston, TX, USA Jared McKinnon, MD
Tyler Kabes, MD Assistance Professor
Resident Physician Department of Anesthesiology and
Department of Anesthesiology Perioperative Medicine
University of Florida College of Medicine Medical University of South Carolina
Gainesville, FL, USA Charleston, SC, USA
Contributors xiii
Travis Meyer, MD Rene Przkora, MD, PhD

Physician Professor of Anesthesiology and Chief,
Department of Radiology Pain Medicine Division
University of Florida Health, Clinical Center Department of Anesthesiology
Jacksonville, FL, USA University of Florida College of Medicine
Gainesville, FL, USA
Paul Mongan, MD
Professor Jordan S. Renschler
Department of Anesthesiology Medical Student
University of Florida College of Medicine Louisiana State University Health
Jacksonville, FL, USA Sciences Center
New Orleans, LA, USA
Juan C. Mora, MD
Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology Nahel Saied, MD
Department of Anesthesiology Professor of Anesthesiology and Critical Care
University of Florida College of Medicine University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Gainesville, FL, USA Little Rock, AR, USA
Melissa Nikolaidis, MD Saurin Shah, MD

Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology Department of Anesthesiology
Director of Cardiothoracic Anesthesiology at Jacksonville, FL, USA
Ben Taub Hospital
Baylor College of Medicine Geetha Shanmugam, MD
Houston, TX, USA Assistant Professor of Medicine
Department of Anesthesiology and
Geoffrey D. Panjeton, MD Critical Care
Fellow George Washington University School of
Department of Anesthesiology Medicine
University of Florida College of Medicine Washington, DC, USA
Gainesville, FL, USA
Kevin Sidoran, MD
Hess Panjeton, MD Resident Physician
Northside Anesthesiology Consultants Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care
Atlanta, GA, USA George Washington University Hospital
Washington, DC, USA
Kishan Patel, MD
Physician Alan Smeltz, MD
Department of Anesthesiology Assistant Professor
University of Florida College of Medicine Department of Anesthesiology
Jacksonville, FL, USA University of North Carolina School of
Medicine
Tiffany D. Perry Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Raymond Pla, MD Hanan Tafesse, MD
Assistant Professor of Medicine Anesthesia Resident
Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Department of Anesthesiology
George Washington University School of Medicine The George Washington University Hospital
Washington, DC, USA Washington, DC, USA
xiv Contributors
Antony Tharian, MD Mengjie Wu, MD

Program Director Resident Physician
Department of Anesthesiology Department of Anesthesiology
Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center UT Houston
Chicago, IL, USA Houston, TX, USA
Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA Gregory C. Wynn, MD

Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Anesthesiology Department of Radiology
Perioperative and Pain Medicine University of Florida College of Medicine
Brigham and Women’s Hospital Jacksonville, FL, USA
Boston, MA, USA
Zhongyuan Xia, MD, PhD
Jeffrey D. White, MD Professor and Chairman
Clinical Associate Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University,
University of Florida College of Medicine Hubei General Hospital
Gainesville, FL, USA Wuhan, China
Justin W. Wilson, MD Manxu Zhao, MD, MS

Associate Professor of Anesthesiology Director
and Director Department of Anesthesiology
Division of Cardiothoracic Anesthesiology Cedar Sinai Medical Center
Department of Anesthesiology Los Angeles, CA, USA
University of Texas Health Science Center at
San Antonio
San Antonio, TX, USA
Lacey Wood, DO
Resident
Department of Anesthesiology
Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center
Chicago, IL, USA
1
Normal Respiratory Physiology
Basic Concepts for the Clinician
Jordan S. Renschler, George M. Jeha, and Alan D. Kaye
Physiological and Anatomical Consideration

of Patient Positioning
Introduction
Patient positioning should optimize exposure for surgery while minimizing potential harm
to the patient. Concerns for patient positioning include interfering with respiration or cir-
culation, compressing peripheral nerves of skin, and causing musculoskeletal discomfort.
Factors that should be considered when choosing optimal patient positioning include pro-
cedure length, the surgeon’s preference, the type of anesthesia administered, and patient spe-
cific risk factors, including age and weight.1
Supine
Supine is the most used surgical position and poses the lowest risk to patient2 (Figure 1.1). In
the supine position the patient is placed on their back with the spinal column in alignment
and legs extended parallel to the bed. Changing a person from upright to the supine position
results in a fall of about 0.8 to 1 L in functional residual capacity (FRC).2,3 After induction of
anesthesia, the FRC decreases another 0.4 to 0.5 L due to relaxation of the intercostal mus-
cles and diaphragm. This drop in FRC contributes to small airway collapse and a decrease in
oxygenation.
Lateral Decubitus: Closed Chest
The lateral decubitus position is often used in surgeries of the hip, retroperitoneum, and
thorax (Figure 1.2). To achieve this position, patients are anesthetized supine then turned
so the nonoperative side is in contact with the bed. The shoulders and hips should be turned
simultaneously to prevent torsion of the spine and great vessels. The lower leg is flexed at hip,
and the upper leg is completely extended. There is a decrease in FRC and total volumes of
both lungs due to the patient being in a supine position. In lateral decubitus, the dependent
2 Thoracic Anesthesia Procedures
Figure 1.1 Supine position.
lung is better perfused due to gravity but has a decreased compliance to the increased intra-
abdominal pressure and pressure from the mediastinum.2 This leads to better ventilation of
the poorly perfused, nondependent lung. These alterations result in significant ventilation-
perfusion mismatch.
Figure 1.2 Lateral decubitus position.

Normal Respiratory Physiology 3
Open Chest
Opening the chest in lateral decubitus poses additional physiologic effects. Opening a large
section of the thoracic cavity removes some constraint of the chest wall on the nondependent
lung. This increases ventilation of the lung, which worsens the ventilation-perfusion mis-
match.4 Because the intact hemithorax is generating negative pressures, the mediastinum
can shift toward the closed section, changing hemodynamics in a potentially dangerous way.
The closed hemithorax can also pull air from the open hemithorax, resulting in paradoxical
breathing.5
Lung Isolation Techniques

Introduction
Lung isolation may be desired in surgery to optimize surgical access. By collapsing a single
lung, the surgeon has greater access to the thorax and prevents puncturing the lung. Single-
lung ventilation can also prevent contamination of healthy lung tissue by a diseased lung in
cases of severe infection or bleeding. This section discusses methods of lung isolation in-
cluding double-lumen tubes and bronchial blockers.
Anatomical Landmarks
The trachea is the entrance to the respiratory system and is kept patent by C-shaped carti-
laginous rings. These rings maintain the structure of the trachea and are incomplete on the
posterior aspect of the trachea. The trachea splits into the right and left mainstem bronchus at
the carina (Figure 1.3). Notice the right bronchus lies in a more vertical plane and is typically
shorter and wider. The right bronchus supplies the right lung, which has three lobes—the
superior, middle, and inferior lobes—whereas the left lung consists of only the superior and
(A) (B)
Figure 1.3 The trachea splits into the right and left mainstem bronchus at the carina.
inferior lobes and is supplied by the left bronchus. Each lobe is supplied by a secondary bron-
chus, coming from the respective mainstem bronchus. Secondary bronchi split further into
bronchioles.
Double-Lumen Tubes
Double-lumen tubes are the main method of anatomical and physiologic lung isolation in
most thoracic surgery cases. Double-lumen tubes are composed of two unequal length en-
dotracheal tubes molded together. The longer tube has a blue cuff and is designed to sit in
the primary bronchus, while the shorter tube has a clear cuff and is placed in the trachea
(Figure 1.4). By inflating the tracheal cuff and deflating the bronchial cuff, ventilation of
both lungs is achieved. Lung isolation is achieved when the bronchial cuff is inflated.6
• Double-lumen tubes come in right and left models. Adult double-lumen tubes are avail-
able in different sizes: 25 Fr, 28 Fr, 32 Fr, 35 Fr, 37 Fr, 39 Fr, and 41 Fr. 39 Fr and 41 Fr are
commonly used in adult males, and 35 Fr and 37 Fr are used for adult females.7 Size choice
should prevent trauma or ischemia to the airway from a tube too large, but it must be large
enough to adequately isolate the lung when inflated. The tubes should pass without resist-
ance during insertion. Smaller tubes are more likely to be displaced and are more difficult
to suction and ventilate through. Double-lumen tubes are also commercially available
Figure 1.4 A 39 Fr double lumen tube demonstrating the tracheal limb, bronchial limb,
oropharyngeal curve, tracheal cuff, and bronchial cuff (A). An enlarged image displaying the
bronchial and tracheal limbs (B).
for patients with tracheostomy and are shorter and curved between the intratracheal and
extratracheal components.
• Components of double-lumen tube package:
• Double-lumen tube
• Adaptor for ventilation of both ports
• Extension for each port
• Stylet
• Suction catheter
• Apparatus to deliver continuous positive pressure airway to the nonventilated lung (var-
iable depending on manufacturer)
• Additional equipment:
• Laryngoscope blade
• Fiberoptic bronchoscope
• Stethoscope
• Hemostat to clamp the tube extension on the nonventilated side
• Blind placement7:
• Preparation: Prior to the case, prepare and assemble the supplies to prevent delays later.
Lubricate the stylet and place it into the double-lumen tube. Connect the adaptor to both
port extension.
• Intubating the patient: Visualize the vocal cords by direct laryngoscopy. Advance the
double-lumen tube with the bronchial tip oriented so the concave curve faces anteriorly
through the vocal cords until the bronchial cuff passes the cords. Rotate the tube 90o to
the left when using a left-sided tube or to the right if using a right-side tube. Then ad-
vance the tube until there is resistance, while having another clinician remove the stylet.
Attach the adaptor/extension piece. Following adequate positioning, inflate the tracheal
cuff. Confirm both lungs are being ventilated by visualized chest rise and auscultation.
Next verify ventilation from the bronchial lumen by inflating the bronchial cuff 1 mL at
a time until leak stops. Stop gas flow through the tracheal lumen, then open the tracheal
sealing cap to air. Clamp off gas flow through the bronchial lumen to confirm isolation of
the other lung through the tracheal lumen. Connect the double-lumen tube to the ven-
tilator circuit using the connector provided in the packaging. End-tidal carbon dioxide
(CO2) confirms placement in the trachea. Oxygenate the patient fully with a fraction of
inspired oxygen of 100%.
• Confirmation of placement: Confirm correct placement of the tube using a fiberoptic
bronchoscope through the endotracheal lumen (gold standard), by auscultation, and/or
with lung ultrasound.
• Relative contraindications: Placement of a double-lumen tube is difficult due to the larger
size and design; therefore, relative contraindications include a difficult airway, limited
jaw mobility, a tracheal constriction, and a pre-existing trachea or stoma. In these cases,
a single lumen tube with a bronchial blocker is an advisable alternative.
• Considerations:
• Left-sided double-lumen tubes have a higher margin of safety because the left primary
bronchus is longer than the right.
• The proximity of the right-upper lobe bronchus to the carina poses an additional chal-
lenge in placing a right-sided double-lumen tube.8
• Reviewing prior lung imaging may aid in locating the right upper lobe position relative
to the right primary bronchus.
Bronchial Blocker
Bronchial blockers are another method used for selective ventilation of an individual lung.
The blocker is a catheter with a balloon at the tip that is inflated to occlude the lung of the
bronchus it is placed in. Open-tipped bronchial blockers offer the ability to apply continuous
positive pressure and to suction the airway, making them more useful than the alternative
close-tipped bronchial blockers.6 The smallest size is a 2 French, which may be used in a 3.5
or 4.0 mm endotracheal tube. Proper placement of bronchial blockers is especially difficult
in smaller children. To assure proper placement of the bronchial blocker, one must visualize
key anatomical structures during placement. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy is a reliable method to
confirm proper placement of the bronchial blocker.
Advantages of bronchial blockers compared to double-lumen tubes include bronchial
blockers utility in airway trauma, ability to be placed through an existing endotracheal tube,
and ability to selectively block a lung lobe.9,10 Disadvantages include being especially difficult
to place, particularly in the right upper lobe, as well as being more likely to be dislodged.
• Placement of bronchial blocker

• Preparation: Prior to intubation, verify that the bronchial blocker attached to the fiber-
optic scope fits through the endotracheal tube.
• Intubation: Using a single-lumen tube, intubate the trachea. Confirm endotracheal tube
intubation with end-tidal CO2 and auscultation. Fully ventilate the patient with a frac-
tion of inspired oxygen of 100% prior to placing the bronchial blocker.
• Placement of the bronchial blocker: Attach the blocker to the very distal tip of the fiber-
optic bronchoscope using the loop/lariat of the blocker. Advance the attached bron-
chial blocker into the endotracheal tube. Use the fiberoptic bronchoscope to visualize
the airway, guiding the blocker into the selected primary bronchus. Place the bronchial
blocker by releasing the loop/lariat that connect the blocker to the fiberoptic broncho-
scope. Withdraw the bronchoscope to slightly above the carina and visualize the pri-
mary bronchi. While observing from this view, inflate the balloon with air or saline as
instructed by the manufacturer. Remove the fiberoptic bronchoscope and auscultate to
confirm positioning of blocker. Confirm that peak airway pressures are appropriate and
not excessive.
• Risks: Bronchial blockers may cause local trauma to the tracheal mucosa during place-
ment. Additionally, using a bronchial blocker or overinflation of the balloon that is too
large can damage the mucosa of the airway. If the bronchial block is inflated within the
trachea ventilation of both lungs is blocked.
Bronchoscopy
Bronchoscopy allows for visualization of the airways and has utility in diagnostic and thera-
peutic procedures. There are two main types of bronchoscopes, rigid and flexible. The rigid
bronchoscope is a metal tube with a beveled tip. The flexible bronchoscope has several vari-
ations. Traditionally, they have a long flexible tube encircling a fiberoptic system with a light
source. The handle of the scope has an eyepiece, control lever for tip movement, suction
button, and access to the suction channel.11 Indications for rigid and flexible bronchoscopes
overlap, but flexible bronchoscopes are preferred in confirmation of double-lumen tube and
bronchial blocker placement.12
Indications for Bronchoscopy

Diagnostic Therapeutic
Tracheoesophageal fistula, hemoptysis Lung resection, hemoptysis management,

management, chronic cough, stridor, nodal foreign body removal, airway dilatation and
staging of lung cancer, hilar lymphadenopathy stent placement, lavage, tumor debulking,
tracheomalacia, posttransplant surveillance, thermoplasty for asthma13
pulmonary infiltrates
When using a double-lumen tube or bronchial blocker, fiberoptic bronchoscopy is a reli-

able method to confirm tube placement and lung isolation.14 Auscultation is less reliable for
determining adequate ventilation of the selected lung. Mispositioning of the double-lumen
tube can result in hypoventilation, hypoxia, atelectasis, and respiratory collapse.15
When using fiberoptic bronchoscopy to confirm the position of a blindly inserted tube, it
is advanced through the tracheal lumen to confirm11:
• The bronchial portion is in the correct bronchus.

• The bronchial cuff does not cover the carina.
• The bronchial rings are anterior and longitudinal fibers are posterior.
When advancing the bronchoscope through the endobronchial lumen:
• For left-sided tubes, visualize the origins of the left upper and lower bronchi to assure the
endobronchial tip is not occluding a bronchi.
• For the right-sided tube, because of the alternate size and angle, ensure the alignment be-
tween the opening of the endobronchial lumen and the opening of the right upper lobe
bronchus is optimal. Visualize the middle and lower bronchus as patent and ventilated.
Bronchoscopy may be used to aid in placing the double-lumen tube by placing the broncho-
scope through the bronchial lumen and positioning the double-lumen tube over the scope.
• Complications: Potential complications of bronchoscopy include laryngospasm, broncho-

spasm, hypoxemia, mucosal damage resulting in bleeding, pneumothorax, cardiac arrhyth-
mias, and exacerbation of hypoxia. The benefits of bronchoscopy must outweigh the risks.
Pulmonary Function Changes During Thoracic

Anesthesia
Introduction
During thoracic anesthesia, a significant reduction in pulmonary function occurs, with a de-
crease of up to 50% in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), forced vital capacity, and
FRC.16 Anesthetic agents themselves, particularly the volatile anesthetics, lead to hypercar-
bia and hypoxia. Depression of reflexes, increased secretions, changes in hemodynamics, and
alterations in rib cage movement during thoracic anesthesia further alter pulmonary func-
tion. These alterations lead to a high risk of hypoxia and atelectasis, resulting in respiratory
complications comprising most perioperative causes of morbidity and mortality.
Lung Mechanics and Pulmonary Function
The lungs’ primary function is to maintain oxygenation and remove CO2 from the blood, thus
allowing for respiration at the cellular level to occur. Arterial CO2 is detected by chemorecep-
tors of the carotid body and medulla and is the primary driver of respiration. Patent alveoli
and capillaries within the lung are the site of gas diffusion. Alveolar ventilation (Va) refers to
the gas exchange occurring between the alveoli and external environment, while perfusion
(Q) is the blood flow the lung receives. Perfusion of the lung tissue is heavily dependent on
gravity, so patient positioning alters which areas of the lung are most perfused.17 Different
methods of thoracic anesthesia and positioning of the patient alter Va and Q. Thoracic anes-
thesia causes a dose-dependent decrease in minute ventilation, or the total volume the lung
receives in 1 minute.18 The additional decrease in FRC and FEV1 leads to alveolar collapse
and an increase of shunting within the lungs. Some of this loss of lung function can be over-
come with positive end-expiratory pressure and alveolar recruitment maneuvers, improving
overall patient outcomes. Mechanical ventilation improves the Va/Q ratio by increasing the
volume of air the lung receives and limiting atelectasis.19
Predictive Postoperative Pulmonary Lung Function
FEV1 and the diffusion capacity of CO2 are quantitative preoperative assessment values
of thoracic anesthesia patients undergoing partial lung resection. FEV1 is a measure of
the respiratory mechanics whereas diffusing capacity for CO2 (DLCO) measures the lung
parenchymal function. Reduction in FEV1 and DLCO are associated with increased res-
piratory morbidity and mortality rates.20 In the setting of a normal FEV1, DLCO should
still be measured because of its utility in predicting morbidity in patients with no airflow
limitations.21,22
Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second
ppoFEV1% = preoperative FEV1% × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/100)
A predicted postoperative FEV1 percentage (ppoFEV1%) above 40% is low risk for postop-
erative respiratory complication, while less than 30% is considered high risk.23 Following the
surgery, the remaining lung will compensate and eventually FEV1 will increase slightly.24
Diffusion Capacity of CO2
ppoDLCO = preoperative DLCO × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/100)
Diffusion capacity is a measure of gases ability to cross the alveolar-capillary membranes.

A predicted postoperative DLCO percentage (ppoDLCO) less than 40% is correlated with
increased postoperative cardiopulmonary complications.21 DLCO is the strongest predictor
for morbidity and mortality after lung resection and predicts cardiopulmonary complica-
tions in the setting of a normal FEV1. The DLCO value has also been associated with postop-
erative quality of life and long-term survival.22 Guidelines recommend DLCO measurement
prior to lung resection in all cases.
One-Lung Ventilation
Introduction
In most circumstances, the lungs of patients undergoing mechanical ventilation are inflated
and deflated in unison. In some instances, however, it is beneficial to mechanically separate the
two lungs to ventilate only one lung while the other is deflated. This is termed one-lung venti-
lation (OLV). OLV is commonly used to provide exposure to the surgical field during thoracic
surgery or to anatomically isolate one lung from pathologic processes related to the other lung.
Indications for One-Lung Ventilation
OLV is routinely utilized to enhance exposure of the surgical field in a variety of surgical pro-
cedures, including:
• Pulmonary resection (including pneumonectomy, lobectomy, and wedge resection).

• Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (including wedge resection, biopsy, and
pleurodesis).
• Mediastinal surgery.
• Esophageal surgery.
• Thoracic vascular surgery.
• Thoracic spine surgery.
• Minimally invasive cardiac valve surgery.
The nonsurgical indications for OLV include6:
• Protective isolation of one lung from pathologic processes occurring in the contralateral
lung, such as:
• Pulmonary hemorrhage.
• Infection or purulent secretions.
• Control of ventilation in circumstances such as:
• Tracheobronchial trauma.
• Broncho-pleural or broncho-cutaneous fistula.
Methods of Lung Separation
There are three methods used to isolate a lung:
1. Single-lumen endobronchial tube: The single-lumen endobronchial tube differs from

normal endotracheal tube in that the former has a smaller external diameter, smaller ex-
ternal cuff, and longer length. The single-lumen endobronchial tube is utilized far less
frequently than the double-lumen endobronchial tube for achieving lung isolation but
may be useful in emergency situations in select patients with abnormal tracheobronchial
anatomy or in cases involving small children.8,9 Placement of a single-lumen endobron-
chial tube within the right or left mainstem bronchus allows for ventilation of only the
intubated lung, while the contralateral lung is allowed to spontaneously collapse.
2. Double-lumen endobronchial tube: Since its introduction in the 1930s, the double-lumen
endobronchial tube has been the most commonly utilized method of lung isolation. Its
design consists of two separate lumens: a bronchial lumen and a tracheal lumen. This
allows for isolation, selective ventilation, and intermittent suctioning of either lung.6,8,9
3. Endobronchial blockers: Endobronchial blockers are inflatable balloon-tipped stylets
which may be placed within the mainstem bronchus, resulting in collapse of lung distal to
the blocker.9,25,26
Physiology
By inhibiting the ventilation of one lung, single-lung ventilation alters normal respiratory
physiology. Disruption of normal respiratory physiology is often followed by the develop-
ment of hypoxemia. Hypoxemia in the context of one lung ventilation may be attributable to
several factors, including reduced oxygen stores, lung compression, dissociation of oxygen
from hemoglobin, and matching of ventilation and perfusion.8,27,28
• Reduced oxygen stores: Because one lung is collapsed during OLV, the FRC is reduced.
Accordingly, there is a decrease in the body’s stores of oxygen. Additionally, the disease
process at play within the thorax may contribute to decreased oxygen stores.
• Lung compression: Compression of the ventilated lung may contribute to hypoxemia.
During OLV, the ventilated lung may be compressed by the weight of the mediastinum.
After diaphragmatic paralysis, the weights of the abdominal contents may also contribute
to compression of the ventilated lung.6,28,29
• Oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin: During OLV, the absence of ventilation to one lung
reduces the surface area available for gas exchange by approximately one half, leading to
a reduction in arterial partial pressure of oxygen and increased CO2 levels. The result is
more rapid dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin. This phenomenon is known as the
Bohr effect.8,28,30
• Ventilation and perfusion matching: Under normal circumstances, ventilation and perfu-
sion are anatomically well-matched. However, during OLV, ventilation is interrupted to
one of the lungs while its perfusion remains unaffected. This wasted perfusion leads to the
development of a right-to-left intrapulmonary shunt and relative hypoxemia. In practice,
however, the shunt fraction is actually lower than expected. The reasons for this are as
follows6,8:
• Manipulation of the nonventilated lung leads to partial obstruction of its blood supply.
• By positioning the patient in the lateral position, gravity causes an increase in perfusion
to the ventilated lung.
• Blood flow to hypoxic and poorly ventilated regions of the lung is diverted to more ven-
tilated segments via the mechanism of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.
Optimum Driving Pressure
Driving pressure (ΔP) is calculated as the difference between airway pressure at the end of
inspiration (plateau pressure, Pplat) and positive end-expiratory airway pressure (PEEP). Two
pressures comprise the driving pressure: the transpulmonary pressure (ΔPL) and the pressure
applied to the chest wall (ΔPcw). By rearranging the standard respiratory compliance (CRS)
equation, it is demonstrated that driving pressure equals the tidal volume (VT) divided by
CRS. Consequently, driving pressure can be interpreted as the tidal volume corrected for the
patient’s CRS and thus related to global lung strain. When adjusting the tidal volume, driving
pressure may be used as a safety limit to minimize lung strain in intubated patients. Although
optimal driving pressure is the subject of ongoing research, it is currently generally accepted
that safe driving pressures lie between 14 and 18 cm H2O.31–33
∆P = Pplat - PEEP
VT VT
C RS = =
Pplat - PEEP ∆P
VT
∆P =
CRS
Optimum Positive End-Expiratory Airway Pressure
PEEP is defined as the positive pressure remaining within the airways at the end of exha-
lation. During mechanical ventilation, extrinsic PEEP may be utilized to keep open atel-
ectatic lung tissue, thereby increasing oxygenation and minimizing ventilation-perfusion
mismatches. However, if PEEP is too high, this may lead to increased plateau pressure and
subsequent barotrauma. It is generally recommended that PEEP of 5 to 10 cm H2O should
be applied to patients undergoing OLV with low tidal volumes.34,35 It is important to use
caution while ventilating patients with obstructive airways disease, as these patients have
relatively higher levels of intrinsic PEEP, which makes the effects of extrinsic PEEP less pre-
dictable. Intrinsic PEEP is a complication of mechanical ventilation that arises when the
lungs are not evacuated completely, leading to entrapment of air at the end of expiration.
If this process is repeated with each respiratory cycle, the result is a pathologic increase in
plateau pressure.34,36 Factors that predispose to generation of intrinsic PEEP include:
• Airway inflammation and mucus plugs leading to dynamic airway obstruction.

• Increased lung compliance (e.g., patients with obstructive airways disease).
• Ventilator settings with high tidal volumes or inappropriately short expiratory times.
• Resistance of artificial airways such as the double-lumen tube.
Physiological Impact of Fluid Management: Restricted vs

Goal Target
The goal of perioperative and intraoperative fluid management is the maintenance of cen-
tral euvolemia as well as electrolyte and tissue homeostasis. While there is uncertainty sur-
rounding the optimal composition and volume of intraoperative fluid therapy, it is known
that adequate maintenance of intravascular volume status is important for improving post-
surgical outcomes. Factors that may predispose to imbalances in intravascular volume status
during the perioperative period include37:
• Dehydration as a result of preoperative fasting.

• Use of mechanical bowel preparation.
• Ongoing disease processes causing inflammation and interstitial edema and subsequent
volume losses.
• Ongoing bleeding during surgery.
• Insensible perspiration during surgery.
• Prolonged operating times.
• Anesthetic-mediated vasodilation.
Maintenance of euvolemia is ideal, as both hypovolemia and hypervolemia leading to tissue

edema are associated with undesirable effects:
Consequences of Hypovolemia Consequences of Tissue Edema

Decreased blood pressure Pulmonary edema
Low cardiac output Decreased gastrointestinal motility
Impaired tissue perfusion Impaired clotting
Shock Impaired wound healing
Multiorgan failure Wound dehiscence
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction: Physiology and

Anesthesia Impact
Introduction
Within systemic circulation, hypoxia causes arteries to dilate to meet the metabolic demands
of surrounding tissues. In contrast, intrapulmonary arteries constrict in response to hypoxia.
This unique homeostatic mechanism, known as hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, allows
for the diversion of blood flow from oxygen-poor areas of the lung to better-oxygenated areas
of the lungs, thus optimizing oxygen uptake during diseased states such as pneumonia, ate-
lectasis, or acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Physiology
The mechanism of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction involves specialized pulmonary ar-

terial smooth muscle and endothelial cells (oxygen-sensing cells) that are sensitive to small
changes in oxygen levels. During states of hypoxia, pulmonary artery vasoconstriction is
largely mediated via inhibition of potassium channels, which depolarizes the smooth muscle
cells and leads to subsequent calcium channel activation. The increased levels of calcium
within the cytosol trigger hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.27,38,39
Impact on Anesthesia
When performing OLV, the isolation of one lung leaves the other lung with minimal ventila-
tion. This wasted ventilation creates a right-to-left intrapulmonary shunt, which predisposes
to the development of systemic hypoxemia. However, during one-lung anesthesia, this shunt
is minimized due to the diversion of blood to more ventilated segments via the mechanism
of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.27,38,39 Should this mechanism become impaired, the
patient is more prone to develop systemic hypoxemia. While an adequate understanding of

hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction is important for anesthesiologists, strategies for opti-
mizing this physiologic phenomenon in intubated patients undergoing surgical procedures
should be the subject of future clinical trials.
References
1. Hagan K, Gottumukkala V. Surgical positioning: physiology and perioperative implications. In: DE
Longnecker, SC Mackey, MF Newman, WS Sandberg, WM Zapol, eds. Anesthesiology. 3rd ed.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education:316–325.
2. Armstrong M, Moore RA. Anatomy, patient positioning. StatPearls. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/30020692. Published 2020. Accessed February 11, 2020.
3. Mezidi M, Guérin C. Effects of patient positioning on respiratory mechanics in mechanically venti-
lated ICU patients. Ann Transl Med. 2018;6(19):10. doi:10.21037/19858
4. McLean SR, Lohser J. Physiology of the lateral decubitus position, open chest, and one-lung ven-
tilation. In: PD Slinger, RS Blank, J Campos, J Lohser, K McRae, eds. Principles and Practice of
Anesthesia for Thoracic Surgery. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International; 2019:93– 105.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00859-8_5
5. Positioning in thoracic surgery. Open Anesthesia. https://www.openanesthesia.org/positioning_
in_thoracic_surgery/. Published 2020. Accessed February 29, 2020.
6. Mehrotra M, Jain A. Single lung ventilation. StatPearls. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
30855898. Published 2019. Accessed February 29, 2020.
7. Bora V, Arthur ME. Double lumen endobronchial tubes. StatPearls. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/30570987. Published 2019. Accessed February 11, 2020.
8. Purohit A, Bhargava S, Mangal V, Parashar VK. Lung isolation, one-lung ventilation and hypoxae-
mia during lung isolation. Indian J Anaesth. 2015;59(9):606–617. doi:10.4103/0019-5049.165855
9. Narayanaswamy M, McRae K, Slinger P, et al. Choosing a lung isolation device for thoracic sur-
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2009;108(4):1097–1101. doi:10.1213/ane.0b013e3181999339
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Anesth. 2009;23(6):860–868. doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2009.05.014
11. Hertz MI, Gustafson P. Bronchoscopy. In: JH Abrams, P Druck, FB Cerra, eds. Surgical Critical
Care. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC/Taylor and Francis; 2005:905–914.
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United States (which, after the expiration of its national charter, had
become a State corporation chartered by the Legislature of
Pennsylvania in January, 1836) for the purpose of restoring
themselves to power. The whole proceeding became clear to those
who could see nothing while it was in progress. Even those of the
democratic party whose votes had helped to do the mischief, could
now see that the attempt to deposit forty millions with the States was
destruction to the deposit banks; that the repeal of President
Jackson’s order, known as the “specie circular”—requiring payment
for public lands to be in coin—was to fill the treasury with paper
money, to be found useless when wanted; that distress was purposely
created to throw blame of it upon the party in power; that the
promptitude with which the Bank of the United States had been
brought forward as a remedy for the distress, showed that it had
been held in reserve for that purpose; and the delight with which the
whig party saluted the general calamity, showed that they considered
it their own passport to power. Financial embarrassment and general
stagnation of business diminished the current receipts from lands
and customs, and actually caused an absolute deficit in the public
treasury. In consequence, the President found it an inexorable
necessity to issue his proclamation convening Congress in extra
session.
The first session of the twenty-fifth Congress met in extra session,
at the call of the President, on the first Monday of September, 1837.
The message was a review of the events and causes which had
brought about the panic; a defense of the policy of the “specie
circular,” and a recommendation to break off all connection with any
bank of issue in any form; looking to the establishment of an
Independent Treasury, and that the Government provide for the
deficit in the treasury by the issue of treasury notes and by
withholding the deposit due to the States under the act then in force.
The message and its recommendations were violently assailed both
in the Senate and House by able and effective speakers, notably by
Messrs. Clay and Webster, and also by Mr. Caleb Cushing, of
Massachusetts, who made a formal and elaborate reply to the whole
document under thirty-two distinct heads, and reciting therein all
the points of accusation against the democratic policy from the
beginning of the government down to that day. The result was that
the measures proposed by the Executive were in substance enacted;
and their passage marks an era in our financial history—making a
total and complete separation of Bank and State, and firmly
establishing the principle that the government revenues should be
receivable in coin only.
The measures of consequence discussed and adopted at this
session, were the graduation of price of public lands under the pre-
emption system, which was adopted; the bill to create an
independent Treasury, which passed the Senate, but failed in the
House; and the question of the re-charter of the district banks, the
proportion for reserve, and the establishment of such institutions on
a specie basis. The slavery question was again agitated in
consequence of petitions from citizens and societies in the Northern
States, and a memorial from the General Assembly of Vermont,
praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and
territories, and for the exclusion of future slave states from the
Union. These petitions and memorials were disposed of adversely;
and Mr. Calhoun, representing the ultra-Southern interest, in several
able speeches, approved of the Missouri compromise, he urged and
obtained of the Senate several resolutions declaring that the federal
government had no power to interfere with slavery in the States; and
that it would be inexpedient and impolitic to interfere, abolish or
control it in the District of Columbia and the territories. These
movements for and against slavery in the session of 1837–38 deserve
to be noticed, as of disturbing effect at the time, and as having
acquired new importance from subsequent events.
The first session of the twenty-sixth Congress opened December,
1839. The organization of the House was delayed by a closely and
earnestly contested election from the State of New Jersey. Five
Democrats claiming seats as against an equal number of Whigs.
Neither set was admitted until after the election of Speaker, which
resulted in the choice of Robert M. T. Hunter, of Virginia, the Whig
candidate, who was elected by the full Whig vote with the aid of a few
democrats—friends of Mr. Calhoun, who had for several previous
sessions been acting with the Whigs on several occasions. The House
excluding the five contested seats from New Jersey, was really
Democratic; having 122 members, and the Whigs 113 members. The
contest for the Speakership was long and arduous, neither party
adhering to its original caucus candidate. Twenty scattering votes,
eleven of whom were classed as Whigs, and nine as Democrats,
prevented a choice on the earlier ballots, and it was really Mr.
Calhoun’s Democratic friends uniting with a solid Whig vote on the
final ballot that gained that party the election. The issue involved was
a vital party question as involving the organization of the House. The
chief measure, of public importance, adopted at this session of
Congress was an act to provide for the collection, safe-keeping, and
disbursing of the public money. It practically revolutionized the
system previously in force, and was a complete and effectual
separation of the federal treasury and the Government, from the
banks and moneyed corporations of the States. It was violently
opposed by the Whig members, led by Mr. Clay, and supported by
Mr. Cushing, but was finally passed in both Houses by a close vote.
At this time, and in the House of Representatives, was exhibited
for the first time in the history of Congress, the present practice of
members “pairing off,” as it is called; that is to say, two members of
opposite political parties, or of opposite views on any particular
subject, agreeing to absent themselves from the duties of the House,
for the time being. The practice was condemned on the floor of the
House by Mr. John Quincy Adams, who introduced a resolution:
“That the practice, first openly avowed at the present session of
Congress, of pairing off, involves, on the part of the members
resorting to it, the violation of the Constitution of the United States,
of an express rule of this House, and of the duties of both parties in
the transaction, to their immediate constituents, to this House, and
to their country.” This resolution was placed in the calendar to take
its turn, but not being reached during the session, was not voted on.
That was the first instance of this justly condemned practice, fifty
years after the establishment of the Government; but since then it
has become common, even inveterate, and is now carried to great
lengths.
The last session of the twenty-sixth Congress was barren of
measures, and necessarily so, as being the last of our administration
superseded by the popular voice, and soon to expire; and therefore
restricted by a sense of propriety, during the brief remainder of its
existence, to the details of business and the routine of service. The
cause of this was the result of the presidential election of 1840. The
same candidates who fought the battle of 1836 were again in the
field. Mr. Van Buren was the Democratic candidate. His
administration had been satisfactory to his party, and his
nomination for a second term was commended by the party in the
different States in appointing their delegates; so that the proceedings
of the convention which nominated him were entirely harmonious
and formal in their nature. Mr. Richard M. Johnson, the actual Vice-
President, was also nominated for Vice-President.
On the Whig ticket, General William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was
the candidate for President, and Mr. John Tyler, of Virginia, for Vice-
President. The leading statesmen of the Whig party were again put
aside, to make way for a military man, prompted by the example in
the nomination of General Jackson, the men who managed
presidential elections believing then as now that military renown was
a passport to popularity and rendered a candidate more sure of
election. Availability—for the purpose—was the only ability asked for.
Mr. Clay, the most prominent Whig in the country, and the
acknowledged head of the party, was not deemed available; and
though Mr. Clay was a candidate before the convention, the
proceedings were so regulated that his nomination was referred to a
committee, ingeniously devised and directed for the afterwards
avowed purpose of preventing his nomination and securing that of
General Harrison; and of producing the intended result without
showing the design, and without leaving a trace behind to show what
was done. The scheme (a modification of which has since been
applied to subsequent national conventions, and out of which many
bitter dissensions have again and again arisen) is embodied and was
executed in and by means of the following resolution adopted by the
convention: “Ordered, That the delegates from each State be
requested to assemble as a delegation, and appoint a committee, not
exceeding three in number, to receive the views and opinions of such
delegation, and communicate the same to the assembled committees
of all the delegations, to be by them respectively reported to their
principals; and that thereupon the delegates from each State be
requested to assemble as a delegation, and ballot for candidates for
the offices of President and Vice-President, and having done so, to
commit the ballot designating the votes of each candidate, and by
whom given, to its committee, and thereupon all the committees
shall assemble and compare the several ballots, and report the result
of the same to their several delegations, together with such facts as
may bear upon the nomination; and said delegation shall forthwith
reassemble and ballot again for candidates for the above offices, and
again commit the result to the above committees, and if it shall
appear that a majority of the ballots are for any one man for
candidate for President, said committee shall report the result to the
convention for its consideration; but if there shall be no such
majority, then the delegation shall repeat the balloting until such a
majority shall be obtained, and then report the same to the
convention for its consideration. That the vote of a majority of each
delegation shall be reported as the vote of that State; and each State
represented here shall vote its full electoral vote by such delegation
in the committee.” This was a sum in political algebra, whose
quotient was known, but the quantity unknown except to those who
planned it; and the result was—for General Scott, 16 votes; for Mr.
Clay, 90 votes; for General Harrison, 148 votes. And as the law of the
convention impliedly requires the absorption of all minorities, the
106 votes were swallowed up by the 148 votes and made to count for
General Harrison, presenting him as the unanimity candidate of the
convention, and the defeated candidates and all their friends bound
to join in his support. And in this way the election of 1840 was
effected—a process certainly not within the purview of those framers
of the constitution who supposed they were giving to the nation the
choice of its own chief magistrate.
The contest before the people was a long and bitter one, the
severest ever known in the country, up to that time, and scarcely
equalled since. The whole Whig party and the large league of
suspended banks, headed by the Bank of the United States making
its last struggle for a new national charter in the effort to elect a
President friendly to it, were arrayed against the Democrats, whose
hard-money policy and independent treasury schemes, met with
little favor in the then depressed condition of the country. Meetings
were held in every State, county and town; the people thoroughly
aroused; and every argument made in favor of the respective
candidates and parties, which could possibly have any effect upon
the voters. The canvass was a thorough one, and the election was
carried for the Whig candidates, who received 234 electoral votes
coming from 19 States. The remaining 60 electoral votes of the other
9 States, were given to the Democratic candidate; though the popular
vote was not so unevenly divided; the actual figures being 1,275,611
for the Whig ticket, against 1,135,761 for the Democratic ticket. It was
a complete rout of the Democratic party, but without the moral effect
of victory.
On March 4, 1841, was inaugurated as President, Gen’l Wm. H.
Harrison, the first Chief Magistrate elected by the Whig party, and
the first President who was not a Democrat, since the installation of
Gen’l Jackson, March 4, 1829. His term was a short one. He issued a
call for a special session of Congress to convene the 31st of May
following, to consider the condition of the revenue and finances of
the country, but did not live to meet it. Taken ill with a fatal malady
during the last days of March, he died on the 4th of April following,
having been in office just one month. He was succeeded by the Vice-
President, John Tyler. Then, for the first time in our history as a
government, the person elected to the Vice-Presidency of the United
States, by the happening of a contingency provided for in the
constitution, had devolved upon him the Presidential office.
The twenty-seventh Congress opened in extra session at the call of
the late President, May 31, 1841. A Whig member—Mr. White of
Kentucky—was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. The
Whigs had a majority of forty-seven in the House and of seven in the
Senate, and with the President and Cabinet of the same political
party presented a harmony of aspect frequently wanting during the
three previous administrations. The first measure of the new
dominant party was the repeal of the independent treasury act
passed at the previous session; and the next in order were bills to
establish a system of bankruptcy, and for distribution of public land
revenue. The former was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically
an insolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. It
applied to all persons in debt, allowed them to institute the
proceedings in the district where the petitioner resided, allowed
constructive notices to creditors in newspapers—declared the
abolition of the debt where effects were surrendered and fraud not
proved; and gave exclusive jurisdiction to the federal courts, at the
will of the debtor. It was framed upon the model of the English
insolvent debtors’ act of George the Fourth, and embodied most of
the provisions of that act, but substituting a release from the debt
instead of a release from imprisonment. The bill passed by a close
vote in both Houses.
The land revenue distribution bill of this session had its origin in
the fact that the States and corporations owed about two hundred
millions to creditors in Europe. These debts were in stocks, much
depreciated by the failure in many instances to pay the accruing
interest—in some instances failure to provide for the principal. These
creditors, becoming uneasy, wished the federal government to
assume their debts. The suggestion was made as early as 1838,
renewed in 1839, and in 1840 became a regular question mixed up
with the Presidential election of that year, and openly engaging the
active exertions of foreigners. Direct assumption was not urged;
indirect by giving the public land revenue to the States was the mode
pursued, and the one recommended in the message of President
Tyler. Mr. Calhoun spoke against the measure with more than usual
force and clearness, claiming that it was unconstitutional and
without warrant. Mr. Benton on the same side called it a squandering
of the public patrimony, and pointed out its inexpediency in the
depleted state of the treasury, apart from its other objectionable
features. It passed by a party vote.
This session is remarkable for the institution of the hour rule in
the House of Representatives—a very great limitation upon the
freedom of debate. It was a Whig measure, adopted to prevent delay
in the enactment of pending bills. It was a rigorous limitation,
frequently acting as a bar to profitable debate and checking members
in speeches which really impart information valuable to the House
and the country. No doubt the license of debate has been frequently
abused in Congress, as in all other deliberative assemblies, but the
incessant use of the previous question, which cuts off all debate,
added to the hour rule which limits a speech to sixty minutes
(constantly reduced by interruptions) frequently results in the
transaction of business in ignorance of what they are about by those
who are doing it.
The rule worked so well in the House, for the purpose for which it
was devised—made the majority absolute master of the body—that
Mr. Clay undertook to have the same rule adopted in the Senate; but
the determined opposition to it, both by his political opponents and
friends, led to the abandonment of the attempt in that chamber.
Much discussion took place at this session, over the bill offered in
the House of Representatives, for the relief of the widow of the late
President—General Harrison—appropriating one year’s salary. It was
strenuously opposed by the Democratic members, as
unconstitutional, on account of its principle, as creating a private
pension list, and as a dangerous precedent. Many able speeches were
made against the bill, both in the Senate and House; among others,
the following extract from the speech of an able Senator contains
some interesting facts. He said: “Look at the case of Mr. Jefferson, a
man than whom no one that ever existed on God’s earth were the
human family more indebted to. His furniture and his estate were
sold to satisfy his creditors. His posterity was driven from house and
home, and his bones now lay in soil owned by a stranger. His family
are scattered: some of his descendants are married in foreign lands.
Look at Monroe—the able, the patriotic Monroe, whose services were
revolutionary, whose blood was spilt in the war of Independence,
whose life was worn out in civil service, and whose estate has been
sold for debt, his family scattered, and his daughter buried in a
foreign land. Look at Madison, the model of every virtue, public or
private, and he would only mention in connection with this subject,
his love of order, his economy, and his systematic regularity in all his
habits of business. He, when his term of eight years had expired, sent
a letter to a gentleman (a son of whom is now on this floor) [Mr.
Preston], enclosing a note of five thousand dollars, which he
requested him to endorse, and raise the money in Virginia, so as to
enable him to leave this city, and return to his modest retreat—his
patrimonial inheritance—in that State. General Jackson drew upon
the consignee of his cotton crop in New Orleans for six thousand
dollars to enable him to leave the seat of government without leaving
creditors behind him. These were honored leaders of the republican
party. They had all been Presidents. They had made great sacrifices,
and left the presidency deeply embarrassed; and yet the republican
party who had the power and the strongest disposition to relieve
their necessities, felt they had no right to do so by appropriating
money from the public Treasury. Democracy would not do this. It
was left for the era of federal rule and federal supremacy—who are
now rushing the country with steam power into all the abuses and
corruptions of a monarchy, with its pensioned aristocracy—and to
entail upon the country a civil pension list.”
There was an impatient majority in the House in favor of the
passage of the bill. The circumstances were averse to deliberation—a
victorious party, come into power after a heated election, seeing their
elected candidate dying on the threshold of his administration, poor
and beloved: it was a case for feeling more than of judgment,
especially with the political friends of the deceased—but few of whom
could follow the counsels of the head against the impulsions of the
heart.
The bill passed, and was approved; and as predicted, it established
a precedent which has since been followed in every similar case.
The subject of naval pensions received more than usual
consideration at this session. The question arose on the discussion of
the appropriation bill for that purpose. A difference about a navy—on
the point of how much and what kind—had always been a point of
difference between the two great political parties of the Union,
which, under whatsoever names, are always the same, each
preserving its identity in principles and policy, but here the two
parties divided upon an abuse which no one could deny or defend. A
navy pension fund had been established under the act of 1832, which
was a just and proper law, but on the 3d of March, 1837, an act was
passed entitled “An act for the more equitable distribution of the
Navy Pension Fund.” That act provided: I. That Invalid naval
pensions should commence and date back to the time of receiving
the inability, instead of completing the proof. II. It extended the
pensions for death to all cases of death, whether incurred in the line
of duty or not. III. It extended the widow’s pensions for life, when
five years had been the law both in the army and navy. IV. It adopted
the English system of pensioning children of deceased marines until
they attained their majority.
The effect of this law was to absorb and bankrupt the navy pension
fund, a meritorious fund created out of the government share of
prize money, relinquished for that purpose, and to throw the
pensions, arrears as well as current and future, upon the public
treasury, where it was never intended they were to be. It was to
repeal this act, that an amendment was introduced at this session on
the bringing forward of the annual appropriation bill for navy
pensions, and long and earnest were the debates upon it. The
amendment was lost, the Senate dividing on party lines, the Whigs
against and the Democrats for the amendment. The subject is
instructive, as then was practically ratified and re-enacted the
pernicious practice authorized by the act of 1837, of granting
pensions to date from the time of injury and not from the time of
proof; and has grown up to such proportions in recent years that the
last act of Congress appropriating money for arrears of pensions,
provided for the payment of such an enormous sum of money that it
would have appalled the original projectors of the act of 1837 could
they have seen to what their system has led.
Again, at this session, the object of the tariff occupied the attention
of Congress. The compromise act, as it was called, of 1833, which was
composed of two parts—one to last nine years, for the benefit of
manufactures; the other to last for ever, for the benefit of the
planting and consuming interest—was passed, as hereinbefore
stated, in pursuance of an agreement between Mr. Clay and Mr.
Calhoun and their respective friends, at the time the former was
urging the necessity for a continuance of high tariff for protection
and revenue, and the latter was presenting and justifying before
Congress the nullification ordinance adopted by the Legislature of
South Carolina. To Mr. Clay and Mr. Calhoun it was a political
necessity, one to get rid of a stumbling-block (which protective tariff
had become); the other to escape a personal peril which his
nullifying ordinance had brought upon him, and with both, it was a
piece of policy, to enable them to combine against Mr. Van Buren, by
postponing their own contention; and a device on the part of its
author (Mr. Clayton, of Delaware) and Mr. Clay to preserve the
protective system. It provided for a reduction of a certain per centage
each year, on the duties for the ensuing nine years, until the revenue
was reduced to 20 per cent. ad valorem on all articles imported into
the country. In consequence the revenue was so reduced that in the
last year, there was little more than half what the exigencies of the
government required, and different modes, by loans and otherwise,
were suggested to meet the deficiency. The Secretary of the Treasury
had declared the necessity of loans and taxes to carry on the
government; a loan bill for twelve millions had been passed; a tariff
bill to raise fourteen millions was depending; and the chairman of
the Committee of Ways and Means, Mr. Millard Fillmore, defended
its necessity in an able speech. His bill proposed twenty per cent.
additional to the existing duty on certain specified articles, sufficient
to make up the amount wanted. This encroachment on a measure so
much vaunted when passed, and which had been kept inviolate while
operating in favor of one of the parties to it, naturally excited
complaint and opposition from the other, and Mr. Gilmer, of
Virginia, in a speech against the new bill, said: “In referring to the
compromise act, the true characteristics of that act which
recommended it strongly to him, were that it contemplated that
duties were to be levied for revenue only, and in the next place to the
amount only necessary to the supply of the economical wants of the
government. He begged leave to call the attention of the committee
to the principle recognized as the language of the compromise, a
principle which ought to be recognized in all time to come by every
department of the government. It is, that duties to be raised for
revenue are to be raised to such an amount only as is necessary for
an economical administration of the government. Some incidental
protection must necessarily be given, and he, for one, coming from
an anti-tariff portion of the country, would not object to it.”
The bill went to the Senate where it found Mr. Clay and Mr.
Calhoun in positions very different from what they occupied when
the compromise act was passed—then united, now divided—then
concurrent, now antagonistic, and the antagonism general, upon all
measures, was to be special upon this one. Their connection with the
subject made it their function to lead off in its consideration; and
their antagonist positions promised sharp encounters, which did not
fail to come. Mr. Clay said that he “observed that the Senator from
South Carolina based his abstractions on the theories of books on
English authorities, and on the arguments urged in favor of free
trade by a certain party in the British Parliament. Now he, (Mr.
Clay,) and his friends would not admit of these authorities being
entitled to as much weight as the universal practice of nations, which
in all parts of the world was found to be in favor of protecting home
manufactures to an extent sufficient to keep them in a flourishing
condition. This was the whole difference. The Senator was in favor of
book theory and abstractions: he (Mr. Clay) and his friends, were in
favor of the universal practice of nations, and the wholesome and
necessary protection of domestic manufactures.”
Mr. Calhoun in reply, referring to his allusion to the success in the
late election of the tory party in England, said: “The interests,
objects, and aims of the tory party there and the whig party here, are
identical. The identity of the two parties is remarkable. The tory
party are the patrons of corporate monopolies; and are not you?
They are advocates of a high tariff; and are not you? They are
supporters of a national bank; and are not you? They are for corn
laws—laws oppressive to the masses of the people, and favorable to
their own power; and are not you? Witness this bill.*** The success
of that party in England, and of the whig party here, is the success of
the great money power, which concentrates the interests of the two
parties, and identifies their principles.”
The bill was passed by a large majority, upon the general ground
that the government must have revenue.
The chief measure of the session, and the great object of the whig
party—the one for which it had labored for ten years—was for the re-
charter of a national bank. Without this all other measures would be
deemed to be incomplete, and the victorious election itself but little
better than a defeat. The President, while a member of the
Democratic party, had been opposed to the United States Bank; and
to overcome any objections he might have the bill was carefully
prepared, and studiously contrived to avoid the President’s
objections, and save his consistency—a point upon which he was
exceedingly sensitive. The democratic members resisted strenuously,
in order to make the measure odious, but successful resistance was
impossible. It passed both houses by a close vote; and contrary to all
expectation the President disapproved the act, but with such
expressions of readiness to approve another bill which should be free
from the objections which he named, as still to keep his party
together, and to prevent the resignation of his cabinet. In his veto
message the President fell back upon his early opinions against the
constitutionality of a national bank, so often and so publicly
expressed.
The veto caused consternation among the whig members; and Mr.
Clay openly gave expression to his dissatisfaction, in the debate on
the veto message, in terms to assert that President Tyler had violated
his faith to the whig party, and had been led off from them by new
associations. He said: “And why should not President Tyler have
suffered the bill to become a law without his signature? Without
meaning the slightest possible disrespect to him (nothing is further
from my heart than the exhibition of any such feeling towards that
distinguished citizen, long my personal friend), it cannot be
forgotten that he came into his present office under peculiar
circumstances. The people did not foresee the contingency which has
happened. They voted for him as Vice-President. They did not,
therefore, scrutinize his opinions with the care which they probably
ought to have done, and would have done, if they could have looked
into futurity. If the present state of the fact could have been
anticipated—if at Harrisburg, or at the polls, it had been foreseen
that General Harrison would die in one short month after the
commencement of his administration; so that Vice-President Tyler
would be elevated to the presidential chair; that a bill passed by
decisive majorities of the first whig Congress, chartering a national
bank, would be presented for his sanction; and that he would veto
the bill, do I hazard anything when I express the conviction that he
would not have received a solitary vote in the nominating
convention, nor one solitary electoral vote in any State in the
Union?”
The vote was taken on the bill over again, as required by the
constitution, and so far from receiving a two-thirds vote, it received
only a bare majority, and was returned to the House with a message
stating his objections to it, where it gave rise to some violent
speaking, more directed to the personal conduct of the President
than to the objections to the bill stated in his message. The veto was
sustained; and so ended the second attempt to resuscitate the old
United States Bank under a new name. This second movement to
establish the bank has a secret history. It almost caused the
establishment of a new party, with Mr. Tyler as its head; earnest
efforts having been made in that behalf by many prominent Whigs
and Democrats. The entire cabinet, with the exception of Mr.
Webster, resigned within a few days after the second veto. It was a
natural thing for them to do, and was not unexpected. Indeed Mr.
Webster had resolved to tender his resignation also, but on
reconsideration determined to remain and publish his reasons
therefor in a letter to the National Intelligencer, in the following
words:
“Lest any misapprehension should exist, as to the reasons which
led me to differ from the course pursued by my late colleagues, I wish
to say that I remain in my place, first, because I have seen no
sufficient reasons for the dissolution of the late Cabinet, by the
voluntary act of its own members. I am perfectly persuaded of the
absolute necessity of an institution, under the authority of Congress,
to aid revenue and financial operations, and to give the country the
blessings of a good currency and cheap exchanges. Notwithstanding
what has passed, I have confidence that the President will co-operate
with the legislature in overcoming all difficulties in the attainment of
these objects; and it is to the union of the Whig party—by which I
mean the whole party, the Whig President, the Whig Congress, and
the Whig people—that I look for a realization of our wishes. I can
look nowhere else. In the second place if I had seen reasons to resign
my office, I should not have done so, without giving the President
reasonable notice, and affording him time to select the hands to
which he should confide the delicate and important affairs now
pending in this department.”
The conduct of the President in the matter of the vetoes of the two
bank bills produced revolt against him in the party; and the Whigs of
the two Houses of Congress held several formal meetings to consider
what they should do in the new condition of affairs. An address to the
people of the United States was resolved upon. The rejection of the
bank bill gave great vexation to one side, and equal exultation to the
other. The subject was not permitted to rest, however; a national
bank was the life—the vital principle—of the Whig party, without
which it could not live as a party; it was the power which was to give
them power and the political and financial control of the Union. A
second attempt was made, four days after the veto, to accomplish the
end by amendments to a bill relating to the currency, which had been
introduced early in the session. Mr. Sargeant of Pennsylvania, moved
to strike out all after the enacting clause, and insert his amendments,
which were substantially the same as the vetoed bill, except changing
the amount of capital and prohibiting discounts on notes other than
bills of exchange. The bill was pushed to a vote with astonishing
rapidity, and passed by a decided majority. In the Senate the bill
went to a select committee which reported it back without alteration,
as had been foreseen, the committee consisting entirely of friends of
the measure; and there was a majority for it on final passage.
Concurred in by the Senate without alteration, it was returned to the
House, and thence referred to the President for his approval or
disapproval. It was disapproved and it was promulgated in language
intended to mean a repudiation of the President, a permanent
separation of the Whig party from him, and to wash their hands of all
accountability for his acts. An opening paragraph of the address set
forth that, for twelve years the Whigs had carried on a contest for the
regulation of the currency, the equalization of exchanges, the
economical administration of the finances, and the advancement of
industry—all to be accomplished by means of a national bank—
declaring these objects to be misunderstood by no one and the bank
itself held to be secured in the Presidential election, and its
establishment the main object of the extra session. The address then
proceeds to state how these plans were frustrated:
“It is with profound and poignant regret that we find ourselves
called upon to invoke your attention to this point. Upon the great
and leading measure touching this question, our anxious endeavors
to respond to the earnest prayers of the nation have been frustrated
by an act as unlooked for as it is to be lamented. We grieve to say to
you that by the exercise of that power in the constitution which has
ever been regarded with suspicion, and often with odium, by the
people—a power which we had hoped was never to be exhibited on
this subject, by a Whig President—we have been defeated in two
attempts to create a fiscal agent, which the wants of the country had
demonstrated to us, in the most absolute form of proof to be
eminently necessary and proper in the present emergency. Twice
have we with the utmost diligence and deliberation matured a plan
for the collection, safe-keeping and disbursing of the public moneys
through the agency of a corporation adapted to that end, and twice
has it been our fate to encounter the opposition of the President,
through the application of the veto power.*** We are constrained to
say that we find no ground to justify us in the conviction that the veto
of the President has been interposed on this question solely upon
conscientious and well-considered opinions of constitutional scruple
as to his duty in the case presented. On the contrary, too many proofs
have been forced upon our observation to leave us free from the
apprehension that the President has permitted himself to be beguiled
into an opinion that by this exhibition of his prerogative he might be
able to divert the policy of his administration into a channel which
should lead to new political combinations, and accomplish results
which must overthrow the present divisions of party in the country;
and finally produce a state of things which those who elected him, at
least, have never contemplated.
“In this state of things, the Whigs will naturally look with anxiety
to the future, and inquire what are the actual relations between the
President and those who brought him into power; and what, in the
opinion of their friends in Congress, should be their course
hereafter.*** The President by his withdrawal of confidence from his
real friends in Congress and from the members of his cabinet; by his
bestowal of it upon others notwithstanding their notorious
opposition to leading measures of his administrations has voluntarily
separated himself from those by whose exertions and suffrage he was
elevated to that office through which he has reached his present
exalted station.*** The consequence is, that those who brought the
President into power can be no longer, in any manner or degree,
justly held responsible or blamed for the administration of the
executive branch of the government; and the President and his
advisers should be exclusively hereafter deemed accountable.*** The
conduct of the President has occasioned bitter mortification and
deep regret. Shall the party, therefore, yielding to sentiments of
despair, abandon its duty, and submit to defeat and disgrace? Far
from suffering such dishonorable consequences, the very
disappointment which it has unfortunately experienced should serve
only to redouble its exertions, and to inspire it with fresh courage to
persevere with a spirit unsubdued and a resolution unshaken, until
the prosperity of the country is fully re-established, and its liberties
firmly secured against all danger from the abuses, encroachments or
usurpations of the executive department of the government.”
This was the manifesto, so far as it concerns the repudiation of
President Tyler, which Whig members of Congress put forth: it was
answered (under the name of an address to his constituents) by Mr.
Cushing, in a counter special plea—counter to it on all points—
especially on the main question of which party the President was to
belong to; the manifesto of the Whigs assigning him to the
democracy—the address of Mr. Cushing, claiming him for the Whigs.
It was especially severe on Mr. Clay, as setting up a caucus
dictatorship to coerce the President; and charged that the address
emanated from this caucus, and did not embody or represent the
sentiments of all Whig leaders; and referred to Mr. Webster’s letter,
and his remaining in the cabinet as proof of this. But it was without
avail against the concurrent statements of the retiring senators, and
the confirmatory statements of many members of Congress. The
Whig party recoiled from the President, and instead of the unity
predicted by Mr. Webster, there was diversity and widespread
dissension. The Whig party remained with Mr. Clay; Mr. Webster
retired, Mr. Cushing was sent on a foreign mission, and the
President, seeking to enter the democratic ranks, was refused by
them, and left to seek consolation in privacy, for his political errors
and omissions.
The extra session, called by President Harrison, held under Mr.
Tyler, dominated by Mr. Clay, commenced May 31, and ended Sept.
13, 1841—and was replete with disappointed calculations, and nearly
barren of permanent results. The purposes for which it was called
into being, failed. The first annual message of President Tyler, at the
opening of the regular session in December, 1841, coming in so soon
after the termination of the extra session, was brief and meagre of
topics, with few points of interest.
In the month of March, 1842, Mr. Henry Clay resigned his place in
the Senate, and delivered a valedictory address to that body. He had
intended this step upon the close of the previous presidential
campaign, but had postponed it to take personal charge of the
several measures which would be brought before Congress at the
special session—the calling of which he foresaw would be necessary.
He resigned not on account of age, or infirmity, or disinclination for
public life; but out of disgust—profound and inextinguishable. He
had been basely defeated for the Presidential nomination, against the
wishes of the Whig party, of which he was the acknowledged head—
he had seen his leading measures vetoed by the President whom his
party had elected—the downfall of the Bank for which he had so
often pledged himself—and the insolent attacks of the petty
adherents of the administration in the two Houses: all these causes
acting on his proud and lofty spirit, induced this withdrawal from
public life for which he was so well fitted.
The address opened with a retrospect of his early entrance into the
Senate, and a grand encomium upon its powers and dignity as he
had found it, and left it. Memory went back to that early year, 1806,
when just past thirty years of age, he entered the United States
Senate, and commenced his high career—a wide and luminous
horizon before him, and will and talent to fill it. He said: “From the
year 1806, the period of my entering upon this noble theatre of my
public service, with but short intervals, down to the present time, I
have been engaged in the service of my country. Of the nature and
value of those services, which I may have rendered during my long
career of public life, it does not become me to speak. History, if she
deigns to notice me, and posterity—if a recollection of any humble
service which I may have rendered, shall be transmitted to posterity
—will be the best, truest, and most impartial judges; and to them I
defer for a decision upon their value. But, upon one subject, I may be
allowed to speak. As to my public acts and public conduct, they are
for the judgment of my fellow-citizens; but my private motives of
action—that which prompted me to take the part which I may have
done, upon great measures during their progress in the national
councils, can be known only to the Great Searcher of the human
heart and myself; and I trust I shall be pardoned for repeating again
a declaration which I made thirty years ago: that whatever error I
may have committed—and doubtless I have committed many during
my public service—I may appeal to the Divine Searcher of hearts for
the truth of the declaration which I now make, with pride and
confidence, that I have been actuated by no personal motives—that I
have sought no personal aggrandizement—no promotion from the
advocacy of those various measures on which I have been called to
act—that I have had an eye, a single eye, a heart, a single heart, ever
devoted to what appeared to be the best interests of the country.”
Mr. Clay led a great party, and for a long time, whether he dictated
to it or not, and kept it well bound together, without the usual means
of forming and leading parties. It was surprising that, without power
and patronage, he was able so long and so undividedly to keep so
great a party together, and lead it so unresistingly. He had great
talents, but not equal to some whom he led. He had eloquence—
superior in popular effect, but not equal in high oratory to that of
some others. But his temperament was fervid, his will was strong,
and his courage daring; and these qualities, added to his talents, gave
him the lead and supremacy in his party, where he was always
dominant. The farewell address made a deep impression upon the
Senators present; and after its close, Mr. Preston brought the
ceremony to a conclusion, by moving an adjournment, which was
agreed to.
Again at this session was the subject of the tariff considered, but
this time, as a matter of absolute necessity, to provide a revenue.
Never before were the coffers and the credit of the treasury at so low
an ebb. A deficit of fourteen millions in the treasury—a total inability
to borrow, either at home or abroad, the amount of the loan of twelve
millions authorized the year before—the treasury notes below par,
and the revenues from imports inadequate and decreasing.
The compromise act of 1833 in reducing the duties gradually
through nine years, to a fixed low rate; the act of 1837 in distributing
the surplus revenue; and the continual and continued distribution of
the land revenue, had brought about this condition of things. The
remedy was sought in a bill increasing the tariff, and suspending the
land revenue distribution. Two such bills were passed in a single
month, and both vetoed by the President. It was now near the end of
August. Congress had been in session for an unprecedentedly long
time. Adjournment could not be deferred, and could not take place
without providing for the Treasury. The compromise act and the land
distribution were the stumbling-blocks: it was resolved to sacrifice
them together; and a bill was introduced raising the duties above the
fixed rate of twenty per cent., and that breach of the mutual
assurance in relation to the compromise, immediately in terms of the
assurance, suspended the land revenue distribution—to continue it
suspended while duties above the compromise limit continued to be
levied. And as that has been the case ever since, the distribution of
the land revenue has been suspended ever since. The bill was passed,
and approved by the President, and Congress thereupon adjourned.
The subject of the navy was also under consideration at this
session. The naval policy of the United States was a question of party
division from the origin of parties in the early years of the
government—the Federal party favoring a strong and splendid navy,
the Republican a moderate establishment, adapted to the purposes
of defense more than of offense. And this line of division has
continued. Under the Whig regime the policy for a great navy
developed itself. The Secretary of the Navy recommended a large
increase of ships, seamen and officers, involving a heavy expense,
though the government was not in a condition to warrant any such
expenditure, and no emergency required an increase in that branch
of the public service. The vote was taken upon the increase proposed
by the Secretary of the Navy, and recommended by the President;
and it was carried, the yeas and nays being well defined by the party
line.
The first session of the twenty-eighth Congress, which convened
December 1843, exhibited in its political complexion, serious losses
in the Whig following. The Democratic candidate for Speaker of the
House of Representatives, was elected over the Whig candidate—the
vote standing 128 to 59. Thus an adverse majority of more than two
to one was the result to the Whig party at the first election after the
extra session of 1841. The President’s message referred to the treaty
which had lately been concluded with Great Britain relative to the
northwestern territory extending to the Columbia river, including
Oregon and settling the boundary lines; and also to a pending treaty
with Texas for her annexation to the United States; and concluded
with a recommendation for the establishment of a paper currency to
be issued and controlled by the Federal government.
For more than a year before the meeting of the Democratic
Presidential Convention in Baltimore, in May 1844, it was evident to
leading Democrats that Martin Van Buren was the choice of the
party. To overcome this popular current and turn the tide in favor of
Mr. Calhoun, who desired the nomination, resort was had to the
pending question of the annexation of Texas. Mr. Van Buren was
known to be against it, and Mr. Calhoun for it. To gain time, the
meeting of the convention was postponed from December previous,
which had been the usual time for holding such elections, until the
following May. The convention met, and consisted of two hundred
and sixty-six delegates, a decided majority of whom were for Mr. Van
Buren, and cast their votes accordingly on the first ballot. But a
chairman had been selected, who was adverse to his nomination; and
aided by a rule adopted by the convention, which required a
concurrence of two-thirds to effect a nomination, the opponents of
Mr. Van Buren were able to accomplish his defeat. Mr. Calhoun had,
before the meeting of the convention, made known his
determination, in a public address, not to suffer his name to go
before that assemblage as a candidate for the presidency, and stated
his reasons for so doing, which were founded mainly on the manner
in which the convention was constituted; his objections being to the
mode of choosing delegates, and the manner of their giving in their

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Thoracic Anesthesia Procedures Alan

Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA

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To my mother Florence Feldman who made me the man I am today.

—Alan D. Kaye, MD, PhD, DABA, DABPM, DABIPP, FASA

To my patients who inspired me to write this book to help other practitioners

To my mentors for their encouragement and support

And finally, to my parents, Tanya and Dennis Urman.

—Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA

1. Normal Respiratory Physiology: Basic Concepts for the Clinician 1

15. Bronchopleural Fistula 189

Harendra Arora, MD, FASA, MBA Yi Deng, MD

Giuseppe Giuratrabocchetta, MD Alan D. Kaye, MD, PhD, DABA, DABPM,

Travis Meyer, MD Rene Przkora, MD, PhD

Melissa Nikolaidis, MD Saurin Shah, MD

Antony Tharian, MD Mengjie Wu, MD

Richard D. Urman, MD, MBA, FASA Gregory C. Wynn, MD

Justin W. Wilson, MD Manxu Zhao, MD, MS

Physiological and Anatomical Consideration

Lateral Decubitus: Closed Chest

Figure 1.1 Supine position.

Figure 1.2 Lateral decubitus position.

Lung Isolation Techniques

• Placement of bronchial blocker

Indications for Bronchoscopy

Tracheoesophageal fistula, hemoptysis Lung resection, hemoptysis management,

When using a double-​lumen tube or bronchial blocker, fiberoptic bronchoscopy is a reli-

• The bronchial portion is in the correct bronchus.

When advancing the bronchoscope through the endobronchial lumen:

• Complications: Potential complications of bronchoscopy include laryngospasm, broncho-

Pulmonary Function Changes During Thoracic

Lung Mechanics and Pulmonary Function

Predictive Postoperative Pulmonary Lung Function

Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second

ppoFEV1% = preoperative FEV1% × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/​100)

Diffusion Capacity of CO2

ppoDLCO = preoperative DLCO × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/​100)

Diffusion capacity is a measure of gases ability to cross the alveolar-​capillary membranes.

Indications for One-​Lung Ventilation

• Pulmonary resection (including pneumonectomy, lobectomy, and wedge resection).

The nonsurgical indications for OLV include6:

Methods of Lung Separation

There are three methods used to isolate a lung:

1. Single-​lumen endobronchial tube: The single-​lumen endobronchial tube differs from

Optimum Driving Pressure

Optimum Positive End-​Expiratory Airway Pressure

• Airway inflammation and mucus plugs leading to dynamic airway obstruction.

Physiological Impact of Fluid Management: Restricted vs

• Dehydration as a result of preoperative fasting.

Maintenance of euvolemia is ideal, as both hypovolemia and hypervolemia leading to tissue

Consequences of Hypovolemia Consequences of Tissue Edema

Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction: Physiology and

The mechanism of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction involves specialized pulmonary ar-

patient is more prone to develop systemic hypoxemia. While an adequate understanding of

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When using a double-lumen tube or bronchial blocker, fiberoptic bronchoscopy is a reli-

ppoFEV1% = preoperative FEV1% × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/100)

ppoDLCO = preoperative DLCO × (1 − %functional lung tissue removed/100)

Diffusion capacity is a measure of gases ability to cross the alveolar-capillary membranes.

Indications for One-Lung Ventilation

1. Single-lumen endobronchial tube: The single-lumen endobronchial tube differs from

Optimum Positive End-Expiratory Airway Pressure