Nickel-Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials:

From Micro- to Nano-structured Alloys

for Emerging Applications (Micro and
Nano Technologies) 1st Edition Sabu
Thomas (Editor)
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N I C K E L - T I TA N I U M
SMART HYBRID
M AT E R I A L S
N I C K E L - T I TA N I U M
SMART HYBRID
M AT E R I A L S
From Micro- to Nano-Structured
Alloys for Emerging Applications

Edited by
SABU THOMAS
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India
AJIT BEHERA
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
TUAN ANH NGUYEN
Institute for Tropical Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
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Contents
List of contributors .................................................................................... xvii
Foreword..................................................................................................... xxi

Part I Fundamentals
1 NiTi-based smart micro- and nanoalloys: an introduction........................3
Santosh Sampath, Ajit Behera, Sabu Thomas and Tuan Anh Nguyen
References ................................................................................................... 5

2 Methods for fabrication of NiTi micro- and nanoalloys ............................9

Bharat C.G. Marupalli, Shampa Aich and Tapasendra Adhikary
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 9
2.2 Magnetron sputtering .......................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Mechanism ................................................................................10
2.2.2 Alloy target deposition .............................................................11
2.2.3 Multilayer deposition ................................................................12
2.2.4 Co-sputtering .............................................................................14
2.2.5 Influence of process parameters..............................................16
2.3 Pulsed laser deposition...................................................................... 17
2.4 Electrodeposition ............................................................................... 17
2.5 Fabrication of NiTi micro- and nanodevices .................................... 18
2.5.1 Photolithography.......................................................................18
2.5.2 Bulk micromachining ................................................................19
2.5.3 Surface micromachining process ............................................20
2.5.4 Electrochemical micromachining............................................. 20
2.5.5 Laser micromachining ..............................................................21
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................ 22
References ................................................................................................. 22

3 Constitutive modeling of NiTi-based shape memory alloys....................29

Dheeraj K. Gara, Srikar Potnuru and Raghavendra Gujjala
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 29
3.1.1 Existing models .........................................................................30
3.1.2 Shape function for SME............................................................52
References ................................................................................................. 53

v
vi Contents

4 Cryo-treatment of NiTi alloys ..........................................................................57

Manisha Priyadarshini and C.K. Biswas
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 57
4.2 Why cryogenic treatment is required for NiTi ................................. 58
4.3 Subcooling treatment and cryogenic treatments in NiTi ................ 58
4.4 Microstructure and properties........................................................... 59
4.5 Influencing parameters in NiTi cryogenic processing..................... 64
4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of cryogenic processing ............... 64
4.7 Summary and perspective................................................................. 65
References ................................................................................................. 66

5 Heat treatment of NiTi alloys ..........................................................................69

Fatemeh Asgarinia, Seyed Mahdi Hashemi and Soroush Parvizi
5.1 Requirements of heat treatment ....................................................... 69
5.2 Binary phase and TTT diagram of Ni-Ti ........................................... 70
5.3 How is heat treatment performed? ................................................... 72
5.3.1 Short and long-time heat treatments ......................................72
5.3.2 Cyclic heat treatment ................................................................ 73
5.4 Microstructure and phase transformation of NiTi by heat-
treatment............................................................................................. 73
5.4.1 Effect of heat treatment on undesired NiTi2 phase ................78
5.4.2 Effect of solution treatment to eliminate Ni3Ti Precipitates...81
5.5 Effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of NiTi
alloys ................................................................................................... 82
5.5.1 Transformation stresses and superelastic behavior...............82
5.5.2 Effect of heat treatment on hardness and elastic modulus ...84
5.5.3 Effect of heat treatment on Fatigue life ...................................86
5.6 Effect of heat treatment on corrosion resistance of NiTi alloys ..... 87
5.7 Heat treatment parameters................................................................ 90
5.7.1 Effect of time and temperature ................................................ 90
5.7.2 Effect of atmosphere in heat-treatment...................................97
References ................................................................................................. 98

Part II Micro-/nanostructures and properties

6 NiTi superalloys................................................................................................105
Swadhin Kumar Patel and Rakesh Roshan
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 105
 Contents vii

6.2 History ............................................................................................... 106

6.3 Alloying elements and their importance ........................................ 106
6.4 Phases of NiTi superalloys .............................................................. 107
6.5 Mechanisms of strengthening......................................................... 110
6.5.1 Solid solution strengthening .................................................. 111
6.5.2 Precipitation strengthening .................................................... 111
6.5.3 Oxide dispersion strengthening............................................. 112
6.5.4 Carbide hardening................................................................... 112
6.6 Manufacturing processes for NiTi superalloys .............................. 112
6.6.1 Vacuum induction melting ................................................... 113
6.6.2 Vacuum arc remelting...........................................................114
6.6.3 Investment casting ................................................................ 115
6.6.4 Directional solidification ....................................................... 115
6.6.5 Conventional press and sinter..............................................116
6.6.6 Hot isostatic pressing............................................................ 117
6.6.7 Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis ....................117
6.6.8 Spark plasma sintering ......................................................... 117
6.6.9 Microwave sintering..............................................................118
6.6.10 Metal injection molding........................................................ 118
6.6.11 Additive manufacturing ........................................................ 119
6.6.12 Rheocasting ........................................................................... 119
6.7 Applications ...................................................................................... 120
6.8 Summary and future scopes ........................................................... 120
References ............................................................................................... 121

7 NiTi-based ternary shape-memory alloys ..................................................123

Santosh Sampath and Tuan Anh Nguyen
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 123
7.2 NiTi phase diagram.......................................................................... 123
7.3 Factors affecting the phase transformation temperatures............ 126
7.4 NiTi production methods................................................................. 126
7.5 Effect of ternary additions ............................................................... 128
7.5.1 High-temperature shape-memory alloys............................... 128
7.5.2 Low-temperature shape-memory alloys ............................... 131
7.5.3 Shape-memory alloys with corrosion and
oxidation resistance ................................................................ 132
viii Contents

7.5.4 Shape-memory alloys with antibacterial and

biocompatible properties........................................................ 132
7.5.5 Rare earth additions ................................................................ 133
7.6 Conclusions and future scope......................................................... 134
References ............................................................................................... 134

8 NiTi superhydrophobic materials .................................................................139

Biswajit Swain, S.K. Bhuyan, Subas Chandra Mishra and S.S. Mohapatra
8.1 Superhydrophobicity: science from nature.................................... 139
8.2 Nomenclature ................................................................................... 139
8.3 Basic concepts .................................................................................. 141
8.4 Processes for the preparation of a superhydrophobic surface..... 142
8.4.1 Lithography.............................................................................. 143
8.4.2 Etching ..................................................................................... 143
8.4.3 Deposition................................................................................ 143
8.4.4 Colloidal assemblies ............................................................... 144
8.5 NiTi smart material .......................................................................... 144
8.6 NiTi superhydrophobic surfaces ..................................................... 145
8.7 Conclusions ...................................................................................... 146
References ............................................................................................... 147

9 NiTi plasma spray coating .............................................................................151

Rakesh Roshan and Swadhin Kumar Patel
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 151
9.2 Classification of NiTi plasma spraying ......................................... 153
9.2.1 NiTi coatings generated via atmospheric plasma
spraying ................................................................................. 153
9.2.2 NiTi coatings generated via vacuum plasma spraying ...... 154
9.3 Mechanism of NiTi coating ........................................................... 154
9.4 Factors affecting NiTi spraying ..................................................... 157
9.4.1 Plasma arc current ................................................................ 158
9.4.2 Plasma gun powder .............................................................. 158
9.4.3 Primary gas in the plasma chamber .................................... 158
9.4.4 Powder flow rate ................................................................... 159
9.4.5 Spraying angle dependency................................................. 159
9.4.6 Substrate temperature .......................................................... 159
9.4.7 Nozzle length ......................................................................... 160
9.4.8 Stand-off distance ................................................................. 160
 Contents ix

9.5 Thermodynamics associated with NiTi coating........................... 160

9.5.1 Enthalpy calculations ............................................................ 161
9.5.2 Entropy calculations.............................................................. 162
9.5.3 Gibbs free energy evaluation ............................................... 163
9.6 Reaction with O2 ............................................................................. 163
9.7 Fabrication procedure .................................................................... 165
9.8 Microstructure and properties....................................................... 166
9.9 Advantages and disadvantages .................................................... 168
9.10 Applications .................................................................................... 168
9.11 Summary and future perspectives................................................ 169
References ............................................................................................... 169

10 Biocompatibility of NiTi................................................................................173
Raj Manik and Manas Ranjan Sahu
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................173
10.2 Corrosion and NiTi implants ........................................................176
10.3 Biocompatibility studies ...............................................................177
10.3.1 Biocompatibility of nickel ................................................. 177
10.3.2 Biocompatibility of titanium ............................................. 178
10.3.3 Biocompatibility of NiTi alloy........................................... 178
10.4 Application of NiTi biomaterials ..................................................183
10.5 Issues and challenges of NiTi implants.......................................185
10.6 Summary and future scope ..........................................................185
References ............................................................................................ 186

11 NiTi-based ternary alloys.............................................................................191

Jagadish Parida and Subas Chandra Mishra
11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................191
11.2 Effect of additive elements ...........................................................192
11.2.1 Addition of Al in NiTi ...................................................... 192
11.2.2 Addition of Co in NiTi ..................................................... 193
11.2.3 Addition of Cu in NiTi ..................................................... 194
11.2.4 Addition of Hf in NiTi ...................................................... 194
11.2.5 Addition of Zr in NiTi ...................................................... 195
11.2.6 Addition of Fe in NiTi ...................................................... 195
11.2.7 Addition of Nb in NiTi..................................................... 196
11.2.8 Addition of Pt/Pd in NiTi ................................................. 197
11.2.9 Addition of Sn in NiTi ..................................................... 198
x Contents

11.2.10 Addition of Ag in NiTi ..................................................... 198

11.2.11 Addition of V in NiTi ....................................................... 199
11.3 Major factors affecting the properties .........................................199
11.4 Thermodynamics associated with additions...............................201
11.4.1 NiTiAl alloy ........................................................................ 201
11.4.2 NiTiCo alloy ....................................................................... 202
11.4.3 NiTiCu alloy ....................................................................... 202
11.4.4 NiTiFe alloy ........................................................................ 202
11.5 Fabrication procedure ...................................................................203
11.6 Change to properties ....................................................................204
11.7 Advantages and disadvantages ...................................................205
11.8 Summary and future perspectives...............................................209
References ............................................................................................ 209

12 NiTi-based coupling devices.......................................................................215

Lokanath Barik and Saswat Kumar Samal
12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................215
12.2 Advantages of an NiTi coupler over a conventional coupler ....216
12.3 Design considerations...................................................................218
12.4 Fabrication of a nitinol coupler ....................................................219
12.4.1 Pipe-joining application .................................................... 220
12.4.2 Shaft-joining application................................................... 226
12.5 NiTi-based alloy couplers .............................................................226
12.5.1 NiTiCu and NiTiNb ............................................................ 227
12.5.2 NiTiCr ................................................................................. 228
12.5.3 NiTiZr ................................................................................. 228
12.5.4 NiTiFe ................................................................................. 229
12.5.5 NiTiAl ................................................................................. 229
12.5.6 NiTiHf ................................................................................. 229
12.5.7 NiTiAg and NiTiV............................................................... 230
12.5.8 NiTiPd and NiTiSi .............................................................. 230
12.5.9 NiTiCo and NiTiMo............................................................ 230
12.6 Heat treatment and postprocessing.............................................231
12.6.1 Combined effects of cold working and aging on
shape memory and superelastic behaviors .................... 232
12.7 Application of an NiTi-based coupler ..........................................232
12.7.1 Aerospace industry ........................................................... 232
12.7.2 Hose clamp ........................................................................ 234
 Contents xi

12.7.3 Ship building ..................................................................... 235

12.7.4 Offshore applications ........................................................ 237
12.7.5 Electrical connectors ......................................................... 238
12.7.6 Nuclear plant ..................................................................... 238
12.7.7 Miscellaneous .................................................................... 239
12.8 Advantages and disadvantages of NiTi couplers .......................239
12.9 Conclusion .....................................................................................240
References ............................................................................................ 240

Part III Emerging applications

13 Thermal spraying of NiTi alloy ...................................................................247
Priyatosh Sahoo, Biswajit Swain and Ajit Behera
13.1 Introduction to thermal spraying .................................................247
13.2 NiTi shape memory alloy .............................................................249
13.3 Atmospheric plasma spraying of NiTi .........................................253
13.3.1 Properties of coatings and the effects of various
APS parameters................................................................. 256
13.4 Vacuum plasma spraying of NiTi.................................................260
13.4.1 Properties of coatings and the effects of various
VPS parameters ................................................................. 260
13.5 Formation of NiTi intermetallics during thermal spraying ........261
13.6 Defects during NiTi thermal spraying..........................................263
13.7 Summary .......................................................................................264
References ............................................................................................ 265

14 Nickel titanium smart hybrid materials for automotive industry ....271

Asit Behera, A.K. Sahoo and S.S. Mohapatra
14.1 Introduction ...................................................................................271
14.1.1 Classification of hybrid materials..................................... 272
14.1.2 Distinction between nanocomposites and hybrid
materials ............................................................................ 273
14.2 What are NiTi smart hybrid materials .........................................273
14.2.1 Synthesis............................................................................ 275
14.2.2 Methods of preparation of NiTi smart hybrid alloys ...... 275
14.3 Applications ...................................................................................276
14.3.1 Automotive applications................................................... 276
xii Contents

14.3.2 Other applications ............................................................. 291

14.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................292
References ............................................................................................ 292

15 Biomedical applications of NiTi alloys ....................................................297

Fatemeh Asgarinia and Soroush Parvizi
15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................297
15.2 Dentistry applications ...................................................................298
15.2.1 Orthodontic........................................................................ 298
15.2.2 Endodontic fields............................................................... 300
15.2.3 Dental prostheses and implants....................................... 301
15.2.4 Recent progress in dental NiTi alloys .............................. 302
15.3 Orthopedic applications................................................................303
15.3.1 Assistive equipment.......................................................... 304
15.3.2 Rehabilitation devices ....................................................... 313
15.3.3 Recent orthopedic NiTi alloys .......................................... 316
15.4 Intra-vascular stent applications ..................................................318
15.5 Guided wire and endoscope applications ...................................320
References ............................................................................................ 321

16 Smart applications of NiTi shape memory alloy in

biomedical industries....................................................................................327
Ajit Behera
16.1 Introduction into NiTi biomaterials..............................................327
16.2 NiTi biocompatibility.....................................................................329
16.3 Preferential texture of NiTi biomaterials .....................................330
16.4 Modification of NiTi biomaterials ................................................330
16.4.1 Mechanically treated NiTi ............................................... 331
16.4.2 Heat treatment ................................................................. 331
16.4.3 Chemical etching ............................................................. 332
16.4.4 Water boiling and autoclaving ....................................... 332
16.4.5 Electropolishing............................................................... 332
16.4.6 Plasma ion implantation ................................................. 333
16.4.7 Coating ............................................................................. 333
16.4.8 Addition of a third element ............................................ 334
16.4.9 Sterilization ...................................................................... 334
 Contents xiii

16.4.10 Disinfection ...................................................................... 335

16.5 NiTi applications in the human body ..........................................336
16.5.1 Artificial hand .................................................................. 336
16.5.2 Orthotic devices for the elbow ....................................... 337
16.5.3 Orthotic devices for the ankle......................................... 338
16.5.4 Toe-up device .................................................................. 338
16.5.5 Dental arch wire and palate expanders ......................... 340
16.5.6 Spinal vertebrae spacer .................................................. 340
16.5.7 Orthopedic staples and surgical fixator......................... 341
16.5.8 Bone plates ...................................................................... 342
16.5.9 Physiotherapy gloves...................................................... 343
16.5.10 Stent ................................................................................. 344
16.5.11 Simon filter ...................................................................... 344
16.5.12 Atrial septal occlusion..................................................... 345
16.5.13 Intraaortic balloon pump ................................................ 346
16.5.14 Laparoscopy tools ........................................................... 346
16.5.15 Flexible dental drills ........................................................ 347
16.5.16 Mounting bridgework ..................................................... 347
16.5.17 Endosseous implants ...................................................... 348
16.5.18 Guidewires and endoscopes .......................................... 349
16.5.19 Microforceps for brain surgery ...................................... 349
16.6 Summary .......................................................................................350
References ............................................................................................ 350

17 NiTi smart alloys in electronic and electrical equipment ..................355

Raj Manik and Ajit Behera
17.1 Introduction ...................................................................................355
17.2 Modes of failure in electrical and electronics components .......356
17.3 Fabrication procedure of NiTi in the electrical and
electronics industries ....................................................................358
17.3.1 Plasma arc melting............................................................ 358
17.3.2 Vacuum induction melting of nitinol ............................... 359
17.3.3 Vacuum arc remelting....................................................... 361
17.3.4 Electron beam melting...................................................... 361
17.4 Advantages and disadvantages ...................................................362
17.5 Applications ...................................................................................363
xiv Contents

17.5.1 Automatic desiccators..................................................... 364

17.5.2 The altitude control system of a stationary
satellite ............................................................................. 364
17.5.3 The world’s tiniest, ultralight, single-lens
reflex camera with an autofocus single lens................. 365
17.5.4 MD recorder with more features, lighter weight, and
smaller size ...................................................................... 365
17.5.5 Rice cooker....................................................................... 366
17.5.6 Coffee maker.................................................................... 367
17.5.7 Air conditioner for heating and cooling ........................ 367
17.5.8 Mixing valve .................................................................... 368
17.5.9 Water flow control valve and bathtub adapter ............. 368
17.5.10 Automatic oil valve-adjusting equipment for
Shinkansen ...................................................................... 369
17.5.11 Toilet hot water ejector ................................................... 369
17.5.12 Transformer overheating detector ................................. 370
17.5.13 Electric current actuator.................................................. 370
17.5.14 Gynecological examination equipment......................... 371
17.5.15 Miniature robot................................................................ 372
17.5.16 Soft-boiled egg cooker.................................................... 372
17.5.17 Artificial flower ................................................................ 373
17.5.18 Multichip RFID antenna integrating shape-memory
alloys for detection of thermal thresholds .................... 374
17.5.19 Electronic control of elastomeric microfluidic circuits
with shape-memory actuators........................................ 374
17.5.20 Design of a smart lock using the thermal encoding
of a shape-memory alloy ................................................ 375
17.6 Summary .......................................................................................375
References ............................................................................................ 376

18 NiTi joining with other metallic materials ..............................................379

Suman Chatterjee, Siba Sankar Mahapatra and Ajit Behera
18.1 Introduction to SMA joining.........................................................379
18.2 Classification of joining ................................................................380
18.3 Mechanism of joining ...................................................................382
18.3.1 Fusion welding techniques............................................... 382
18.4 Factors affecting NiTi dissimilar joining......................................384
18.5 Thermodynamics associated with NiTi joining ..........................388
 Contents xv

18.6 Microstructure and properties......................................................390

18.7 Advantages and disadvantages ...................................................391
18.8 Applications ...................................................................................393
18.9 Summary and future prospects ...................................................394
References ............................................................................................ 395

19 NiTi shape memory alloys: properties ......................................................399

Soroush Parvizi, Seyed Mahdi Hashemi and Sanaz Moein
19.1 Introduction .................................................................................399
19.2 Shape-memory effect..................................................................402
19.2.1 Two-way shape-memory behavior ................................ 405
19.2.2 R-phase transition ........................................................... 406
19.3 Superelasticity of NiTi.................................................................409
19.4 Crystallography aspects of NiTi .................................................411
19.5 NiTi binary phase diagram .........................................................413
19.6 Mechanical aspects of NiTi.........................................................416
19.7 Thermal characteristics of NiTi ..................................................421
19.8 Wear resistance and hardness ...................................................422
19.9 Damping capacity of NiTi ...........................................................423
19.10 Alloying elements in NiTi ...........................................................423
References ............................................................................................ 424
Index........................................................................................................... 427
List of contributors

Tapasendra Adhikary Department of Metallurgical and

Materials Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Shampa Aich Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Fatemeh Asgarinia Materials Engineering Department, Shahid
Rajaee Teacher Training University (SRTTU), Tehran, Iran
Lokanath Barik Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Ajit Behera Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
Asit Behera School of Mechanical Engineering, KIIT,
Bhubaneswar, India
S.K. Bhuyan Department of Mechanical Engineering, G H
Raisoni Institute of Engineering and Technology, Pune, India
C.K. Biswas Department of Mechanical Engineering, National
Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Suman Chatterjee Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Dheeraj K. Gara Department of Aeronautical Engineering,
MRCET, Hyderabad, India
Raghavendra Gujjala Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NIT Warangal, Hanamkonda, India
Seyed Mahdi Hashemi Dynamic and Smart Systems Laboratory,
Mechanical Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
Department, University of Toledo, OH, United States
Siba Sankar Mahapatra Department of Mechanical
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
Raj Manik Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India

xvii
xviii List of contributors

Bharat C.G. Marupalli Department of Metallurgical and

Materials Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Subas Chandra Mishra Department of Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Sanaz Moein Materials Engineering Department, Shahid Rajaee
Teacher Training University (SRTTU), Tehran, Iran
S.S. Mohapatra Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India;
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela, India
Tuan Anh Nguyen Institute for Tropical Technology, Vietnam
Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
Jagadish Parida Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
Soroush Parvizi Materials Engineering Department, Shahid
Rajaee Teacher Training University (SRTTU), Tehran, Iran
Swadhin Kumar Patel Department of Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Srikar Potnuru Department of Mechanical Engineering,
MRCET, Hyderabad, India
Manisha Priyadarshini Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Rakesh Roshan Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
A.K. Sahoo School of Mechanical Engineering, KIIT,
Bhubaneswar, India
Priyatosh Sahoo Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
Manas Ranjan Sahu Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang, India
Saswat Kumar Samal Department of Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
 List of contributors xix

Santosh Sampath Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri

Sivasubramania Nadar (SSN) College of Engineering,
Kalavakkam, India
Biswajit Swain Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Rourkela, India
Sabu Thomas Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India
Foreword

Hybrid composites have gained increasing interest in recent

years for various applications from basic to advanced levels.
Combining the qualities of smart materials in hybrid materials
is one of the advanced fields in materials science for researchers
and scientists. Hybrid materials open the opportunity to inte-
grate various functionalities in one material. NiTi smart hybrid
materials are among the most advanced materials used as
structural alloys with emerging applications that have an
emphasis in the micro- to nano-scale as, for example, actuators
to Micro-Electro-Mechanical-System, energy conversion, and
biomedical applications. NiTi alloys possesses shape-memory
effect and mechanical properties with the functional behavior
of living tissue that makes them compatible for use in medical
devices and implants (Saburi, 1999). Nano- and microstructured
NiTi wires are used in the medical and actuating industries.
Similarly, composite hybrid structures could be formed using
micron-sized NiTi-reinforced ribbons for enhanced structural
and functional properties in functional engineering composites
which have growing demand in the sensor and actuator fields
(Samal et al., 2020). Combining a smart material in a hybrid
structure in the micro- to nano-scale will open up opportunities
at the basic and advanced levels for application in macro- to
mini-scale devices (Wei, Sandström, & Miyazaki, 1998a, 1998b).
This book addresses an interesting and emerging topic.
Hybrid materials are widely accepted and used for their multi-
ple properties and significant contributions toward society. This
topic has gained widespread interest from researchers and aca-
demics aiming at a future industrial approach. NiTi is used as
reinforced fibers in polymers and substrate layers for the forma-
tion of composites and films from the micro- to nano-scale
(Roytburd, Slutsker, & Wuttig, 2000). This book discusses the
approach of using smart materials in hybrid materials to com-
bine their functional properties as a major boost for structural
applications.

Sneha Manjaree Samal

Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences,
Prague, Czech Republic

xxi
xxii Foreword

References
Roytburd, A. L., Slutsker, J., & Wuttig, M. (2000). Smart composites with shape
memory alloys. In A. Kelly, & C. Zweben (Eds.), Comprehensive composite
materials (pp. 507 522). Oxford: Pergamon.
Saburi, T. (1999). Ti-Ni shape memory alloys. In K. Otsuka, & C. M. Waymann
(Eds.), Shape memory materials (pp. 49 96). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Samal, S., Tyc, O., Heller, L., Šittner, P., Malik, M., Poddar, P., & Blanco, I. (2020).
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and a polymer matrix by laser surface pattern. Applied Sciences, 10(6), 2172.
Wei, Z. G., Sandström, R., & Miyazaki, S. (1998a). Review: Shape-memory
materials and hybrid composites for smart systems: Part I Shape-memory
materials. Journal of Materials Science, 33, 3743 3762.
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materials and hybrid composites for smart systems: Part II Shape-memory
hybrid composites. Journal of Materials Science, 33, 3763 3783.
 PART

Fundamentals
I

1
This page intentionally left blank
NiTi-based smart micro- and
1
nanoalloys: an introduction
Santosh Sampath1, Ajit Behera2, Sabu Thomas3 and
Tuan Anh Nguyen4
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramania Nadar (SSN)
College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, India 2Department of Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela,
India 3Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India 4Institute for Tropical
Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam

Nowadays, with the development of nanotechnology-enabled

metallurgy, alloys have become smarter, stronger, and more dura-
ble. Nanoalloys (nanostructured alloys) can be produced by the
formation of nanocrystalline metal phases within a metallic
matrix. In this case, nanostructured phases can dominate the
material properties. On the one hand, nanoalloys refer to those
alloys constructed from two or more different metallic nanomater-
ials. On the other hand, when the nanoscale is reached for their
grain size, some properties of alloys, especially their electronic
and mechanical properties, are altered significantly, which may
not be observed when going from the macroscopic to micrometer
dimensions. Thus alloys at the nanoscale could provide different
properties as compared to bulk alloys, which leads to nanoalloys
having promising applications. It has been reported in the litera-
ture that nanoalloys could offer many advantages over conven-
tional alloys, such as greater corrosion and oxidation resistance,
better ductility enhancement, and greater hardness and wear
resistance. There are several main groups of nanoalloys, such as
nanosteels (Buazar, Cheshmehkani, & Kassaee, 2012; Sergueeva,
Walleser, Zhou, Meacham, & Branagan, 2012), titanium nanoalloys
(Palmquist et al., 2010; Sdobnyakov et al., 2019), aluminum
nanoalloys (Ferguson, Tabandeh-Khorshid, Rohatgi, Cho, & Kim,
2014; Lin et al., 2012), copper nanoalloys (Elgavi, Krekeler, Berger,
& Avnir, 2012; Grégory, Mejia-Rosales, Khanal, & Ruiz-Zepeda,
2014), and nickel nanoalleoys (Liu, Wu, & Guo, 2020; Zhao, Wang,
Fisher, Shen, & Cheng, 2017).
Nickel-Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91173-3.00018-3 3
© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 Chapter 1 NiTi-based smart micro- and nanoalloys: an introduction

Recently, NiTi systems have been gaining increasing demand

in growing industries due to their particular behaviors, such as
smart properties (Jani, Leary, Subic, & Gibson, 2014), high-
temperature behavior (Shu, Lu, Wang, & Li, 2015; Tong, Liu,
Miao, & Zhao, 2005; Yi, Pang, Sun, Meng, & Cai, 2018), and bio-
compatible qualities (Chen & Thouas, 2015; Li, Qiu, Zhou, Li, &
Zheng, 2016; Zheng et al., 2011). NiTi smart materials are
described on the basis of their shape memory effect (SME)
(Otsuka & Shimizu, 1986) and superelastic effect (SE) (Duerig,
Melton, Stockel, & Wayman, 1990; Wayman, 1993) properties for
sensor and actuator applications. Piezoelectric coatings on NiTi
also have made significant contributions in multiobjective
materials (Sato, 2012).
In another direction, the composition/hybridization of Ni and
Ti with other minor elements have been used to develop the
present-day smart materials (Santosh & Sampath, 2019; Santosh,
Praveen, & Sampath, 2019). Due to its high stability, NiTi can be
developed to have a superhydrophobic surface (Ou, Wang, & Hsu,
2017). In addition to the smartness of NiTi, various devices have
been developed for energy harvesting (Adeodato, Duarte,
Monteiro, Pacheco, & Savi, 2021; Avirovik, Kumar, Bodnar, & Priya,
2013). Plasma spraying of NiTi is an economical surface modifica-
tion process which can be applied to high-end equipment includ-
ing aero-engine casings and turbine blades (Swain, Mallick, &
Bhuyan, 2020). Ti-rich NiTi is the best biocompatible material till
date and is among the most used products in healthcare indus-
tries (Li, Qiu, Zhou, Li, & Zheng, 2016). The addition of ternary
and other minor elements in NiTi system can alter the physical
and mechanical behaviors of materials (Sampath, Srinithi,
Santosh, & Sherin Fathima, 2020; Santosh & Sampath, 2020). With
a small percentage addition of minor elements, the transformation
temperatures of an NiTi system can be varied to a large extent
(Otsuka & Ren, 2005).
In most applications, due to the high material cost, there is a
need for conventional materials joining either as a diffused surface
or as a mechanically attached surface (Oliveira, Miranda, & Braz,
2017; Sevilla, Martorell, Libenson, Planell, & Gil, 2008). It is equally
important to study NiTi systems from a high-temperature defor-
mation point of view (Mirzadeh & Parsa, 2014).
Other interesting topics include the various processing
methods for NiTi systems, such as powder metallurgy (Bram
et al., 2002), induction melting (Frenzel, Zhang, Neuking, &
Eggeler, 2004), plasma-assisted melting (Tuissi, Rondelli, &
Bassani, 2015), and additive manufacturing approaches (Wang
et al., 2019). The additive manufacturing approach is the latest
 Chapter 1 NiTi-based smart micro- and nanoalloys: an introduction 5

technology used to develop 3D-printed and 4D-printed NiTi

systems (Dutkiewicz et al., 2020). In addition, other useful infor-
mation has been reported on their subtemperature treatment
and cryocooling properties (Vinothkumar, Kandaswamy,
Prabhakaran, & Rajadurai, 2016). In addition, the high-
temperature application of NiTi alloys is common practice now-
adays, thus its effect on the grain and grain boundary with
respect to the temperature should be considered (Ma, Karaman,
& Noebe, 2010).
Thanks to the above-mentioned excellent properties, nickel-
titanium systems have been widely applied in the aerospace
(Hartl & Lagoudas, 2007), automobile (Stoeckel, 1990), mechani-
cal (Humbeeck, 1999), biomedical (Morgan, 2004), and elec-
tronics industries (Vyawahare, Sitaula, Martin, Adalian, &
Scherer, 2008).

References
Adeodato, A., Duarte, B. T., Monteiro, L. L. S., Pacheco, P. M. C. L., & Savi, M. A.
(2021). Synergistic use of piezoelectric and shape memory alloy elements for
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Zedern des Libanon A. 182.

Zeltlager, christliches A. 35.

Zerka, Fluß 49, 54.

Zerkā, Kal'at ez 69.

Zeus Saphatenos 118, 119.

Zirkassier 54, 127, 230, 300.

Zīza 33, 34;

Römerzisterne 34;
das Fort von A. 34.

Zuckerwaren, Verkäufer von, in Damaskus A. 145.

Zuhair, arab. Dichter 59.

 SYRIEN
unter Zugrundelegung der von Dr. GARRETT verbesserten KIEPERT schen Karte und mit
Genehmigung von KARL J. TRÜBNER in Straßburg der Karte des Ost-Jordan-Landes von
Dr. BRÜNNOW. Die Reiseroute der Verfasserin ist rot gezeichnet.

Das
Moderne Ägypten
von A. B. de Guerville
Autorisierte Übersetzung aus dem Englischen

Mit 200 Abbildungen nach photographischen

Aufnahmen
Preis: Geheftet M. 8.50,
elegant gebunden M. 10.—.
Ein hochinteressantes, flott und amüsant geschriebenes Buch über
Ägypten wie es jetzt ist
Der Tourist, dem es um das sonnige Klima sowie Kenntnis des
fremden Landes, seiner Bevölkerung und seiner Sitten zu tun ist, der
Politiker, der die Verwaltung studieren will, der Finanzmann, der sich
neue Gebiete untertan machen, der Kaufmann, der sich neue Märkte
erschließen will, der Beobachter, der das fremdartige Gemisch von
Rassen und Glaubensbekenntnissen mit Streiflichtern beleuchtet
sehen will — sie alle sollten dies Buch unbedingt lesen, denn der
Verfasser bietet jedem etwas Wertvolles und Wissenswertes.
Ganz besonders kann das Buch allen Besuchern Ägyptens dringend
empfohlen werden; es dient vortrefflich zur Vorbereitung für die
Reise und bildet zugleich eine ebenso unterhaltende wie lehrreiche
Reiselektüre.
Verlag von Otto Spamer in Leipzig

Ansicht von Chartum. Aus: A. B. de Guerville »Das moderne Ägypten«.

Japan
das Land der aufgehenden Sonne
einst und jetzt