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FRACTURES IN ROCKS

FAULTS
A rock under enough stress will fracture, or break. If the blocks of rock on
one or both sides of a fracture move, the fracture is called a fault (Figure
4-1). Earthquakes happen when there are sudden motions along faults.
When rocks break and move suddenly, the energy released causes an
earthquake. Faults may occur at the Earth's surface or deeper in the
crust. Faults are found alone or in clusters, creating a fault zone fig.4-2.
Faults are fractures in bedrock along which sliding has taken place. The
displacement may be only several centimetres or may involve hundreds of
kilometres. For many geologists, an active fault is regarded as one along
which movement has taken place during the last 11,000 years. Most
faults however, are no longer active. (Fig. 4:1).

Fig. 4-1 Small fault has dropped the right side of these volcanic
ash layers downward about 60 centimetres relative to the left
side.
Fault zone
Movement along a fault may be gradual, or the rock may move suddenly,
generating an earthquake. Some faults are a single fracture in rock;
others consist of numerous closely spaced fractures called a fault zone
(Fig. 4:2).
(a) Movement along a single fracture surface characterizes
faults with relatively small slip
(b) Movement along numerous closely spaced faults in a
fault zone is typical of faults with large slip

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Fig 4-2 Fault zones

1) Rock may slide hundreds of meters or many kilometres along a

large fault zone.
2) Rock moves repeatedly along many faults and fault zones for two
reasons:
3) Tectonic forces commonly persist in the same place over long
periods of time (for example, at a tectonic plate boundary), and
4) Once a fault forms, it is easier for movement to occur again
along the same fracture than for a new fracture to develop
nearby.
Strike and Dip
Faults, joints, sedimentary beds, slaty cleavage, and a wide range of
other geologic features are planar surfaces in rock. Field geologists
describe the orientations of sedimentary beds or other planes with two
measurements called strike and dip. To understand these concepts,
recall from elementary geometry that two planes intersect in a straight
line.
STRIKE
Strike is the compass direction of the line produced by the intersection of
a tilted rock or structure with a horizontal plane. For example, if the line
runs exactly north–south, the strike is 0º (you could also call it 180º). If
the line points east, the strike is 90º.
DIP
Dip is the angle of inclination of the tilted layer, also measured from the
horizontal plane. In Figure below the dip is 45º.
STRIKE

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Strike is the compass direction of the intersection of a horizontal plane

with a sedimentary bed or other planar feature in rock. Dip is the angle
between a horizontal plane and the layering.

Fig (4-3) Showing DIP AND STRIKE

FAULT TERMINOLOGY
FAULT PLANE
The surface along which the fracture occurs in rock mass and the relative
movement of blocks has been taken place is called as fault plane. It may
be inclined, vertical or horizontal

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Fig. 4-4 Showing Parts Of Fault

Hanging Wall and Foot Wall
HANGING WALL
The block which lies above the fault plane is called as hanging wall.
FOOT WALL
The block which lies below the fault plane is called as foot wall
Hydrothermal solutions often precipitate in faults to form rich ore veins.
Miners then dig shafts and tunnels along veins to get the ore.
Many faults are not vertical but dip into the Earth at an angle. Therefore,
many veins have an upper side and a lower side.
Miners referred to the side that hung over their heads as the hanging
wall and the side they walked on as the footwall.
These names are commonly used to describe both ore veins and faults
(Fig. 4-3) relationship between the hanging wall block and footwall block
of a fault can be seen below. The upper surface where a miner can hang a
lantern is the hanging wall, the lower surface below the fault is the
footwall.

Fig 4-5 showing hanging wall and footwall blocks

Hade

The inclination of fault plane with the vertical is called as hade. It is also
called as slope of the fault.

Throw

The vertical component of displacement of fractured block is called as

throw

Heave:

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The horizontal component of displacement of fractured block is called as

heave

Strike

The horizontal distance perpendicular to the fault plane is called as strike.

For an inclined plane, it is the compass direction of any horizontal line on
the plane

Slip
This is the distance that rocks on opposite sides of a fault have moved.in
other word the displacement of fractured block along the fault plane is
called as slip. Geologists describe fault movement in terms of the
direction of slippage; dip-slip fault, strike-slip fault and oblique-slip fault
usually.
Slip is the distance rocks move along a fault. Slip is said to be relative,
because there is usually no way to know whether both sides moved or
only one. The only thing we can say for sure, is that one block of rock
moved passed the other. Faults lie at an angle to the horizontal surface of
the Earth. That angle is called the fault's dip. The dip defines which of
two basic types a fault is. If the fault's dip is inclined relative to the
horizontal, the fault is a dip-slip fault. Slip can be up or down the fault
plane.

Types of Dip-Slip Faults

NORMAL FAULT
This is a type of dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall drops down
relative to the footwall. Normal faults are caused by tensional stress that
pulls the crust apart, causing the hanging wall to slide down relative to
the footwall.

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Fig. 4-6 Normal fault

REVERSE FAULT
This is a type of Dip-slip fault in which he hanging wall moves up relative
to the footwall. When compression squeezes the crust into a smaller
space, the hanging wall pushes up relative to the footwall.

Fig. 4-7 Reverse Fault

THRUST FAULT
A type of reverse fault is called a thrust fault. At a thrust fault, the fault
plane angle is nearly horizontal and rocks can slip many miles along
thrust faults (Figure 4-8).
A thrust fault is a special type of reverse fault that is nearly horizontal.
In some thrust faults, the rocks of the hanging wall have moved many
kilometres over the footwall.

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(Fig 4:8) Thrust Fault

Strike-Slip

A strike-slip fault is a dip-slip fault where the dip of the fault plane is
vertical. Strike-slip faults result from shear stresses. If you stand with one
foot on one side and one foot on the other side of a strike-slip fault, the
block on one side will be moving toward you and the block on the other
side will be moving away from you. If the block moving toward you is the
block that your right foot is on, the fault is known as a right-lateral strike-
slip fault. If the block moving toward you is the one your left foot is on,
the fault is a left-lateral strike-slip fault (Figure 4-9).

(Fig 4-9)

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A strike –slip fault is nearly vertical, but movement along the fault
is horizontal. The large arrows show direction of movement

A fault may have broken and moved only once, but most faults are active
repeatedly. There are two reasons for this. One is that plate tectonic
processes continue in the same locations. The other is that a fault is a
zone of weakness in the crust, and it is easier for movement to take place
along an existing fault than for a new fault to be created in solid crust.
OBLIQUE FAULT
A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip
is termed an oblique-slip fault. Nearly all faults have some component
of both dip-slip and strike-slip; hence, defining a fault as oblique
requires both dip and strike components to be measurable and significant.

FIG 4-10 Oblique Fault

HORST AND GRABEN

HORST FAULT
A horst is a raised fault block bounded by normal faults. A horst is a
raised block of the Earth's crust that has lifted, or has remained
stationary, while the land on either side (graben) has subsided. The word
Horst in Dutch and German means heap – cognate with English "hurst".
GRABEN FAULT
A graben is a piece of Earth's crust that is shifted downward in
comparison to adjacent crust known as “horsts,” which are shifted
upward.

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Fig (4:10)
Horsts and Grabens commonly form where tectonic forces stretch
the earth’s crust

Figure 4:10 shows a wedge-shaped block of rock called a graben

dropped downward between a pair of normal faults. The word graben
comes from the German word for “grave” (think of a large block of rock
settling downward into a grave). If tectonic forces stretch the crust over a
large area, many normal faults may develop, allowing numerous grabens
to settle downward between the faults. The blocks of rock between the
down-dropped grabens then appear to have moved upward relative to the
grabens; they are called horsts.
Normal faults, grabens, and horsts are common where the crust is rifting
at a spreading centre, such as the mid-oceanic ridge and the East African
rift zone.
They are also common where tectonic forces stretch a single plate, as in
the Basin and Range of Utah, Nevada, and adjacent parts of western
North America.
In a region where tectonic forces squeeze the crust, geologic structures
must accommodate crustal shortening. A fold accomplishes shortening.
ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF FAULT
Fault Traps
These traps depend upon the effectiveness of the seal at the face of the
fault. The seal may be the result of placing different types of formations
side by side, for example, shale against sand, or it may be caused by
impermeable material called “gouge” within the fault zone itself.

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Fault trap
A simple fault trap may occur where structural contours provide
closure against a single fault. However, in other structural
configurations, such as a monocline, two or three faults may be
required to form a trap.
Fault trap accumulations tend to be elongated and parallel to the fault
trend. A common type of fault trap is that formed when growth faults
develop. This is common in deltaic sediments where there is a
stratigraphic section that has had prolific deposition during its
accumulation.
The following are definitions of the various terms encountered by the
Wellsite Geologist when reviewing maps, trapping mechanisms, and when
preparing the Final Well Report.
Synthetic Fault - These are faults that form along points of weak rock
that are secondary to larger faults. They can assume various orientations,
dependant on the regional tectonic stress regimes. This may include
numerous en-echelon stress relief faults or faults accompanying Diapirs
Antithetic Fault - Faults that dip opposite from the regional sedimentary
rock bedding. In reality, the orientation of these faults is independent
from the bedding dip and results from adjustment to regional stress
relief; it does not necessarily have any relation to the bedding direction.
Roll-over anticline - This is a structural deformation where the axis of a
fold is inclined and may be completely overturned, depending on the

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amount of stress that is supplied to the area. Both limbs may dip in the
same direction, but usually in different directions.
Domino faulting - These are adjustment faults that result from stress
relief in areas of regional uplift. They slide in a “domino” pattern, each
outer fault sliding lower than following faults.
Growth faults - These are normal faults across which there is abrupt
thickening of stratigraphic units, from the hanging wall side to the
footwall side, and along which there is a downward increase in the
displacement of stratigraphic horizons. They are normally interpreted as
normal faults that are moving contemporaneously with deposition of
sedimentary or volcanic rocks.

JOINTS
A joint is a fracture in rock and is therefore similar to a fault, except that
in a joint rocks on either side of the fracture have not moved. Tectonic
forces also fracture rock to form joints (Fig. below). Most rocks near the
Earth’s surface are jointed, but joints become less abundant with depth
because rocks become more plastic at deeper levels in the crust.
Joints and faults are important in engineering, mining, and quarrying
because they are planes of weakness in otherwise strong rock. A dam
constructed in jointed rock often leaks, not because the dam has a hole
but because water follows the fractures and seeps around the dam. You
can commonly see seepage caused by such leaks in the walls of a canyon
downstream from a dam.
What is the difference between a joint and a fault?
Joints and faults are types of fractures. A joint is a fracture along which
no movement has taken place, usually caused by tensional forces. A fault
is a fracture or break in the rock along which movement has taken place.

It is worthy to note that the joints of both igneous and sedimentary rocks
formed in the early stages of rock history. The primary joints of sediments
are formed during consolidation, compaction and desiccation. These joints

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are characterized as being typically short, discontinuous and irregular.

When consolidated rocks are subjected to weathering joints are formed.

These joints are also short, discontinuous and irregular. In contrast to

these, the joints produced in response to overpowering stresses are
generally quite regular in pattern, often long and may be strikingly
geometric in plan.

Fig 4:11 Joints are fractures along which the rock has not slipped

In horizontal sedimentary rocks, regular joint patterns are commonly

found. These joints are commonly parallel to the bedding planes. In the
case of shales, the bedding plane joints are so closely spaced, the shales
are said to have fissility. Planes of parting parallel to the bedding planes
are generally present between layers of different types of rocks.

Mostly folding is accompanied by some fracturing. When folds occur, the

more massive or more competent beds are liable to fracture, while the
weaker or less competent members may fail plastically. Longitudinal
tension cracks parallel to the axis of the fold are seen along the crests of
anticlines. On the limbs of folds, the brittle members show both tension
and shear joints.

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Fig.4-12 Joint set

Joints serve as avenues of percolation for ground water. Many veins are
commonly seen at places where groundwater has filled joints with mineral
matter. The joint fillings are generally calcite and quartz. Where the rock
is soluble, the joints get enlarged by solution. Many holes and caves in
limestones are the results of solution action which started along the
joints.

Joints in rocks appear as planer discontinuities with parallel open cracks

and characterized by their spacing and the manner of their orientation.
They may be universal and in many cases are open at the surface and
closed at some depths. The joints may also get filled up with calcite,
dolomite, quartz, clay and such mineral matter.

Joints of rocks present underneath may contain water under pressure.

Joints exist in any attitude, vertical, sloping or horizontal. The spacing of
joints may vary largely from centimetres to metres. Joints rarely occur
lonely and they usually exist in groups running parallel to each other.

A set of parallel joints of common origin is called a joint set Fig.4-12. A

few joint sets may often intersect forming characteristic patterns. They
may intersect perpendicularly or obliquely creating joint systems.
Presence of joint systems or joint sets gives a fragmental appearance
when they are closely spaced and a blocky appearance when widely
spaced.

Under the action of large stresses, the rocks undergo such large strains
that they eventually yield by deformation, flowage or rupture. As we know
that joints are fractures along which there has been no appreciable
displacement of the separated parts. Joints may occur in response to
application of a force such as tension, compression, shear and even
torsion.

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These joints developed due to overpowering stresses and are regular in

pattern. They are often long and at many places strikingly geometric in
plan. Many irregular fractures also occur due to warping and twisting to
which the rocks may be subjected to during the gradual crystal
movements.

This is very true in the case of marine sedimentary rocks which were
originally deposited below the sea level and were later elevated by
regional uplifts. Such vertical movements do not occur uniformly and as a
consequence, the rock beds are subjected to torsional and shearing
stresses of such magnitude as to cause fracture. Tension joints are
common on the crests of anticlines along fold axes as a result of
stretching of the rock strata.

Joints also occur due to tensile stresses caused by the contraction of

cooling magmas in necks, dikes, sills and lava flows. In addition to the
above, systems of joints are also caused in igneous rocks due to crustal
movements which occur long after the solidification of the rocks. These
joints are caused due to high compressive stresses. In such cases, a
granite block develops a system of joints nearly at right angles to each
other.

Weathering of consolidated rocks produces joints that are short,

discontinuous and irregular. All types of joints become avenues of
percolation for ground water. Many veins are found where the ground
water has filled joints with mineral matter. Calcite and quartz veins are
common types of joint fillings. In soluble rock, the joints are enlarged by
solution.

TYPES OF JOINTS

Joints are classified based on (a) forces causing the joints and (b) the
position of the joint relative to the dip and strike of the rock bed. Joints of
the former type are said to be of genetic type and the latter of geometric
type.

1. Genetic Types of Joints:

These joints are of two types, namely tension joints and shear joints.
Tension joints are large as well as wide. These joints are formed by
tensile forces which are induced due to change in volume of rocks due to
drying shrinkage in the process of cooling or dehydration and stretching

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of the fold limbs of a strata. The tension joints appear rough, irregular
with jagged surfaces. Rocks easily yield to tensile forces and the rock
joints are mostly tension joints.

2. Tension Joints in Igneous Rocks:

As magma undergoes cooling and solidifies or as lava gradually cools and

becomes rigid, cracks or ruptures occur forming tension joints. These
joints may be mural joints or sheet joints or columnar joints.

(a) Mural Joints:

These joints are common in granites and related plutonic rocks and some
hypabyssal rocks. These joints appear in a three dimensional network, the
joint sets being mutually perpendicular to each other. The joints break the
rock into separate somewhat cubical blocks. Such block separation
permits easy quarrying of the rock. The joints may be attacked by
weathering agents due to whose actions the separated cubical blocks may
get rounded.

(b) Sheet Joints:

These joints also are seen in granites and other plutonic rocks. In this
case there is one set of prominent joints parallel to the ground surface
whose spacing generally increase with depth and a second set running
at right angles. The joints in this case separate the rock body into
sheet like blocks.

(c) Columnar Joints:

These joints are seen in basalts and some other volcanic igneous
rocks. They consist of vertical and horizontal joints separating the
rock body into a number of vertical polygonal (quite often
hexagonal prismatic columns). When the horizontal lavas cool weak
planes are developed by radial contraction causing these joints.

3. Tension Joints in Sedimentary Rocks:

When many layers of sediments are deposited, during their consolidation

under high pressure ruptures occur breaking them into smaller volumes.
These joints appear at right angles to each other in more or less regular
intervals. These are common in massive and also the bedded sedimentary

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rocks. The most common tension joints of sedimentary rocks are called
master joints.

4. Master Joints:

These joints are mostly seen in sandstones and limestones. These joints
consist of three sets of mutually perpendicular joints. One set of joints is
parallel to the bedding planes. The other two sets are perpendicular to the
bedding planes and occur in staggered pattern. These joints continue for
long distance maintaining regularity in spacing and width and are
therefore named as master joints.

5. Extension and Release Joints:

These joints are seen in folded rock strata. These joints are formed in the
crestal region of the fold and they extend parallel or at right angles to the
axial plane or in both these directions. The joints running parallel are
called release joints (they run along the strike of the folds) and the joints
running at right angles to these are called extension joints.

6. Shear Joints:

These are joints associated with deformed rocks especially folded rocks.
These joints occur as intersecting or crisscrossing sets at a high angle.
These joints are referred to as conjugate joint system. These joints are
produced by the action of shear stresses occurring in folding and faulting
stages. They are narrowly spaced intersection joints.

7. Geometric Types of Joints:

In this case the joints are classified based on their attitude relative to the
dip and strike of the rock strata. In this case the joints are classified into
dip joints, strike joints and oblique joints. Dip joints run in the direction of
the dip of the strata. (Ex: Extension joints).

Strike joints run in the direction of the strike of the strata (Ex: Release
joints). Oblique joints are at some inclination to the dip and strike
directions of the strata. These joints are also called diagonal joints. (Ex:
Conjugate joints).

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

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Each of the three different types of plate boundaries produces different

tectonic stresses and therefore different kinds of structures. Extensional
stress at a divergent boundary (mid-oceanic ridges and continental rift
boundaries) produces normal faults, and sometimes grabens, but little or
no folding of rocks.
Where a transform boundary crosses continental crust, shear stress bends
and fractures rock. Frictional drag between both sides of the fault may
fold, fault, and uplift nearby rocks.
Forces of this type have formed the San Gabriel Mountains along the San
Andreas Fault zone, as well as mountain ranges north of the Himalayas.
In contrast, compressive stress commonly dominates a convergent plate
boundary. The compression produces folds, reverse faults, and thrust
faults. These structures are common features of many mountain ranges
formed at convergent plate boundaries. For example, subduction along
the west coast of North America formed extensive regions of folded and
thrust-faulted rocks in the western mountains. Similar structures are
common in the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America, the
Alps, and the Himalayas, all of which formed as the result of continent–
continent collisions.
Although plate convergence commonly creates compressive stress, in
some instances crustal extension and normal faulting are common. The
Andes of western South America formed, and continue to grow today, by
subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the western edge of the South
American plate. The two plates are converging, yet large grabens west of
the mountains reflect crustal extension.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name one similarity and one difference between a fracture and a
fault.
2. What are the two types of dip-slip faults and how are they different
from each other?
3. Draw and describe horst and graben
4. Define joint and discuss its different types
5. Explain the following terms as it relates to types of fault; i) Growth
fault
ii) Antithetic fault (iii) Synthetic fault (iv) Roll-over anticline (v)
Domino fault (vi) Fan faulting

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