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N U T R I E N T D E L I V E RY
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N U T R I E N T D E L I V E RY
Nanotechnology in
the Agri-Food Industry,
Volume 5
Edited by
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-804304-2
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Functional Foods and Bioactives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Nutraceutical Formulation Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Oral Delivery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Bioavailability Enhancement With Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6 Food Grade Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7 Protein-Based Nanodelivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8 Lipid-Based Nanodelivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
9 Carbohydrate-Based Nanodelivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
10 Polysaccharide Nanoparticles for Nutrient Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
11 Chitosan-Based Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
12 Regulations Surrounding Nanomaterial Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
13 Uptake of Nanoparticles and Potential Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
14 Conclusions and Future Directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2 Design of Nanostructured Biobased Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
v
vi Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2 Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Nanoencapsulated
Nutrients ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90
3 Nanocarrier Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4 Formulation Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 Nanoscale Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2 Surface Active Molecules (Emulsifiers). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3 Nanoparticles for the Encapsulation of Hydrophobic
Compounds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
4 Nanoparticles for the Encapsulation of Hydrophilic
Compounds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
5 Transport in Nano and Microparticles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents vii
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2 Delivery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3 Processing of Delivery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5 Market Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6 Challenges Ahead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7 Concluding Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2 Nanotechnology Delivery Applied in Food: Theoretical
Aspects����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
3 Safety and Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4 Delivery Systems: Characteristics and
Functionalities����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 232
5 Biomolecules of Interest for Delivery in Dairy Foods . . . . . . . . . . 233
6 Conclusions and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
viii Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2 Polysaccharide-Based Nanoscale Delivery Systems
for Nutrients ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 252
3 Protein-Based Nanoscale Delivery Systems for Nutrients . . . . . . 267
4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
2 Nanotechnology in Dairy Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
3 Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
4 Methods and Techniques Used for Incorporating
Nanostructures into Milk and Dairy Products��������������������������������� 309
5 Health Benefits and Potential Risks from the Incorporation
of Nanomaterials into Milk and Dairy Products����������������������������� 315
6 Conclusions and Final Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
2 Nonpolymeric Nanocarriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
3 Polymeric Nanocarriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Contents ix
4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
2 Biocompatible and Biodegradable Nanoparticles. . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3 Application of Nanotechnology for Improvement in
Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Bioactivities
of Phytochemicals����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 431
4 Potential Challenges for Using Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
x Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
2 Staple Foods to Be Fortified. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
3 Properties of Vitamins to Be Fortified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
4 Properties of Minerals to Be Fortified. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
5 Methods of Fortification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6 Development of Fortified Premixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
7 Bioavailability, Advantages, and Toxicity
of Nanoencapsulated Micronutrients��������������������������������������������� 486
8 Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC). . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
9 Conclusions and Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
2 Drug Release and Loading Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
3 Stability of the Nanoparticles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
4 Protein/Peptide-Based Drug Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
5 Polysaccharides-Based Drug Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
6 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
2 Sources and Classification of Phenolic Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . 537
Contents xi
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
2 Nanotechnology and Nutrient Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
3 Food Microstructure for Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
4 Opportunities for Nutrition and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
2 Nutrient Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
3 Digestion and Absorption of Nanoformulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
4 Testing the Efficacy of the Encapsulated Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
5 Targeted Delivery of Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
6 Nanostructures, a Class of Modified-Release Products. . . . . . . . . 642
7 In Vitro–In Vivo Correlation (IVIVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
8 Evaluation of Nanostructures in Food Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
9 Safety Assessment of Nanostructures in Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
10 Conclusions and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
xii Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
2 Delivery of Water Soluble Vitamins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
3 Delivery of Fat Soluble Vitamins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
2 Challenges Associated with Delivery of Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
3 Colloidal Systems for Nutrient Delivery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
2 Digestive Function in Ruminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
3 Sources and Physiology of Selenium and Zinc in Ruminants . . . 717
4 Deficiency of Zinc and Selenium in Humans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
5 Selenium and Zinc in Muscle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
6 Nanotechnology Applied to Animal Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
7 Polymers Used in the Formulation of Nanoparticles. . . . . . . . . . . 728
8 Nanoparticles Characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
9 Designing of Selenium and Zinc Nanoparticles: an Experience. . 735
Contents xiii
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
2 Microorganisms for Lipid Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
3 Composition of Fatty Acids in Microbial Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
4 Fermentation Conditions for SCO Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
5 Bioresources Available for Lipid Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
6 Stoichiometry of Carbon to Lipid Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
7 Mechanism of TAG Production in Oleaginous Yeast. . . . . . . . . . . . 769
8 Modes of Cultivation for Microbial Lipid Production. . . . . . . . . . . 774
9 Economics of Microbial Lipid Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
10 Downstream Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
11 Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
12 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
13 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
Chinnaswamy Anandharamakrishnan
Centre for Food Nanotechnology, Food Engineering Department, CSIR-Central
Food Technological Research Institute; Academy of Scientific and Innovative
Research (AcSIR), CSIR-CFTRI Campus, Mysore, India
Aracely Angulo-Molina
Department of Chemical & Biological Sciences, Universidad de Sonora,
Sonora, México
Andréia Anschau
Federal University of Technology (UTFPR), Department of Bioprocess
Engineering and Biotechnology, Parana, Brazil
Ana Belščak-Cvitanović
University of Zagreb, Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food
Technology and Biotechnology, Pierottijeva, Zagreb, Croatia
Anu Bhushani
Centre for Food Nanotechnology, Food Engineering Department, CSIR-Central
Food Technological Research Institute; Academy of Scientific and Innovative
Research (AcSIR), CSIR-CFTRI Campus, Mysore, India
xv
xvi List of Contributors
Goreti Botelho
Food Science and Technology Department, Research Centre for Natural
Resources, Environment and Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic Institute of
Coimbra, Coimbra College of Agriculture (IPC-ESAC), Bencanta, Coimbra,
Portugal
Branko Bugarski
University of Belgrade, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, Karnegijeva, Belgrade, Serbia
Hugh J. Byrne
FOCAS Research Institute, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Sara Canas
Strategic Unit of Research on Technology and Food Security, Laboratory of
Enology, National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinary Research (INIAV), Dois
Portos, Dois Portos; Institute of Mediterranean Agricultural and Environmental
Sciences (ICAAM), University of Évora, Pólo da Mitra, Évora, Portugal
Nily Dan
Drexel University, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering,
Philadelphia, PA, United States
List of Contributors xvii
Adeleh Divsalar
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences,
Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Verica Đordˉević
University of Belgrade, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, Karnegijeva, Belgrade, Serbia
Ivana Drvenica
University of Belgrade, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, Karnegijeva, Belgrade, Serbia
Jesus Frias
School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of
Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Tarun Garg
ISF College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Moga, Punjab, India
Behafarid Ghalandari
Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Amit K. Goyal
ISF College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Moga, Punjab, India
Udayakumar Harish
Centre for Food Nanotechnology, Food Engineering Department, CSIR-Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India
xviii List of Contributors
Qiaobin Hu
Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT,
United States
Erica Hynes
Institute of Dairy Science and Industry (INLAIN), National University of Litoral/
National Council of Science and Technology (UNL/CONICET), Faculty of
Chemical Engineering (FIQ), Santa Fe, Argentina
Veranja Karunaratne
University of Peradeniya, Department of Chemistry, Peradeniya; Sri Lanka Institute
of Nanotechnology, Mahenwatta, Pitipana, Homagama, Sri Lanka
Minna Khalid
School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of
Technology; FOCAS Research Institute, Dublin Institute of Technology,
Dublin, Ireland
Farhath Khanum
Biochemistry and Nanoscience Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory
(DFRL), Department of Biochemistry and Nanoscience, Siddarthanagar,
Mysore, Karnataka, India
Draženka Komes
University of Zagreb, Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food
Technology and Biotechnology, Pierottijeva, Zagreb, Croatia
Satyanshu Kumar
ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Boriavi, Anand,
Gujarat, India
Premlata Kumari
Applied Chemistry Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of
Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India
List of Contributors xix
Jorge Lameiras
University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro; Research in
Education and Community Intervention (RECI), Unit. Alto do Gaio - Galifonge,
Lordosa (Viseu), Portugal
Marcelo Lazzarotto
Department of Technology of Forestry Products, Embrapa Forestry Estrada da
Ribeira, Colombo PR, Brazil
Yangchao Luo
Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT,
United States
Miguel A. Méndez-Rojas
Department of Chemical & Biological Sciences, Universidad de las Américas
Puebla, Puebla, México
Ilaiyaraja Nallamuthu
Biochemistry and Nanoscience Division, Defence Food Research Laboratory
(DFRL), Department of Biochemistry and Nanoscience, Siddarthanagar,
Mysore, Karnataka, India
Viktor Nedović
University of Belgrade, Department of Food Technology and Biochemistry,
Faculty of Agriculture, Nemanjina, Belgrade-Zemun, Serbia
Goutam Rath
ISF College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Moga,
Punjab, India
Joe M. Regenstein
Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
Jiaoyan Ren
College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of
Technology, Guangzhou, China
Héctor Ruiz-Espinosa
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Benemerita Universidad Autónoma de
Puebla, Puebla, México
Sinead Ryan
University College Dublin (UCD), School of Veterinary Medicine, Dublin,
Ireland
Liliana Santiago
Institute of Food Technology (ITA), National University of Litoral (UNL), Faculty
of Chemical Engineering (FIQ), Santa Fe, Argentina
Esmeralda Santillán-Urquiza
Department of Chemical, Food and Environmental Engineering, Universidad
de las Americas Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
List of Contributors xxi
Kestur G. Satyanarayana
Poornaprajna Institute for Scientific Research (PPISR), Bidalur Post,
Devanahalli, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Zahra Shafaei
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences,
Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Faiz-ul-Hassan Shah
University of Agriculture, National Institute of Food Science & Technology,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Gazal Sharma
Punjab Technical University, Department of Biotechnology, Kapurthala,
Punjab, India
Raghuraj Singh
ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Boriavi, Anand,
Gujarat, India
Giuliana Vozza
School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of
Technology; FOCAS Research Institute, Dublin Institute of Technology,
Dublin, Ireland
xxii List of Contributors
Rong Zhang
College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of
Technology, Guangzhou, China
SERIES FOREWORD
The emergence of nanotechnology has reached impressive
heights in recent years and the development of special nanodevic-
es and nanomaterials has found intriguing applications in agricul-
ture and food sector. Most of the investigated nanotechnological
approaches initially aimed to solve evolving problems in the agri-
food industry in order to impact on the economic potential. Soon
after the implementation of new technologies and approaches that
were using nanostructured materials, the worldwide concern was
rapidly extended to numerous applications that could be devel-
oped by using the science of nanosized materials. Smart materials,
biosensors, packaging materials, nutraceuticals, and nanodevices
have been designed to address numerous agri-food related issues
with direct impact in health, economy, ecology, and industry. As
the engineering of nanostructures has constantly progressed and
extended its applications, there is virtually unlimited potential in
this sector. However, the widely differing opinions on the applica-
bility and usefulness of nanotechnology between both specialists
and the general public has hampered progress. The main concern
manifested by people is related to the potential risk for health and
the environmental impact of the recently developed nanoengi-
neered materials and devices. Therefore, current approaches are
strictly considering these concerns when designing nanotechno-
logical solutions for agriculture and food sectors.
This multivolume series was developed by the constant need
to discover current inquiries and approaches on the field of agri-
food science and also to learn about the most recent progress,
approaches, and applications that have emerged through
nanotechnology.
As agriculture is the backbone of most developing countries,
nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the agriculture
and food sector by promoting productivity through genetic im-
provement of plant and animal foods. It can also ensure the deliv-
ery of drugs, genes, and pesticides to specific sites at cellular levels
in targeted plants and animals, by limiting side effects. Nanotech-
nology can be used to evaluate gene expression under different
stress condition for both plant and animal foods through the de-
velopment of nanoarray-based gene-technologies. Additionally,
this technology can detect fertilizers, pesticides with high preci-
sion by smart nanosenors for an adequate management of the
natural resources. Moreover, numerous industrial-related applica-
tions with direct impact on economy have emerged. For example,
xxiii
xxiv Series Foreword
xxv
xxvi Series Preface
xxvii
xxviii Volume Preface
And so the journey of her life, shadowed more and more by the
dropping away into the mists of death of so many of the well-loved
ones, Ninon’s own years fled on, still finding content in the society of
the many friends, young and old, not gone before. Among these was
Madame de la Sablière, with la Fontaine ever in attendance;
Marsillac, the comrade of Ninon’s youth—now the Duc de la
Rochefoucauld—with his Maxims, which she keenly criticised, as
based on the philosophy of self-love: that self only was the motive
power of human thought and action; Corneille, growing old, and
preferring his latest tragedy of Surène to the immortal Cid, a
preference shared by few; with him came his nephew, Fontenelle,
the brilliant scholar and centenarian to be, short of a few weeks, who
on his deathbed said—“My friends, I do not suffer; only I find
existence a little difficult,” and who followed the viâ media philosophy
so closely, that he was wont to boast he never either laughed or
wept. Then Ninon would tune her lute, and play the airs of the new
musical conductor of the king’s orchestra, Lulli, the miller’s son, a
scullion once, risen to be master of French dramatic music, who met
his death so disastrously from the bungling treatment of a quack
doctor. The priest who attended his last hours refused to give him
the consolations of religion until he had consented to have the score
of his latest opera destroyed. He consented, to the indignation of a
friend who was with him. “Hush, hush!” said Lulli; “there is a fair copy
of it in my drawer.”
Sometimes Racine, a neighbour now of Mademoiselle de
L’Enclos, would declaim passages from his Iphigénie, or Madame de
la Fayette would read from her history of Henrietta of England, just
then on point of completion. She and Madame Montausier were
Ninon’s sincerest and best-beloved friends. One day Madame de la
Fayette asked her the cause of the coolness existing between
herself and Madame de Sévigné. It was a coolness all on one side,
shrugged Ninon. To be sure, she had the young Marquis de Grignan,
Madame’s grandson, at her feet—as in times gone by, the Marquis
père, and the Marquis grandpère had sighed there. She inclined,
however, to his marrying as his mother desired, all the more that,
besides entertaining no overwhelming admiration for the little
marquis, she was jealous of his worshipping also at the shrine of the
great tragic actress, la Champmeslé, who had rendered herself so
famous in the Andromaque of Racine. The poet had introduced de
Sévigné to the tragédienne, to whom Ninon conceded talent, but no
beauty. The affair came to an amiable conclusion, and while a
reconciliation was effected between Ninon and la Champmeslé, she
concluded a peace with Madame de Sévigné, esteeming her
friendship above the folly and trifling of her grandson.
To effect this treaty of peace, she was conducted to the house of
Madame de Sévigné by their mutual friend, Madame de la Fayette.
The physical personal attraction of the queen of epistolary
correspondence has been many times recorded; but the critical
Mademoiselle de L’Enclos does not allow her any great claims to it.
Her nose was long and sharp, with wide nostrils, and her
countenance generally had something of a pedantic stamp. Still,
Ninon’s opinion, while Madame de Sévigné’s portrait of her by
Mignard exists at Les Rochers, needs not to be accepted as final,
and she hastens to speak of her manner, at once so dignified and
courteous. She went so far, in discussing Ninon’s liaison with young
de Sévigné, as to say that her objection was mainly rooted in the
fear that her son’s attachment to her would endure and hinder his
desire for marriage, for which Madame de Sévigné herself was so
anxious. As things went, de Sévigné soon after took to himself a
wife, and Ninon gained a friend, who became a frequent guest at the
réunions of the rue des Tournelles.
Profiting by Madame Scarron’s favour at Court, Ninon sought to
obtain the king’s pardon for her old friend, St Evrémond; this was
accorded. St Evrémond, however, did not return to France. He found
the land of his exile a pleasant Patmos, and the Court of Whitehall,
where he had won troops of friends, more congenial than Versailles,
and he never crossed the Channel again, but lived his span of life,
lengthy as Ninon’s; and his resting-place is among the great in
Westminster Abbey.
“Carolus de Saint Denis, Duc de St Evrémond.
Viro Clarissimo
Inter Præstantiores
Aloi Sui Scriptores
Semper Memorando
Amici Marantes.
P. P.”
“At six o’clock on the morning of her execution,” she writes, “la
Brinvilliers was carried in a cart, stripped to her shift, with a cord about
her neck, to the church of Notre Dame, to perform the amende
honorable. She was then replaced in the cart, where I saw her lying at
her length on a truss of straw, only her shift and a suit of plain head-
clothes, with a confessor on one side and a hangman on the other.
Indeed, my dear, the sight made me shudder. Those who saw the
execution say she mounted the scaffold with great courage.”
Threatened with the question, it was not applied; since she said at
last that she would confess everything, and an appalling confession
it was. Repeatedly she had tried to poison her father, brother and
several others, before she succeeded; and all under the appearance
of the greatest love and confidence. Finally, Madame de Sévigné
writes—
“At length all is over—la Brinvilliers is in the air; after her execution, her
poor little body was thrown into a great fire, and her ashes dispersed by
the wind. And so we have seen the end of a sinner. Her confessor says
she is a saint!!”