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Tribology and
Fundamentals of Abrasive
Machining Processes
Third Edition

Bahman Azarhoushang
Ioan D. Marinescu
W. Brian Rowe
Boris Dimitrov
Hitoshi Ohmori
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To Zeinab and Kiana, for your love and support throughout my work.
Bahman
Contents

List of contributors xiii

About the authors xv
Preface to the first edition xvii
Preface to the second edition xxi
Preface to the third edition xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv

Part One Science of abrasive machining and

tribology (introduction) 1

1 Abrasives 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Corundum 5
1.3 Silicon carbide 13
1.4 Diamond 14
1.5 Cubic boron nitride 20
1.6 Lapping and polishing abrasives 24
1.7 Abrasive sizes and shapes 27
References 29

2 Abrasive tools 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Bonded abrasives 31
2.3 Coated abrasives and abrasive belts 62
2.4 Loose abrasives and abrasive pastes 69
References 71

3 Abrasive machining processes 75

3.1 Introduction 75
3.2 Bonded and coated abrasive processes 76
3.3 Loose abrasive processes 93
References 117
viii Contents

4 Tribosystems of abrasive machining processes 121

4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Tribological principles 121
4.3 Structure of tribomechanical processing 122
4.4 Tribosystems in abrasive machining 124
4.5 Modeling tribosystems of abrasive processes 126
4.6 Conclusions 131
References 132

Part Two Principles of abrasive machining processes 135

5 Kinematics of bonded abrasive machining processes 137

5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Chip thickness or grain penetration depth 137
5.3 Equivalent chip thickness 138
5.4 Cutting edge density 140
5.5 Grain spacing 140
5.6 Variability of active cutting edge density 141
5.7 Mean chip volume 142
5.8 Grain shapes 143
5.9 Geometric contact length 144
5.10 Kinematic contact length 144
5.11 Mean uncut chip cross-sectional area 145
5.12 Irregular grain spacing 146
5.13 Irregular grain protrusion 148
5.14 Contact times and tribological implications 149
References 149

6 Material removal mechanisms of bonded abrasive machining

(forces, friction, and energy) 153
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 Removal mechanism of ductile materials 154
6.3 Removal mechanism of brittle materials 156
6.4 Forces and power 163
6.5 Force ratio and friction coefficient 164
6.6 Specific energy 165
6.7 Size effect 169
6.8 Chip formation, sliding, and ploughing energies 171
6.9 Specific removal rate 174
6.10 Energy partition 174
References 176
Contents ix

7 Contact mechanics 179

7.1 Introduction 179
7.2 Contact area 179
7.3 Contact length 180
7.4 Smooth body analysis 185
7.5 Rough surface analysis 188
7.6 Experimental measurements of the roughness factor 191
7.7 Elastic stresses due to abrasion 196
7.8 Indentation mechanics approach 198
7.9 Summary 199
References 199

8 Grinding wheel macrodesign and microtopography 203

8.1 Introduction 203
8.2 Wheel body and shape 203
8.3 The importance of microtopography 217
8.4 Topographical definitions 218
8.5 Measurement techniques for grinding tool microtopography 222
8.6 Topography changes in grinding 233
References 236

9 Grinding tool conditioning 241

9.1 Introduction 241
9.2 Dressing, cleaning, and structuring 242
9.3 Dressing methods 245
9.4 Mechanical dressing processes 246
9.5 Tribology of mechanical dressing 246
9.6 Diamond types for dressing tools 247
9.7 Dressing with stationary diamond tools 251
9.8 Rotary dressing tools 263
9.9 Diamond form rollers 268
9.10 Diamond profile rollers 282
9.11 Diamond cup dresser 292
9.12 Continuous dressing 293
9.13 Crushing 295
9.14 Touch dressing 298
9.15 Cross-axis dressing 300
9.16 Wear and tool life of diamond dressing tools 301
9.17 Mechanical dressing of resin-, metal-, and hybrid-bonded
grinding wheels 306
9.18 Sharpening 311
9.19 Removal mechanisms in mechanical dressing processes 315
9.20 Nonconventional conditioning processes 319
9.21 Summary 338
References 341
x Contents

10 Principles of grinding processes 351

10.1 Overview of the grinding process 351
10.2 External cylindrical grinding between centers 378
10.3 External cylindrical centerless grinding 406
10.4 Surface grinding 428
10.5 Internal cylindrical grinding 451
References 466

11 Cutting temperature and energy partitioning in grinding 469

11.1 Introduction 469
11.2 Heat generation and dissipation 469
11.3 Measuring and estimating temperatures 472
11.4 Heat partitioning 477
11.5 Workpiece temperatures 486
11.6 Case studies 494
References 503

12 Kinematics and material removal mechanisms of loose

abrasive machining 507
12.1 Introduction 507
12.2 Lapping 507
12.3 Polishing 516
12.4 Mass finishing and tumbling 524
12.5 Chemomechanical polishing 528
References 534

Part Three Tool wear, induced surface integrity of

workpiece material, and machineability of materials 537

13 Mechanisms of tool wear 539

13.1 Introduction 539
13.2 Wear types and mechanisms 539
13.3 Analysis of adhesive and abrasive wear 546
13.4 Abrasive tool loading or clogging 548
13.5 G-ratio 550
13.6 Tool wear and loading measurement 550
References 553

14 Thermal aspects of abrasive machining processes 555

14.1 Introduction 555
14.2 Grinding burn 555
14.3 Surface damage 559
14.4 Thermal softening 562
14.5 Rehardening 563
Contents xi

14.6 Crack formation 565

14.7 Microhardness 565
14.8 Residual stresses 566
14.9 Spheroidal swarf 570
References 572

15 Workpiece surface roughness 575

15.1 Introduction 575
15.2 Surface roughness parameters 576
15.3 Factors affecting surface roughness 579
15.4 Measurement of surface roughness 587
15.5 Application of acoustic emission to predict surface roughness
behavior 589
References 589

16 Machinability of materials 591

16.1 Introduction 591
16.2 Metals 593
16.3 Structural aspects and machinability of nonmetals 600
16.4 Conclusions 608
References 609

Part Four Process fluids and tribochemistry of abrasive

machining 613

17 Process fluids for abrasive machining 615

17.1 Introduction 615
17.2 Types and classes of process fluids 617
17.3 Physical properties of process fluids 629
17.4 Chemical properties of process fluids 632
17.5 Tribological properties of process fluids 634
17.6 Biological properties of process fluids 635
17.7 Degradation of fluid properties during operation 636
17.8 Analysis of physicochemical and biological properties 637
17.9 Tribological and application characteristics 640
17.10 Selection of process fluids 640
17.11 Adjustment and maintenance of fluid properties in operation 645
17.12 Disposal of process fluids 648
17.13 Conclusions and recommendations 649
References 649
xii Contents

18 Fluid delivery 653

18.1 Introduction 653
18.2 The tasks and role of process fluid supply 654
18.3 Cooling and lubrication techniques 654
18.4 Process fluid delivery and supply system 656
18.5 Considerations and challenges of process fluid delivery 658
18.6 Fluid nozzles for high-performance grinding processes 673
References 684

19 Tribochemistry of abrasive machining 689

19.1 Introduction 689
19.2 Tribochemical behavior of abrasive tools 692
19.3 Tribochemical aspects of the workpiece material structure 699
19.4 Tribochemical aspects of dry abrasive machining 701
19.5 Tribochemical aspects of wet abrasive machining 702
19.6 Conclusions 712
References 713

Symbols and abbreviations 721

Index 727
List of contributors

Amir Daneshi Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,

Tuttlingen, Germany
Mohammadali Kadivar Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen
University, Tuttlingen, Germany
Heike Kitzig-Frank Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,
Tuttlingen, Germany
Ali Zahedi Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,
Tuttlingen, Germany
About the authors

Bahman Azarhoushang
Professor at the Furtwangen University (Germany),
Head of the Institute of Precision Machining
(KSF), assoz. Full Prof. Albert-Ludwigs-Universit€at
Freiburg, Head of the Industrial Working Group
“Grinding Technology”, Deputy Spokesman for
BW-CAR, Dean of Master Program “Precision
Manufacturing and Management (PMM)” at
Furtwangen University, Expert and Consultant in
Precision Manufacturing Domains, Member of the
Association of German Engineers (VDI).

Dr Ioan D. Marinescu
Professor and Director of Precision Micro-
Machining Center (PMMC) at the University of
Toledo, Ohio, USA. President and CEO of
Advanced Manufacturing Solutions, LLC Doctor
Honoris Causa, University of Iashi, Romania, Hon-
orary Professor, De La Salle University, Manila,
Philippines
Member of American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME), Society of Manufacturing Engineers
(SME), American Society for Precision Engineering
(ASPE), American Society for Abrasive Technol-
ogy (ASAT)
xvi About the authors

Dr W. Brian Rowe
Consulting Engineer and Emeritus Professor of Me-
chanical Engineering at Liverpool JMUniversity.
Former Director of Advanced Manufacturing Tech-
nology and Tribology Research Laboratory (AMT-
TREL). Doctor of Science, Manchester University.
Research and development of new grinding ma-
chines in industry.
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
(F.I.Mech.E.) Fellow of the International Academy
for Production Engineering (CIRP)

Dr Boris Dimitrov
Consulting Engineer in Mechanics & Chemistry
Domains. Former Chief Scientist of the Romanian
Research Institute of Applied Mechanics and
formerly of the Romanian Institute for Precision
Mechanics in Bucharest.
Developed new bonds and diamond tools under
Winter License for a quarter of a century. Formerly
developed new lubricants for abrasive
manufacturing processes.
Romanian Society for Applied Tribology.

Dr Hitoshi Ohmori
Chief Scientist, Materials Fabrication Laboratory,
RIKEN
Japan Society of Precision Engineering (JSPE)
Japan Society of Abrasive Technology (JSAT)
Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering (JSME)
The International Academy for Production Engi-
neering (CIRP)
Preface to the first edition

In 1966, a report published by the UK Department of Education and Science intro-

duced the concept of tribology, which was defined as the science of interacting sur-
faces in relative motion. Tribology, as a “new science,” studies friction, wear, and
lubrication. These three processes affect each other with interacting causes and effects:
tribology is the study of them as they interact.
Abrasive machining processes are part of the large field of “manufacturing pro-
cesses” and include: grinding, superfinishing, honing, lapping, polishing, etc. The
common characteristic of these processes is the fact that the main stock removal mech-
anism is the abrasive process. But, different from classic tribology, in this case
“abrasive wear” is a useful process, helping remove unwanted material from work-
pieces. At the same time, “abrasive wear” is a negative term when applied to abrasive
tools which, during all abrasive machining processes, exhibit predominant abrasive
wear.
Most abrasive machining processes have been studied very little and most of the
studies were deterministic, based on experiments and experience and less on science.
It is often said that abrasive machining processes are more an art rather than a science.
This book is an attempt to introduce science into the study of abrasive machining
processes. The authors considered that the “marriage” between tribology and abrasive
machining processes is a good match because tribology provides the right tool to study
these processes. The main characteristic of abrasive machining processes is that these
processes are more random than many manufacturing processes. Tribology offers a
good approach for describing abrasive machining processes and offers the ability to
predict some of the outputs of the processes.
This book aims to bring attention back to tribology. Tribology was fashionable in
the sixties, but today academia and the research community in the U.S., Japan, and to
some extent in Europe consider the field of less importance. I asked Dr. Ernest
Rabinovicz, one of my mentors in the field of tribology, why this happened. He
answered that the concept of tribology was oversold in the mid 1970s and very
soon other topics became more fashionable: robotics, manufacturing systems, etc.
This book considers knowledge in the field of tribology as a tool for the study of
abrasive machining processes. This will help to explain scientifically each process
as well as to quantify the relationships between the main parameters involved in
abrasive machining processes.
In this book, we consider the important elements of the abrasive machining system
and the tribological factors which control the efficiency and quality of the processes.
xviii Preface to the first edition

Since grinding is by far the most commonly employed abrasive machining process,
it will be given detailed consideration. By understanding tribological principles, it
is possible to propose process improvements and solutions to many commonly
experienced industrial problems such as poor accuracy, poor surface quality, rapid
wheel wear, vibrations, workpiece burn, and high process costs.
The chapter on kinematics examines factors affecting the size, shape and variability
of the material in the process of being removed. These factors influence the wear of the
abrasive tool, the surface roughness of the machined parts, the process forces and
energy, and the surface integrity of the workpiece. Whereas traditional texts assume
a uniform distribution of abrasive grains, this analysis addresses the effects of variable
grain distributions.
Traditionally, it is assumed that the machining energy is distributed over an area
represented by the geometry of the undeformed contact between the abrasive tool
and the workpiece. The chapter on contact mechanics reveals that this assumption is
quite misleading for many cases of precision machining and provides a more practical
analysis. Realistically, the power density in the contact zone may be less than half the
value given by traditional calculations.
The study of friction, forces, and energy explores the importance of the various
factors which govern the stresses and deformations of abrasion. The effects of grain
shape, depth of penetration, and lubrication on the process forces are explored.
With knowledge of contact mechanics and process energy, the principles of heat
transfer can be applied to explore the effect of process variables on surface tempera-
tures and surface quality. It is also shown how thermal processes define permissible
domains of operation ranging from creep grinding with deep cuts at low work-
speeds to conventional grinding with shallow cuts at higher work-speeds to
high-efficiency deep grinding with deep cuts at extremely high removal rates.
Process fluids play important roles in cooling and lubrication. New information is
provided on the requirements for effective fluid delivery.
Further chapters deal with important aspects such as assessment of the workpiece
surface, the grinding wheel topography, the nature of abrasive tools, dressing
processes, free abrasive processes, lubricants and process fluids, tribochemical pro-
cesses, and the characteristics of workpiece materials. The final chapter examines
some fundamental information about deformation processes revealed through molec-
ular dynamics simulation.
The reader should not have to read every chapter consecutively to understand the
development of the subject. The material is presented in a logical order so that a reader
can refer back to earlier passages to fully understand some aspects.
The reader can use this text as a reference work to directly access a topic of interest.
It is designed to make the material accessible to technicians, undergraduates, and grad-
uates. The book could well form the basis for a series of lectures for a specialized
course at any of these levels.
The idea for this book came to me in the early 1980s when, in a CIRP paper, I
published a table which contained the analogy between technological parameters
and tribological parameters for the grinding process. I have had the privilege to spend
many years in Europe, many years in the US and a lot of time in Japan during the last
Preface to the first edition xix

five years. I was able to observe the evolution of tribology in these parts of the world
and to get in touch with the professors and researchers in this field. I was very encour-
aged to continue to look at abrasive machining processes by my colleagues from Japan
(Drs. Koji Kato and Takeo Nakagawa,), from Europe (Drs. W. Koenig, Hans Kurt
Toenshoff, Tom Childs, and Trevor Howes), as well as from my colleagues from
the US (Drs. Nam Suh, Ken Ludema, Said Jahanamir, Steven Malkin, and Steven
Danyluk). I would like to thank all of them for their encouragement and for their help.
I would like to express special thanks to Dr. R. Rentsch for help with Chapter 7
regarding molecular dynamics simulation of abrasive processes, and my former
student, Dr. C. Spanu, for his help with Chapters 9 and 12.
The authors of this book cover some regions of the world where tribology was
initiated and developed in the last forty years: Western and Eastern Europe, the US,
and Japan. I would like to thank my co-authors for taking time from their busy sched-
ules to write these chapters and to review each others’ chapters. This means that the
book is unitary with integrated chapters, not just a collection of disparate chapters.
My special thanks to my wife Jocelyn for encouraging me, checking my English,
and putting up with my long working days punctuated by more working days on
the weekends. She minimizes the friction and wear in my life.
Ioan D. Marinescu
Toledo, Ohio
Preface to the second edition

Eight quick years have passed and now we present the second edition of Tribology of
Abrasive Machining Processes. During the intervening years many changes have
occurred, including the fact that our initial publisher was purchased by Elsevier, the
company who has decided to publish this second edition.
For some areas of research, eight years is a long period of time and to have a second
edition of a book is a challenging task in comparison with writing a completely new
book. This is especially true in disciplines which are now related to the nano field.
I would like to stress that the nano field is not as new as many people think. The first
scientist who used the word “nanotechnology,” Japanese professor Norio Taniguchi
of Tokyo University, was doing this type of research beginning in 1940; however,
he used the term “ultra precision machining” and not “nano-machining”. As people
say in my native Romania, this is a case of “the same lady with a different hat”.
The authors tried to update this book without writing a completely new one. We
have largely kept the fundamentals of the processes where only few changes have
occurred. The grouping of chapters is slightly changed for clarity. Chapters on physical
mechanisms of grinding are presented first, followed by chapters on the application of
abrasive tools integrated with fundamental principles for their design and operation.
Finally chapters are presented that focus on the tribology of process fluids, tribo-
chemistry and materials. We introduced a new chapter on desk top machine-tools of
particular relevance for ultra-precision grinding of small parts and up-to-date informa-
tion on molecular dynamics simulation. A revised version of the thermal model of
grinding is presented that corresponds better with convective cooling theory. Fluid
delivery is also updated and a new laminar flow model of convective cooling is
introduced.
Regarding the authors, we faced the fact that our collaborator and long-time friend,
Ichiro Inasaki, retired from Keio University and accepted a position as Provost of Chuo
University. Under these circumstances, he was not able to contribute to the book and at
his suggestion we replaced him with Dr. Hitoshi Ohmori. Thus, we replaced a
Japanese star with a rising star of the present generation.
What is very important to mention is the fact that Professor Brian Rowe took over
coordination of the book and, in addition to his original research contributions, spent
long hours going through every chapter with scrupulous attention to English clarity,
notations, symbols, and uniformity. All the authors are very thankful to Brian for
his help and the time he spent with the manuscript of this book. Brian is good example
for all of us with his love and devotion to science and research from which he will
xxii Preface to the second edition

never retire. I can say that too about my mentor and friend of more than 30 years, Dr.
Boris Dimitrov. He made his contributions from a new Romania in post-revolutionary
conditions.
As the initiator of the first edition, I am happy about the book’s reception in
academia and industry. Finally, I again thank the entire team that made the second
edition possible.
All the authors would like to express thanks to their families who supported the
writers during the long hours required on this new manuscript. Understanding us for
our dedication to this project was very important not only for the project, but for
our lives.
Ioan D. Marinescu
White Lake, Michigan
Preface to the third edition

Abrasive machining processes, including grinding, honing, superfinishing, lapping,

and polishing, are among the most important material removal processes and are essen-
tial in producing high-precision, complex components. In both academia and industry,
the importance of these processes has continuously increased primarily as a result of
constantly increasing demands on surface quality and dimensional accuracy as well
as further developments in the materials sector and additive manufacturing that create
new challenges in machining.
This handbook, Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes,
thoroughly covers the main abrasive machining processes and reviews the primary ap-
plications and recent developments of these processes. The third edition is a complete
update of the previous editions. It addresses the fundamentals of abrasive machining
processes and the scientific principles of processes that lie within the tribology domain.
The whole book is rewritten and restructured, the latest knowledge about abrasive
machining processes is brought together, and ten new chapters are added. In contrast,
some chapters from the previous editions with less relevance to recent developments
have been removed. Different parts of the handbook and individual chapters are linked
and built upon each other. Theoretical explanations are simplified to address both
academia and industry.
The book’s first part covers the science of abrasive machining and tribology and
explains the characteristics and applications of abrasives, abrasive tools, and abrasive
machining processes. The second part addresses the principles of abrasive machining
processes, including kinematics and material removal mechanisms of bonded and
loose abrasive machining processes, contact mechanics, grinding wheel macrodesign
and microtopography, and conditioning of grinding tools, and principles of grinding
processes. The third part deals with the machinability of materials and process output
parameters, such as tool wear and the induced surface integrity of workpiece material.
Finally, the book’s fourth part explains process fluids, their delivery into the contact
zone, and abrasive machining tribochemistry.
I hope this handbook offers new insights, understanding, and solutions regarding
the complex topics of abrasive machining processes for academics and industrial ex-
perts. This book can also be used as a complementary textbook for undergraduate and
graduate students.
Bahman Azarhoushang
Black Forest, Germany
July 2021
Acknowledgments

Writing this book was more complicated than I thought it would be and at the same
time more rewarding than I had ever imagined. None of this would have been possible
without the support provided by researchers at KSF Institute with whom I had the
privilege to work and whose valuable contributions made this edition possible. These
colleagues are A. Zahedi, A. Daneshi, M. Kadivar, J. Khosravi, and E. Ghadiri. I
would especially like to mention Heike Kitzig-Frank, who helped me succeed in
this project through her invaluable input.
I also wish to record my sincere gratitude to the authors of the first and second
editions of this volume: Prof. Ioan D. Marinescu, Prof. W. Brian Rowe, Prof. Ichiro
Inasaki, Dr. Boris Dimitrov, and Dr. Hitoshi Ohmori.
Part One

Science of abrasive machining

and tribology (introduction)
This page intentionally left blank
Abrasives
Bahman Azarhoushang
1
1.1 Introduction
The performance of abrasive machining processes is influenced mainly by abrasives
because those abrasives remove workpiece materials. The requirements for abrasive
materials are very diverse. Abrasives should be significantly harder than workpieces
so they can cut or remove workpiece material without an excessive wear rate. High
thermal and chemical resistance and proper toughness are other important require-
ments for abrasive grains. Abrasives should retain their hardness at the cutting temper-
ature. These temperatures of short contact duration between abrasives and the
workpiece can be very high. The rapid temperature gradient may also lead to abrasive
wear or fracture when the abrasive material has a limited thermal resistance. Addition-
ally, it is important to ensure that no grain weakening or wear occurs during abrasive
machining through chemical reactions between abrasive material and cooling lubri-
cant, air, and workpiece material, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. The
cutting ability of abrasives depends, among other things, on specific features, such
as grain structure and cleavage. The ability to cut grains to regenerate new sharp cut-
ting edges and points depends on their structure and cleavage. Appropriate toughness
and fracture behavior of the abrasive material guarantee a low grain wear rate and self-
sharpening of abrasive tools. Friable abrasive grains, i.e., abrasive grains with rather
low fracture toughness, are easily fractured by impact and consequently expose fresh
cutting crystals. Semifriable or blocky abrasive grains, i.e., abrasive grains with rela-
tively high fracture toughness, do not fracture as easily as friable grains. This results in
longer grain life during abrasive machining but negatively impacts free cutting. In
addition, there are application-dependent requirements regarding grain shape and
geometry.
There is a basic distinction between natural and synthetic abrasives. Natural abra-
sives include those that are rather softde.g., quartz (SiO2), emery, and garnetdand
hard abrasives, i.e., natural corundum or diamond [Kloc05]. The quality of natural
abrasives is often not reproducible owing to their natural origin. In addition, apart
from natural diamond, natural abrasives have low hardness and stiffness. Hence,
they are rarely used in industrial applications. Natural diamonds, however, are still
used in dressing tools and frequently in tools for grinding and cutting glass, plastics,
or natural stones. Synthetic abrasive materials, used mainly in bonded abrasive pro-
cesses such as grinding, honing, and superfinishing, are divided into conventional
abrasives and superabrasives. Conventional abrasives include macro- and microcrys-
talline corundums (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC), whereas cubic boron nitride
(CBN) and diamond are superabrasives.

Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823777-9.00009-4

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

Superabrasives are much harder and hence more wear-resistant than conventional
abrasives. Diamond is the hardest known abrasive material. CBN is the second-
hardest abrasive after diamond. CBN is also known by its trade name, Borazon,
from General Electric, who discovered it, Amborite and amber boron nitride after
De Beers, or in the Russian research literature as Elbor, Cubonite, or b-BN. Boron
carbide (B4C) is another synthetic abrasive material used in loose abrasive processes
(Chapter 3), such as lapping and polishing. However, B4C is very expensive compared
with silicon carbide and is therefore rarely used. Table 1.1 shows the main grain
materials used in various abrasive machining processes. These processes are explained
in Chapter 3.
Hardness is usually defined as the resistance to penetration by another material. For
abrasives, the broadly used hardness scales are Knoop and Mohs. Fig. 1.1 provides an
overview of the hardness and fracture toughness of the most important synthetic abra-
sive materials. Fig. 1.2 shows the most important requirements of abrasive materials
and compares synthetic abrasive materials used in bonded abrasive processes.
The choice of abrasive for a particular application is based on various criteria
related to workpiece material, geometry and removal conditions. Abrasives must be
tough enough to withstand thermal and mechanical shocks induced by the abrasive
machining process. On the other hand, the friability of abrasives is essential for
ensuring fracture and self-sharpening (producing new cutting edges). Moderate to
high fracture toughness is required for abrasives that should be used in high material
removal applications or interrupted cutting (due to the geometry of the workpiece or
process kinematic). Abrasives with a high thermal conductivity enable efficient heat
dissipation from the contact zone, reducing the risk of thermal damage to the work-
piece. The chemical resistance or inertness of the abrasives guarantees that no chemical
reaction occurs between the abrasives and workpiece material or coolant lubricant
during the abrasive machining process. The thermal resistance of abrasives defines
the maximum allowable cutting temperature.
Durability tests involving impact strength, fatigue compression strength, dynamic
friability, and resistance to spalling, which occur under the influence of single or cyclic
thermal stress, are used to classify abrasives according to their material properties.
The following sections introduce the primary abrasive materials and their
properties.

Table 1.1 Main grain materials used in various abrasive machining processes.

Bonded abrasive processes Superabrasivesddiamond and cubic boron nitride

(grinding, honing, (CBN)dand the conventional abrasives
superfinishing) corundum (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC)
Lapping Superabrasives (diamond and CBN), Al2O3, SiC,
boron carbide (B4C), chrome oxide (Cr2O3),
garnet, and emery
Polishing Diamond, Al2O3, SiC, iron oxide, Vienna lime,
chalk, and talc
Abrasive blasting Al2O3, SiC, B4C, quartz (SiO2), and garnet
Abrasives 5

Figure 1.1 Hardness and fracture toughness of the most important synthetic grain materials
[Azar21].

Figure 1.2 The most important requirements of abrasive materials and comparisons of synthetic
abrasive materials used in bonded abrasive processes [Azar21].

1.2 Corundum
Alumina ore, also called corundum (Al2O3), was mined as early as 2000 BCE on the
Greek island of Naxos. Its crystal structure is based on the rhombohedral crystalline
a-Al2O3 and various admixtures. Precious grades of Al2O3 are used as gemstones,
including sapphire, ruby, topaz, amethyst, and emerald.
Raw bauxite is the base material for all fused aluminum oxides. Alumina abrasives
are produced by either electrofusion or chemical precipitation and sintering. Sintered
corundum materials include sintered bauxite and sol-gel corundum.
Corundum is available in an extensive range of grades because it allows the substi-
tution of other oxides in solid solution, and defect content can be controlled. Addition-
ally, mono- or single-crystalline corundum and zirconium corundum, as special
corundum types, are developed to address various applications. Table 1.2 shows
various corundum types with the structures and chemical compositions of abrasive
materials widely used in industry.
6 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

Table 1.2 Common corundums used in industry as abrasive materials.

Relative
Chemical Hardness toughness
composition Color Knoop HK (%)

Zirconium corundum w60%e75% Gray/Brown 1450e1700 50

Al2O3
w25%e40%
ZrO2
Semifriable corundum w98% Al2O3 Gray 1950e2000 20
w1.5% TiO2
Brown corundum w96% Al2O3 Brown 1950 21
(BC) w3% TiO2
Hollow sphere >98% Al2O3 up White w1950 (>WFC)
corundum to 1% SiO2
White fused 99.8% Al2O3 White 2000e2160 15
corundum (WFC) 0.2 Na2O
Pink fused corundum 99.5% Al2O3 Pink 2160 18
w0.3 Cr2O3
0.2 Na2O
Ruby fused corundum w98% Al2O3 Ruby/Red 2150 19
(RFC) w2% Cr2O3
Mono- or single- w99% Al2O3 Light gray 2300 >RFC
crystalline <BC
corundum (MCC)
Sintered bauxite Al2O3 Brown 1300e1400 Extremely
corundum Nk/Nk þ ZrO2 tough
(>50)
Sol-gel corundum 95%e99% Al2O3 Various 2300e2400 wMCC
(sintered 0%e5% MgO/
corundum) Fe2O3 various
additives

Fig. 1.3 represents the hardness and relative friability of different corundum types.
Corundums and fused or sintered/sol-gel corundums possess lower hardnesses than
other primary abrasive materials such as SiC, CBN, and diamond. The poor thermal
conductivity of corundum (33.5 W/m K) adversely affects grinding performance.
Single crystals of polycrystalline corundum vary in size depending on the
manufacturing processes and parameters used, such as the cooling rate of molten
corundum. Fused corundum has an average crystal size of 100e250 mm. The crystal
size is much smaller for zirconium corundum than fused corundums and is approxi-
mately 10e12 mm [Wash12]. The finest-sized polycrystalline corundum crystal is
that of the sol-gel or sintered corundum and is below 1 mm. Hence, the wear rate
can be kept much lower for sol-gel corundum than for fused corundum mainly because
of its microfracture and distinctive self-sharpening behavior. Polycrystalline corundum
toughness and hardness increase with reductions in crystal grain size [Krel95, Kloc03].
Abrasives 7

Figure 1.3 Hardness and relative friability of various corundum types [Azar21].

1.2.1 Manufacture of corundum

Corundum abrasives are derived by either electrofusion or sol-gel chemical precipita-
tion and sintering (Fig. 1.4).

1.2.1.1 Electrofusion
In electrofusion, the raw material bauxite, containing 85%e90% aluminum oxide
(Al2O3), 2%e5% titanium dioxide (TiO2), and as much as 10% iron oxide (Fe2O3),
silica, and basic oxides, is fused in an electric-arc furnace at 2600 C. The bed of

Figure 1.4 Various corundum abrasives [Azar21].

8 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

crushed and calcined bauxite, mixed with coke and iron to remove impurities, is
poured into the bottom of the furnace, where a carbon starter rod is laid down. A
couple of large vertical carbon rods are then brought down to touch, and a heavy elec-
trical discharge is applied. The starter rod is rapidly consumed, and the heat melts the
bauxite, which becomes an electrolyte. Bauxite is added over several hours to increase
the melt volume. The current is controlled by adjusting the height of the electrodes,
which are eventually consumed in the process.
After cooling, the corundum (aluminum oxide) is broken up and passed through a
series of hammer, beater, crush, roller, or ball mills to reduce it to the required grain
size and shape, which produces either blocky or thin splintered grains. After milling,
the product is sieved to the appropriate sizes down to about 40 mm (#400). The result
is brown corundum containing typically 3% TiO2. Increased TiO2 content increases
toughness while reducing hardness. Brown corundum has a Knoop hardness of almost
1950 and a medium friability.
Electrofused corundum, which is more than 99% pure, is also made by the Bayer
process using low-sodium oxide. Karl Bayer invented a unique bauxite purification
process in 1887 in Russia. In the first step of the Bayer process, a pressure vessel
with sodium hydroxide solution heats the bauxite to as high as 150e200 C. After-
ward, iron-based residues, known as red mud, are filtered, and pure gibbsite is precip-
itated by cooling the liquid and seeding with fine-grained aluminum hydroxide
[Jack11]. Subsequently, aluminum oxide is produced by calcining gibbsite. Almost
all of the natural impurities of raw bauxite, apart from 0.1% to 0.4% sodium oxide
(Na2O), are removed by the Bayer process. The resulting white fused corundum grain
is one of the hardest and most friable members of the alumina family, and it provides a
cool cutting action (low cutting temperature during abrasive machining through self-
sharpening). White corundum is one of the most popular grades for micron-sized abra-
sives. To produce micron grain sizes, corundum is ball-milled or vibro-milled after
crushing and then traditionally separated into different sizes using an elutriation pro-
cess. This process chain consists of two primary sequences, including (1) passing abra-
sive slurry and (2) water through a series of vertical columns. The width of the columns
is adjusted to produce a progressively slower vertical flow velocity from column to col-
umn. Heavier abrasive settles out in the faster-flowing columns, while lighter particles
are carried over to the next. The process is effective down to about 5 mm and is also
used for micron sizing of SiC. Air classification has also been employed.
Mono- or single-crystalline corundum is obtained by sulfidation of bauxite, which
outputs different sizes of isometric corundum grains without the need for crushing. The
crystals are hard, are sharp, and have better cleavage than other aluminum oxides,
which qualifies them for grinding hardened steels and other tough and ductile mate-
rials. Single-crystalline corundum is the hardest abrasive of the fused corundum
family.
Diverse types of electrofused corundums with different material properties such as
hardness and friability can be produced through variations in the manufacturing pro-
cess in starting compositions and processing routes:
• Brown or gray (semifriable) corundum. These corundums contain 96%e98% Al2O3 and
have rather high toughness.
Abrasives 9

• Chrome addition. These forms are Pink fused corundum with 0.2%e0.3% chromium oxide
(Cr2O3) and ruby (red) fused corundum with 2% Cr2O3. The chromium oxide is built into
the Al2O3 crystal structure [Link16]. Pink fused corundum is slightly harder than white fused
corundum, and the addition of a small amount of TiO2 increases its toughness. The resultant
product is a medium-sized grain available in elongated or blocky but sharp shapes. Ruby
fused corundum has a higher chrome oxide content of 2% and is slightly tougher and harder
than pink alumina. The grains are blocky, sharp-edged, and cool cutting. Vanadium oxide
has also been used as an additive giving a distinctive green hue.
• Zirconia addition. Zirconium corundum is obtained during the production process by add-
ing 10%e40% zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) to aluminum oxide. At least three different
corundumezirconia compositions are used in grinding wheels: 75% Al2O3 and 25%
ZrO2, 60% Al2O3 and 40% ZrO2, and finally, 65% Al2O3, 30% ZrO2, and 5% TiO2. Their
manufacture usually includes rapid solidification to produce a finely grained and tough struc-
ture. The resulting abrasives are finely grained, tough, highly ductile, and long-lived in me-
dium to heavy stock removal applications and grinding with high pressures, such as billet
grinding in foundries.
• TiO2 (titania) addition. The addition of TiO2 improves corundum ductility. It is recommen-
ded when large and variable mechanical loads are involved. Brown fused corundum contains
2%e4% titania. Semifriable fused corundum includes 1%e2% TiO2 and is slightly tougher
than white fused corundum but more friable than brown fused corundum.
• Mono- or single-crystalline corundum. The grain growth is carefully controlled in a sulfide
matrix and is separated by acid leaching without crushing. The grain shape is nodular, which
aids bond retention, avoiding the need for crushing and reducing mechanical defects from
processing. The defectless crystal structure induces higher toughness than conventionally
molten corundum [Enge02].
• Postfusion processing methods. This type of particle reduction method can greatly affect
grain shape. Impact crushers such as hammer mills create a blocky shape, whereas roll
crushers cause splintering. Using electrostatic forces to separate sharp shapes from blocky
grains, it is possible to provide grades of the same composition but with very different cutting
actions.
• Hollow spherical corundum has been known for more than 80 years and has been commer-
cially manufactured for more than 30 years [Hors25, Uelt63]. Compact corundum spheres
are produced by blowing a pouring stream of liquid corundum under reducing conditions,
using compressed air or steam. The polycrystalline hollow spherical corundum abrasives
can also be manufactured by using ultrasonic assistance for dispersion of the liquid-fused
aluminum oxide into fine drops and for cooling [Alar06]. Hollow spherical corundum
(Fig. 1.5) is mainly used to produce closed pores (conveniently controlled shape and size)
in abrasive tools and for applications where the cutting temperature should be kept as low
as possible.

Figure 1.5 Hollow spherical corundum. (A) Geometry and microstructure [Wang17], (B)
Fractured morphology with a particle size of 250 mm [Wang17], (C) Using hollow spherical
corundum as closed porosity for a corundum grinding tool.
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 This clay ware is brought from Nebel, where, since very ancient
times, there has been a manufactory that produces pottery the same
to-day as it was a thousand years ago.
The gateway is deep, and has, as have most gates in this country,
recesses with seats on both sides, always filled by idlers and
beggars. Indeed, it is quite an Eldorado for the blind, halt, and
maimed, as well as for many who have nothing the matter with them.
The whole day they sit there and stretch out their hands for alms.
I placed myself near the corner stone of the gate, where the
shade was cool and pleasant; through the dark archway I could see
the sun blazing on the shore, and the road looking like a bright
streak of light, and, beyond it, the harbour and the beautiful blue sea.
 TWO KHRUMIR WOMEN.

In the space of half an hour, at least a hundred little donkeys

passed me, laden with vessels of water or bundles of straw, with
often a man or boy perched behind the load. A solitary rider also
passed, his small but wiry horse going at an amble. Along the
seashore came, picking their way, a herd of goats, most of them
wearing small bells that rang incessantly. The herd settled in the
corner outside the gates between the towers and the town wall. Then
came unveiled Bedouin women, dark-skinned almost as negresses,
but with very fine features. Then other veiled Arab women with black
masks that covered their faces. A number of boys followed these, all
good-looking and black-eyed. One held out his hand; they are
accustomed to European good-nature, and a copper is a foretaste of
Paradise to an Arab boy.
Lastly passed a strange couple. On an ordinary Arab saddle a
veiled woman rode astride, and behind her, on her horse, a little boy;
he held the reins in one hand, and a parasol in the other.
Towards evening it grew cooler. Amongst the shipping lay the Ville
d’Oran, which next morning was to take me south. It was lit up with
numbers of lanterns, and the town was illuminated and hung
everywhere with flags, in honour of the Russian fleet, which that day
was to enter Toulon. Festival was kept, not only all over France, but
also in her colonies. Illustrated editions of French newspapers, with
coloured pictures of Russian and French admirals and of the ships of
both countries, were displayed on the walls of all cafés, tobacco
shops, taverns and drinking booths in Susa.
The light on the Kasba had been lit. The moon rose over the town,
and lanterns gleamed along the seashore and the promenade. The
irregular line of the wall and the Kasba tower showed dark against
the heavens. Mingling with the ripple of the water against the quay, I
heard the Marseillaise played, followed by cheers, and on the
terraces and balconies appeared dark figures, enjoying the cool air
and the music.
 CHAPTER III

From Sfax to Gabés

At 9 a.m. on the morning of the 14th October, the Ville d’Oran

weighed anchor and left the roadstead of Susa in brilliant weather for
Monastir.
Monastir, or Mistir, has a population of nine thousand inhabitants,
of whom one thousand are Europeans. It was originally a
Carthaginian town; later, the “Ruspina” of the Romans. It is now
surrounded by battlemented walls interspersed with towers and
pierced by five gates. Ornamented with coloured tiles, the minarets
of several mosques rise here and there above the houses.
I crossed the town from the south to the opposite side. Here I
found an immense cemetery; grave upon grave grouped about
kubbas. In the very midst of the cemetery is a cistern, which must
supply remarkably good water!
Following along the walls of the town I soon reached the beach,
where before me lay three small islands—Jezirel el Hammam
(Pigeon Island), Jezirel Sid Abd el Fairt el R’dani (so called after a
Marabout whose kubba crowns its summit), and the third island
named Jezirel el Austan (Central Island).
Still following the walls, I passed Moorish women and children
washing clothes on the shore. A number of boats were lying in the
shallow water under the lea of the islands.
At ten o’clock I was again on board, and at eleven we started,
steering for Mehdia, some thirty-six miles farther south.
On the way we passed Cape Diauros, the site of ancient Thapsus.
It was a Carthaginian colony where fought Cæsar Scipio and Cato.
Numerous ruins recall the old times.
 In Mehdia harbour we anchored about three o’clock. Mehdia was
once a very important town; now it has only some ten thousand
inhabitants. The Sicilians besieged it in 1147; the Arabs in 1160; the
Duke of Bourbon in 1390; and Charles V. in 1557. The knights of
Malta took part in this last assault, and the grave of one of these
knights is still shown.
Some Europeans carry on a trade here in oil, dried fruits,
sponges, coral, and sardines. In the months of May and June there
are often a couple of hundred boats lying off the shore fishing for
sardines, and generally making good hauls. In one night a single
boat may take even as much as from four to six hundredweight of
fish.
Large vessels do not follow the coast from Mehdia to Sfax, but
make a long circuit round the island of Kirkennah, the water along
the coast being shallow. Along this stretch of sea have been placed
light-buoys to mark the course. These buoys are filled with
compressed oil, and burn incessantly day and night. They are
constructed to burn three months, but are inspected monthly.
Early in the morning of the 15th October we cast anchor about
two miles outside Sfax, of which the white walls glistened in the
morning sun. A steam tug took us ashore. The ebb and flow of the
tide here is very strong, with a possible rise and fall of as much as
eight feet, which accounts for the flatness of the beach.
The only ship in the roadstead was the Fæderlandet from Bergen,
lying-to and discharging timber.
Sfax was taken on the 16th July 1881 by a force under Admiral
Garnault, after a serious bombardment which laid waste a great part
of the ramparts and the town.
The walls enclosing the European quarter, which faces the sea,
have been pulled down lately, and here the French have established
themselves. To the rear lies the Arab town, still surrounded by its
walls and towers.
On landing I met the Vice-Consul for Sweden and Norway, Olaf
Henriksen, a young man who in the course of a few years has made
for himself a good position as partner in the large, and perhaps sole,
firm of timber traders in the place. His office and warehouses are on
the quay. Olsen, his co-partner, is likewise a Northerner. Henriksen is
agent for the United Shipping Co., but it is seldom that Danish
vessels touch here.

AT SFAX.
(From a painting by Mrs. Henriksen.)

After a stroll through the town, Mr. Henriksen led me to his home
and introduced me to his wife, a Norwegian lady from Christiania. I
spent a comfortable and most enjoyable day in their house, which is
outside the town and commands a view of the harbour.
 Mrs. Henriksen is a very fair artist. On the walls hung sketches of
her northern home and of Sfax, painted by herself and showing
considerable talent. The tombs of Marabouts, the cemeteries outside
the walls, and the Arab tents in the vicinity were the subjects that
pleased me most. She most amiably promised to be my collaborator,
by allowing me to make use of a couple of her sketches for my book.
Sfax is a large town, with about fifty thousand inhabitants, of
whom the eighth part are Europeans. A considerable trade is carried
on in sponges, oil, and esparto grass, this last being worked by a
Franco-Anglo-Tunisian Company; in addition to these, there is a
trade in fruit and vegetables, more especially cucumbers, called in
Arabic “Sfakus,” from which, no doubt, arises the name of the town.
In the neighbourhood are many villas and gardens, where the
townsfolk take refuge in the hot season, but beyond these is the
sandy desert.
In ancient days the Romans had here a large city, of which many
traces are found. In the covered streets I saw arches, which by their
capitals and columns were of Roman origin, and heard of old Roman
graves and foundations being frequently discovered.
Sfax is a garrison, and amongst the soldiers is a fine body of
Spahis, but at the time of my visit many were absent at the
manœuvres.
During the night we steamed in four hours from the roadstead of
Sfax to Gabés.
A golden strand: in the background some white houses, and to
the right a palm grove. Such is the view of Gabés from the sea.
The landing-place was only a short distance from the European
quarter. I called on the commanding officer, Colonel Gousset of the
Spahis, to whom the Regency at Tunis had recommended me,
directing that he should assist me by word and deed in my journey to
the cave dwellers (troglodytes) of the southern mountains.
It was the hour of muster, and the Colonel introduced me to many
of the officers, one of whom, Captain Montague of the General’s
staff, lent me his horse, and a Spahi was told off as my guide.
 “When one wanders towards the Syrtes and ‘Leptis Magna,’ one
finds in the midst of Afric’s sands a town called Tacape; the soil there
is much cultivated and marvellously fruitful. The town extends in all
directions to about three thousand paces. Here is found a fountain
with an abundant supply of water, which is only used at stated times;
and here grows a high palm, and beneath that palm an olive, and
under that a fig tree. Under the fig tree grows a pomegranate, and
beneath that again a vine. Moreover, beneath these last are sown,
first oats, then vegetables or grass, all in the same year. Yes, thus
they grow them, each sheltered by the other.”
Thus wrote Pliny of the oasis near Gabés over eighteen hundred
years ago, and this description can be applied in the main at the
present day.
Of this town, created by the Carthaginians, colonised by the
Romans, and later the seat of an archbishopric, and which stood
nearer the ocean than the existing villages, there remain now only
some crumbled ruins on the hills near Sid Bu’l Baba’s Zauia, now
difficult even to trace.
Remains of cisterns can be seen, built with the imperishable
cement of which the Romans alone understood the preparation. But
the stones have long since been removed to Jara, Menzel, and
Shenini, villages of the oasis, where are still to be found, in the
wretched native buildings, carved capitals and bas-reliefs, side by
side with sun-dried bricks and uncut stones.
But it is long since this old town vanished. The Arab geographers
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as also Leo Africanus in the
sixteenth century, mention Gabés as a large town surrounded by
walls and deep trenches, which latter could be flooded with water.
They tell us of a great fortress there, and that the town had a large
population and extensive suburbs. Then the Mohammedan
conquerors laid their iron hand over the country, and the inhabitants
were dispersed and gathered in the villages Jara and Menzel, each
now containing some four thousand inhabitants. Both villages were
situated near the river and close to the market-place, and were
continually fighting amongst themselves for the possession of these;
whilst other villages, of which Shenini is the largest, concealed
themselves amidst their palm groves.

TOWER IN THE VILLAGE OF MENZEL.

 JEWESSES AT MENZEL.

To keep these rival villages in subjection, the Turks erected, just

between them, a fort—Borj Jedia (the new fort). It was blown up by
French marines on the 21st July 1881, when they assaulted,
stormed, and seized the villages.
Later there arose by the seashore, huts, taverns, and eating-
houses, and, after the first occupation, these formed a place of resort
for all sorts of adventurers, and was therefore wittily named
“Coquinville” by the soldiers. Out of this has grown quite a little town,
known as the Port of Gabés. This is occupied by the European
colony, consisting of from one to two thousand persons of various
Mediterranean origins. The residence of General Allegro, the Bey’s
governor of El Arad, the most southern district of Tunisia, was
originally the only building on the spot, and here he still resides; but
now in the long streets there are commandants’ houses, officers’
quarters, the Hotel de l’Oasis, and a large number of offices of all
descriptions. Behind the town to the south, lie the barracks for the
garrison of Spahis and infantry. In former days the troops were
quartered farther inland, on a height near the Gabés River, as the
water was better; but now drinking-water has been brought to the
town from a near-lying oasis.
Wad Gabés, or the Gabés River, has its source about a score of
miles inland, and flows over its broad bed, through saline and lime-
charged soil, down to the oasis, wherefore the water contains much
magnesia, and is in consequence most unwholesome, and has
caused the death of many a young colonist and soldier. It is said that
the age of the eldest soldier buried in the churchyard was but five-
and-twenty.
In old times the water must naturally have been as unhealthy as
now, but the Romans, those masters of colonisation, used, on that
account, rain water collected in cisterns. Remains of such tanks are
found everywhere in the south.
The Arab rider, given me as guide, and I rode along the northern
bank of the river so as to cross the Gabés oasis from the sea
towards the interior.
It was the most enjoyable excursion I can remember ever having
made.
The sea roared behind the sand cliffs, while the horses panted
through the deep sand. From behind the cliffs appeared the tops of
palm trees, and presently we were in the shade.
The light gleamed through the palm leaves on lemon, orange, and
pomegranate trees, and on the trailing vines, trained up to the
beloved sun, and stretched from tree to tree in graceful festoons.
In the open spaces between the palms lay the orchards, where
grew all kinds of fruit trees—peaches, apples, pears, plums, apricots,
figs, olives, and many others.
The air was pregnant with the scent from the trees and plants.
Beneath the shade of the thick foliage overhead spread the most
beautiful green sward, intersected by flowing rivulets of water and
small canals, dammed by means of dykes and low banks, as in our
own land irrigation.

ON THE OASIS OF GABÉS.

By small paths and roads we wandered on, following the turns of

the canals, riding sometimes on a narrow track between two banks,
and if we then met Arabs on their little overladen mules it was a
squeeze to pass by them.
There was silence amongst the trees. Only now and then, when
we drew near to tents, or some straw hut concealed amidst the
foliage, could we hear voices and the barking of dogs. Women and
children peeped at us through the branches, and we saw men in
scanty clothing working with hoes in their gardens, or women
weeding the beds and gathering henna in baskets.
 Birds flew from branch to branch, or across the open spaces.
Wood pigeons called, and turtle-doves cooed, whilst the chaffinch
fluttered about on the tops of the almond trees, and in the distance
the sound of a shot proclaimed that a sportsman in a clearing on the
borders of the oasis had fired at hare, quail, or partridge. On the
extreme border, by the sea, was the tomb of a Marabout, built from
the ancient remains of the town of olden days, blended with new
materials. The columns supporting the entrance were of new rough
stone, with handsome carved capitals.
We emerged on the barren plain, and saw in the far distance, on
rising ground, other palm groves, but hurried back again into the
fascinating wood, till, by paths and over small stone bridges, beneath
which streams rippled sheltered by the arching palms, we came to a
broader road between high dykes. There it was difficult to advance,
as some artillerymen with baggage carts drawn by mules had stuck
fast in the mud, the waggons being overladen with stone.
The way now turned towards the river. As we left the palm grove
by the miry road to cross the bridge, the grey walls of a village lay
before us on the opposite side. The river bank was crowded with
women and children washing; clothes were hanging to dry on the
bushes, whilst shortly-kilted figures waded into the water, or sat on
the stones by the river side beating clothes with flat boards. Most of
them pretended not to see us, some turned their backs, and a very
few stole roguish glances at us.
 WASHERWOMEN AT THE JARA BRIDGE.

The whole scene was worthy of the brush of a good artist. The
grey-yellow water, the yellow shore and green wood under the deep
blue sky, and against this background the many-coloured figures of
women and children. All were in constant movement and chattering
loudly.
We rode through the gate. The village consists of narrow streets
and lanes of wretched low houses. The air was oppressively hot, and
dirt was everywhere. My guide rode in front, pushing people aside
with loud exclamations. They submitted quietly to being hustled;
“Kith to kin is least kind.” Then, again crossing the river, we rode
through the oasis to other villages and as far as the poor huts of
Shenini, then turned again down to the stream, which here ran
between high banks, and after visiting, just at nightfall, some
encampments close by, we hastened on our way back to Gabés.
 CHAPTER IV

From Gabés to the Matmata Mountains

Crouched in a wretched hut, which seemed to me then the

perfection of comfort, I sat writing by the light of a flickering candle at
the village of Zaraua, on the top of a mountain of the Matmata range,
south of Gabés.
Outside I could hear my horse munching, as he stood, his well-
earned barley; farther away dogs were barking. The moon sent her
rays through my doorway; and now and then came to my ear the
sound of human voices, but this soon ceased as the sun had long
since set: for in these regions all retire to rest early so as to rise at
daybreak.
The two previous days had sped as in a fairy tale. As I opened my
window at the Hotel de l’Oasis at 4.30 a.m. on the 17th October, it
was still half-dark, but I could distinguish a little way down the street
an Arab horse, saddled, and by its side a white bundle lying on the
footway. It was Hamed, the Arab horseman, whom the bureau de
renseignement had placed at my disposal, and who was now waiting
for five o’clock, the hour fixed for our start. A little later arrived my
brown steed, supplied by the Spahi regiment.
 MAP OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA.
(Large-size)

My small travelling kit, photographic apparatus, and breakfast

were packed on Hamed’s horse. The revolver I slung on my own
saddle, little realising that the same afternoon I should fire it on a
festive occasion; and we started, wending our way amongst the
showy, newly-built European houses.
Outside the town, the country is somewhat flat; we followed the
road. To our right, towards the north, was Gabés’ winding river, but
invisible to us, as it lies low. On the other side, the palm groves
showed us a dark forest. The villages by the river stood out clearly
against this dark background, and the rising sun shone on the white
kubba to our left of Sid Bu’l Baba.
On the road we met little groups of natives driving camels and tiny
donkeys, all laden with esparto straw. Their houses were many a
mile away over the blue mountains, which were dimly distinguishable
on the horizon, for they came from Hadeij, our destination, to sell
this, about the only product in which they can deal during the hot
summer season.
Now and again we also met small caravans of donkeys carrying
light loads of dry wood.
After a quick trot, that warmed us at this early chilly hour, we
turned to the left in a southerly direction, taking a path that wound
along slightly undulating ground. A brace of partridges rose, and we
heard the quail calling, and saw young larks running on the barren
ground. On a hill to the north-west we spied the camp of Ras el Wad,
erected by General Boulanger in his day. Once and again we
indulged in a quick gallop, but only in short stretches, when the paths
were not muddy or too winding.
Here and there stood a parched olive tree or date palm, on spots
where, in the wet season—if it ever come—a little water would reach
them. We were overtaken by a horseman closely enveloped in a
white burnous, the hood drawn over his head and sticking up in the
air in a peak. It was “Amar” from Hadeij on his slight but wiry pony.
He was acquainted with Hamed, so wished to join us. His hair, beard
and eyes were black, his expression good-natured, with an open
brow, and his teeth milk white.
After two hours’ ride, during which we only once met any people,
we reached the oasis of El Hamdu; near by roamed some miserable
cattle, grazing under the care of an old man; with these were also a
couple of goats.
On the border of the oasis we watered our horses at a fountain
surrounded by palms. Women peeped shyly at us over the walls of
the only stone building of the village that we could make out.
Riding on, we passed several tombs of Marabouts. On our left,
the palms of the oasis seemed drawn up in a long line, and smoke
could be perceived rising heavenwards from huts and tents beneath
the trees. From an encampment on the edge of the oasis the dogs
rushed out barking, the inhabitants standing stiffly, like statues, and
staring at us.
 PLOUGHING-GABÉS.

Along a shallow, stony, river bed—rough ground for the horses—

we pursued our way towards our destination in the hills, whilst the
sun burnt so fiercely that our senses were dulled.
After a couple more hours, we again met laden camels, and with
them some travellers on foot, one without a burnous or head-
covering, and clothed only in a shirt confined at the waist by a strap.
He wore his hair in a tuft on the nape of his neck, and carried in his
hand a banner on a pole. Amar told me he was a Marabout from one
of the villages near Gabés.
Of Marabouts there is no lack. This one was very poor, and was
returning from the mountains, where he had been begging for money
which he imagined was due to him. The banner he carried that
everyone might see that a holy man was coming.
 I gave him a few coppers, and the young fellow kissed my hand,
and wished me good luck on my journey. It is not everyone who is
wished good luck on their travels by a Marabout. I bought my
blessing cheap.
We now rode some distance amongst small hills, which are
scattered in the foreground of the mountains like islands on a coast-
line. On some eminences were heaps of stones.
“Those were there before our time,” said Amar.
In places where the ground was more or less level it was slightly
scratched round about the dry bushes. This is the arable land, that is
to say, it would be cultivated if rain fell.
We halted beneath some bushes to eat our breakfast. The bread,
butter, and cheese we could all enjoy, but I alone the wine and meat.
A pomegranate supplied our dessert.
Whilst we sat there, five women in blue dresses came by,
preceded by an old man driving half a score of camels. The women
wore bracelets and anklets. They glanced furtively at us and trudged
past. A negress only, who lagged behind, tried to attract our
attention. She was evidently not accustomed to be taken notice of.
Travelling was now easy, the track leading upwards over smooth
calcareous ground. In little watercourses, now dry, were planted
clumps of palm and olive trees, the soil being banked about them to
form dams. On an adjoining slope were numbers of small caves,
inhabited only in harvest time, when watch is kept over the crops.
We ascended higher and higher amongst the mountains, until
suddenly, as I turned in my saddle, I saw the Mediterranean like a
blue streak in the distance. We were at that moment at the highest
point we were to reach that day. At a distance here and there dogs
appeared, barking at us, and occasionally in their vicinity white
figures and rising smoke. Hamed said that these people were cave
dwellers, but were only a small tribe. A little later we were to arrive at
quite a subterranean town.
I halted abruptly on seeing below me a valley with, comparatively
speaking, many trees. On the farther side rose a long range of high
mountains. The valley itself was exactly like a large, old sand or clay
ditch, with sloping sides, pierced by a great number of neglected and
long-disused shafts, but planted with trees—palms, olives, and figs.
“Is that Hadeij?” I asked. Hamed nodded, and I pulled up to take a
photograph.
It was then exactly two o’clock, and we continued on our way,
walking for a time beside our horses. Just as we were about to
remount, a white sheep-dog bounded out of a hole we had not
noticed; it bayed at us in a most dismal fashion, and from the nearest
points of vantage its companions joined in chorus.
I rode up to look at the dogs, and caught sight of a deep pit with
perpendicular sides that had been dug in the ground from the top of
the ascent. Down at the bottom a camel stood resting. Round a
hearth were household chattels and large bins made of rushes,
containing barley, and amongst these a few fowls. Some women and
children looked up on hearing the tramp of my horse, stared at me
for a moment, and then fled into recesses in the walls.
Hamed now suggested that I should not remain standing there,
and I followed his good advice.
A path had been dug into the hillside, and terminated in a large
door or gate. This evidently led to a long underground passage, and
ended in the square yard, open to the air, which I had just seen, and
whence are entered the excavated rooms or caves, used as
dwelling-places, stores, and stables.
On the horizon the straight stems of palms stood out sharply
against the mountains. In the foreground were olive trees, and,
mingled with them, a few palms; beneath one of these was gathered
a group of men, amongst whom, Hamed said, was the great Khalifa.
I therefore drew rein. An old greybeard rose and strode forward,
offering his hand and bidding me welcome, the other men following
his example. They were fine specimens of humanity, with regular
features, black eyes, and straight noses—one saw at once that they
were not of the ordinary Arab type.