Original Article

Proc IMechE Part G:

J Aerospace Engineering
Design and HIL-based verification of the 0(0) 1–11
! IMechE 2020

fuel control unit for a gas turbine engine Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0954410020910593
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Amin Salehi and Morteza Montazeri-GH

Abstract
The correct operation of a gas turbine engine depends on the accurate and stable performance of fuel control system
and its components such as fuel control unit. Fuel control unit is an electro-hydraulic actuator of fuel control system
whose function is to supply, regulate and send the fuel to the engine according to the electronic control unit command. In
this paper, a new fuel control unit has been developed based on the load sensing concept for a turboshaft gas turbine
engine. In the designed fuel control unit, the fuel flow rate is controlled by adjusting the fuel pressure. A NARX model
and ANFIS controller is employed to design the pressure controller. A hardware in the loop framework, comprising of
hydraulic circuit, sensors, data acquisition card and computers, is developed to evaluate the performance of the fuel
control unit alongside the real-time simulation of other component such as engine and electronic control unit. Moreover,
the consumed power by the fuel control unit is evaluated and a considerable improvement is indicated compared to
typical fuel control units.

Keywords
Turboshaft engine, fuel control unit, NARX modeling, hardware in the loop testing

Date received: 15 March 2019; accepted: 6 February 2020

Introduction as well as the increased ability to use them in mech-

Turboshaft engines are one of the commonly used
types of gas turbine engines in the oil and gas indus-
tries as well as in aerial and marine propulsion
systems. Due to the high cost of manufacturing, main-
tenance and repairing of gas turbine engines, the
proper, safe and stable operation of these engines is
of crucial importance. Generally, the stable operation
of the gas turbine engines depends on the stable per-
formance of their components and subsystems. One of
the main subsystems of the gas turbine engine is the
fuel control system, which is responsible to control the
performance and maintain engine safety by adjusting
the entered fuel flow rate to the combustion chamber
based on the received feedbacks from the engine
sensors.
Due to the lack of electrical system development in
past decades, mechanical and hydro-mechanical con-
trol systems were used as the fuel control system in
gas turbine engine.1 However, implementation of con-
trol logics by means of mechanical or hydro-mechan-
ical mechanisms is a very complex and expensive task
and suffers from a low computational capability.2 In
addition, the design should be performed very conser-
vatively to guaranty a stable performance; neverthe-
less, this would lead to a slower response of the
system. With the development of electrical systems
anical and hydraulic systems, electronic controllers
and electro-hydraulic actuators are widely utilised in
fuel control systems.1–5 Owing to high flexibility in
performance, electronic systems and electro-hydraulic
actuators provide a control system with faster
response, improved reliability and stability, and sig-
nificant reduction of design costs. With this upgrade
in fuel control systems of gas turbine engines, the cor-
responding fuel control system is comprised of two
main parts: engine control unit (ECU) and fuel con-
trol unit (FCU).6–8 All the calculations of the fuel
control algorithm are performed in the ECU and
export the calculated amount of fuel to the FCU for
being injected into the engine. The FCU, as an elec-
tro-hydraulic actuator, regulates the flow rate of the
injected fuel into the combustion chamber according
to the ECU command. Figure 1 shows the simple
structure of the fuel control system used for the
Mechanical Engineering Department, Iran University of Science and
Technology, Tehran, Iran
Corresponding author:
Amin Salehi, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran
16765-163, Iran.
Email: amin_salehi@mecheng.iust.ac.ir
2 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
Figure 1. Schematic of the turboshaft engine fuel control system.
turboshaft engine. The ECU receives the engine sig-
nals, i.e. power turbine shaft speed, the compressor
shaft speed and the exhaust gas temperature, and
sends the desired amount of the fuel to FCU.
Despite the numerous studies on ECU design and
control algorithms,9–12 there is very little research in
the design and testing of FCU performance, for
instance, in Georgantas et al.,2 by making changes
and removing the mechanical controller, a hydro-
mechanical fuel control system is converted to elec-
tro-hydraulic control system that has the ability to
receive an electric command. In this reference, a soft-
ware-based control algorithm was designed to control
the fuel rate of a turboshaft gas turbine engine, and
was implemented on an electronic hardware device.
Then, the function of the new control system
was investigated. In Mohtasebi and Hong3 and
Mohtasebi,4 different structures of FCU for turbojet
engine were investigated and eventually an appropri-
ate structure was proposed. In literature,6–8 the per-
formance of a turbojet engine FCU was evaluated
through experiments. The structure examined for the
FCU in this references includes a fixed displacement
pump, flow control and bypass valves. In these struc-
tures, the pump always generates maximum amount
of fuel flow rate, and the excess fuel flow is bypassed
via the bypass valve. The main drawback of these
structures is the high amount of energy dissipation
due to the permanent bypass of the excessive fuel
flow. The use of variable displacement pumps in the
FCU design comes with the advantage of supplying
the fuel flow equally to the fuel demand. It should
be noted that some previously designed hydro-
mechanical fuel control systems have employed vari-
able displacement pumps owing to their capability of
hydro-mechanically adjusting the fuel flow. But the
advancement of electronics and its application in
hydraulic systems made the fixed displacement
pumps more preferable for being utilised in the
design of the modern fuel control systems as a result
of less complexity.
At the present time, in accordance to the recent
improvements in electronic and electro-hydraulic
instruments as well as their application in variable
displacement pumps, designing a fuel control unit
based on these type of pumps seems to be practical.
In the modern variable displacement pumps, pump
displacement can be adjusted using several methods.
Among these methods, load sensing (LS) method,
which is a demanding topic, comes with the advantage
of providing high efficiency.13 On the basis of LS
method, an improved method, called electro-hydrau-
lic load sensing (ELS), is proposed which is more pref-
erable in terms of performance and stability.14 In ELS
system, it is necessary to provide proper and accurate
control of the pressure. However, classical controllers
such as PID and PI are widely used in most industrial
systems,15,16 but in many cases, these controllers do
not have optimal performance. The major drawbacks
of this kind of controllers are dependency on the
accuracy of the mathematical model of the systems
and the difficulty of their parameters setting to have
a satisfactory response at different performing points.
On the other hand, modeling of hydraulic systems is
often not accurate due to the changes in the system
parameters over time as well as nonlinear behavior of
the system as a result of friction and materials behav-
ior,17 and therefore the design of a classic controller is
difficult. In order to solve this problem, advanced con-
trol methods such as fuzzy logic, neural networks,
optimal control,18 etc. can be used. These methods
considerably reduce the dependency of the controller
design process on the mathematical model of the
system and result in better performance in controlling
the systems. Also, fuzzy controllers have a faster
response than the classical controllers in case of
facing with large input changes.19 One of the most
important problems in the design of fuzzy controllers
is the need for expert knowledge in setting its
parameters and rules. Therefore, the use of hybrid
intelligent systems such as ANFIS that combine the
benefits of fuzzy systems and neural networks
together will be useful. The adaptive-neural-fuzzy-
interface-system (ANFIS) is an adaptive network
based on the fuzzy inference system and is in fact a
hybrid method for the implementation of the fuzzy
system. In the ANFIS structure, it is possible to
obtain the parameters of the fuzzy controller as the
weights of a neural network during the training
process.20
Salehi and Montazeri-GH 3

Another approach to deal with nonlinearities and

uncertainties in the systems is to use system identifi-
cation methods in which the system would be mod-
elled based on input–output data.21 In this method,
two factors are of main importance, (1) proper
excitation of the system in order to obtain adequate
information about the system and (2) opting the
appropriate mathematical structure which can cor-
rectly represent the nature of the plant.
In this paper, a FCU is designed based on the use Figure 2. Turboshaft engine’s schematic diagram.
of variable displacement pump and modified load sen-
sing flow control strategy for turboshaft gas turbine
engine. In order to achieve a low-cost solution, the
load sensing (LS) system is converted into an elec-
tro-hydraulic load sensing (ELS) system by adding
an orifice and a pressure control valve which provides
electronic control of the pressure and fuel flow rate.
System identification method is utilized to model the
ELS-based fuel control unit and an ANFIS controller
is learned to adjust the pump displacement volume.
The parameters of the ANFIS controller are tuned by
the invasive weed optimization (IWO) algorithm. To
evaluate the performance of the designed FCU, a test
bench, including hydraulic system, flow and pressure
sensors and data-acquisition cards is constructed so
Figure 3. Hydro-mechanical load sensing control of pump
that the FCU can be assessed in near real conditions displacement.22
via the hardware in the loop (HIL) simulations.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in the
next section, the studied turboshaft engine and the methods for this purpose is the hydro-mechanical
FCU designing based on the ELS flow control strat- load-sensing (LS) method. Figure 3 shows the
egy will be discussed. In the subsequent section, the LS-mechanism for controlling the pump displacement
modeling of the FCU and pressure controller design volume. As depicted in this figure, in the LS method, a
will be done. The APRBS signal and NARX structure hydraulic valve (compensator) as a displacement or
are used for the identification the FCU. Then the HIL flow controller, with the receipt of pressure feedbacks
test bench and the results of the HIL test are pre- from before and after of throttle valve hydraulically,
sented to evaluate the FCU performance in the adjusts the angle of the swash plate in the pump.
engine operating regime. However, in the LS method, because of the control
of the displacement-volume by the hydro-mechanical
mechanism, it is therefore not possible to use precise
Fuel control unit
and new control algorithms to control the displace-
The engine studied in this paper is a turboshaft gas ment volume and there is also the possibility of
turbine engine consisting of 12-stage compressor and instability and oscillation of the LS system in some
2-stage compressor turbine and two stages free tur- working conditions due to the fixed configuration of
bine or power turbine. There is no mechanical con- the system parameters.23,24 Therefore, if this method
nection between the free turbine and compressor is used, the pump and control valves should be
turbine. Free turbine shaft is attached to the load. calibrated conservatively, which will reduce the
Figure 2 shows the turboshaft engine’s schematic. response speed.
In most applications, the turboshaft engine delivers In this paper, a low-cost electro hydraulic load sen-
the desired power to the load in a fixed rotational sing (ELS) FCU is designed by changing the LS
speed at the design point speed. For variable power, system by adding a pressure control valve and an ori-
fuel control system controls the fuel flow rate so that fice. Because of controlling the displacement volume
the engine speed remains constant and does not electronically and using software control algorithms
change much. Using a variable displacement pump and filters, the ELS method can provide stable control
will have the advantage that the fuel flow at any oper- of pump displacement volume in all operating range
ational point (power) is equal to the required amount. and faster speed response. Figure 4 shows the struc-
The use of variable displacement pumps in the FCU ture of the ELS displacement control system. As
structure requires the consideration of a mechanism shown in Figure 4, in this method, the hydraulic con-
for controlling the pump volume of displacement and nections between the pump displacement controller
therefore the fuel flow amount. One of the common and pl and ps are disconnected and an electronic
4 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

controller receives pressure values continuously by
pressure sensors and sends the control signal to the
pressure control valve. The pressure control valve
controls the pump displacement by adjusting the pres-
sure on one side of the compensator valve.
A schematic illustration of the hydraulic circuit of
designed ELS-FCU is shown beside the ECU in
Figure 5. As shown in the figure, the fuel flows from
the fuel tank (1) to the suction filter (2) and after that
enters the main fuel pump (4) via the booster-pump
(3). The fuel exits the main pump into the throttle
valve (7). The throttle valve receives the relevant com-
mand from the ECU (9). By changing the cross-area
of the throttle valve in accordance with the ECU com-
mand, the displacement volume is adjusted by the
ELS controller and the pressure control valve (6).
The ELS control system (10) receives the pressure sig-
nals through the sensors (11) and (12) and sends the
required command to maintain a fix differential
pressure across the sides of the throttle valve to the
pressure control valve (6). The pressure control valve
(6) adjusts the hydraulic pressure value acting on the
swash plate angle control mechanism. The orifice
valve (5) acts as a filter on the hydraulic pressure.
The fuel enters the combustion chamber after fuel
nozzle (8).
FCU modeling
In this paper, system identification method is used to
model the FCU. System identification is a practical
way for physical systems modeling which have com-
plexity in physical laws or parameters. For example,
gas turbine modeling is used in literature,25–27 for
hydraulic valve in literature28,29 for variable displace-
ment pumps modeling in literature.21,30,31
A test system including: sensors and data collection
system and hydraulic circuits was designed and
constructed to measure and record FCU data. In
Figure 6, a schematic diagram of the hydraulic circuit
of the test system is presented. As shown in the figure,
the fuel from the reservoir is transferred to FCU by
the booster-pump (1), and the regulated fuel from the
FCU is directed to the nozzle (5) and measured by the
flowmeter (4). The fuel is returned to the reservoir
after passing through the nozzle. The pressures in dif-
ferent areas are measured by pressure sensors (2, 3).
Non-flammable white oil was used instead of fuel, in
which its viscosity and density are same with the
turboshaft engine fuel.
The NARX (Nonlinear Auto Regressive with
eXogenous inputs) model is used for modeling the
FCU. Equation (1) defines the NARX model

Figure 4. Structure of the ELS displacement control system. Y^ ðtÞ ¼ GðXÞ ð1Þ

ELS Pressure
controller 10
12
6 Engine
ECU 9
5
4 11
Fuel nozzle

Pressure
gage
7 8 To combuson chamber

Pressure
gage
3

Figure 5. A schematic of the hydraulic circuit of designed FCU based on ELS method.
Salehi and Montazeri-GH 5

(a) 8

T.V. com. (volt)

6

0 20 40 60 80
Time (sec)
(b) 3

Releif command (Volt)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 6. Hydraulic circuit schematic of the test system. Time (sec)
(c) 0.3

0.25

FMF (kg/ Sec)

where X is a vector of the model’s input/ 0.2

output regressors. We have used a multilayer 0.15

perceptron (MLP) neural network as G function 0.1

in NARX structure that result in a NARX neural 0.05

0 20 40 60 80
network model.31 Figure 7(i) shows the APRBS (d) 30
signals which are applied to the system as input for 25
100 s. System’s inputs are the fuel-flow command 20
PLS (bar)

which is applied to the proportional throttle valve 15

and the load sense line pressure command is applied 10
to the pressure control valve. Output is the fuel flow 5
rate and the load sense line pressure (Figure 7(ii)). 0
A first-order low pass filter to filter the sensors 10 20 30 40 50
Time (sec)
60 70 80 90

signal is used.
We have divided the gathered data into two sec-
Figure 7. FCU test result. (i) Excitation signals, a: fuel flow
tions, one section for using in training process and
rate command b: pressure command. (ii) c: fuel flow rate.
other for testing the model. The ‘‘best fit’’ criterion
d: load sense line pressure.
(equation (12))32 is used for checking the accuracy of
the model
PN  !
 Table 1. Result of NARX identification.
i¼1 yi  y^ i
Best Fit ¼ 1  PN    100% ð12Þ
 
i¼1 yi  y Order: [na][nb1] NO. of NO. of Best
Model [nb2][nk1]a layer neuron fit

where y and y^ are the system output and model
output, respectively and y is the mean of system
output.
As shown in Table 1, two NARX models are con-
sidered for modeling the ELS-FCU, one for fuel flow
rate and the other for load sense line pressure.
Figure 8 shows the results of the NARX models
simulation alongside the plant outputs for test signal.
The comparison shows the NARX model accuracy to
simulate the actual system behavior for different
forms of the input.
Pressure controller design
ANFIS controller is used to control the pressure on
control valve (compensator). ANFIS is an adaptive
network based on a fuzzy inference system that has
the ability to model a set of IF-THEN rules with
Pressure [10][10] [10] [1] 2 10 94.2
model
FMF model [15][15] [15][1] 2 10 92.16
a
na: input regressors number, nb: output regressors number, nk: input
delay of system.28
adaptive parameters. So these parameters can be
adjusted using the proper training method.
Figure 9 shows the block diagram of the control
system of the ELS-FCU. As shown in the figure, the
ANFIS algorithm is used to control the differential
pressure in the ELS-controller. The objective of the
controller is to keep the pressure difference constant,
equal to pd , on the both sides of the throttle valve.
As shown in Figure 9, the input of the controller is
the error value and the derivative of the error. The
output of the controller (uc ) is obtained from the
6 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

sum of the two outputs u1 and u2 . u1 is the

(a)
30 output of the PI controller and u2 output of the
Simulation
Experiment PD controller.33 The parameters of the ANFIS con-
25
troller are optimized by the IWO optimization
algorithm.34
PLS (bar)

20

15
In Figure 10, the results of the pressure control are
shown using the ANFIS control algorithm. Fix value
10
for pressure difference means that pl ¼ pls is shown in
5 Figure 10(b). As seen in the figure, the pressure con-
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Time (sec) trol is performed with proper accuracy by the ANFIS
(b) controller.
0.25 Simulation
Experiment
Fue Flow (kg / sec)

0.2
HIL testing
0.15 HIL platform
0.1
As previously mentioned, in this paper, the HIL test
method is used to evaluate the designed FCU per-
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Time (sec) formance. In this method, the FCU as a hardware is
tested alongside the real-time engine simulator. This
Figure 8. Simulation result of the NARX model. (a) Result of method allows the FCU testing in all working condi-
the load sense line pressure model. (b) Result of fuel flow rate tions and close to reality. Figure 11 shows the HIL
model. test platform which is used in this paper. As shown in

Figure 9. Block diagram of the control system (PID-ANFIS controller structure).

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Performance of the controller in (a) pressure-difference controlling and (b) tracking.
Salehi and Montazeri-GH
the figure, ECU and engine are simulated in software
and runs on the computer. In this platform, the simu-
lations are performed in a real-time manner using
Xpc-target toolbox of MATLAB in which the
compiled Simulink model is run on the target
computer that utilizes the real-time operating
system (OS). The simulation result is transmitted
through the data accusation cards to the FCU.
Pressure and fuel flow-rate signals are also sent to
the computer and the simulation software via data
accusation cards.
For performing the HIL test, a bench including
PCs for software simulation, data acquisition cards,
flowmeter sensor, pressure sensor and hydraulic
system is designed. The accuracy of flowmeter and
pressure sensor is 0.031% and 0.5%, respectively.
Figure 12 shows a graphical representation of the
laboratory test system.
Real-time modeling
Turboshaft engine. As mentioned above, the engine and
controllers are modeled and simulated in real-time. In
order to have a fast dynamic model of the engine for
Figure 11. Structure of the HIL test.
Figure 12. Graphical representation of laboratory test system. (1: fuel pump; 2: throttle valve; 3: pressure control valve; 4: flow-
meter; 5: pressure sensor; 6: PC computer).
7
real-time simulation, the Wiener modeling method27
is used as a gray box method. Figure 13 shows the
block structure of the Weiner model.
The Wiener model consists of a nonlinear static
block and a linear dynamic block. The nonlinear
static block in the gas turbine model expresses the
relationship between the input fuel flow-rate to the
engine and the output variables of the model in a
steady state point. The linear dynamic block also
expresses the transient state of the engine from
a steady state point to another steady point.27
A lookup table and first-order transfer function is
considered as nonlinear and linear block in the
engine’s Wiener model. Figure 14 shows the Wiener
model structure for the studied turboshaft engine. As
shown, a nonlinear and linear block is considered for
each engine output. Information about the nonlinear
block is derived from the results of the thermo-
dynamic simulation and testing of the engine.
Engine control unit. The engine control design is per-
formed based on the min-max algorithm according
to Salehi and Montazeri-Gh35 and Montazeri-Gh
et al.36 In this algorithm, the fuel flow rate is selected
from the outputs of several control loops based on
min-max selection rule. Figure 15 shows the designed
min-max controller for turboshaft gas turbine engine
fuel controller. As shown in this figure, six control
loops are considered. The main target of the
Figure 13. Block structure of the Weiner model.
8 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

Figure 14. Wiener model of studied turboshaft engine.

Figure 15. Min-max control strategy for turboshaft gas turbine engine.
Salehi and Montazeri-GH 9

0.9 1.4
NPT-SIM
1.3 NPT-HIL
Load (normalized)

0.8
1.2

NPT/ NPT(des)
1.1
0.7
1
0.6 0.9

0.8
0.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 0.7
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Time (sec) Time(Sec)

Figure 16. Power turbine loading. Figure 17. Deviation of power turbine speed.

turboshaft engine ECU is to satisfy the physical con-

0.94
straints of the system and to maintain the rotational NGG-SIM
speed of the power turbine shaft even in the case of 0.92 NGG-HIL

NGG/ NGG(des)
change of the applied load to the power-turbine shaft. 0.9
In this study, the min-max parameters were opti-
0.88
mized using the invasive weed optimization (IWO)
algorithm.34 In the optimization process, the minimum 0.86

response time and the limiting of the rotor acceleration, 0.84

35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
exhaust gas temperature, compressor and power tur- Time(Sec)
bine speed are considered as optimization targets.
Figure 18. Variation of compressors rotor speed.
Results and discussion
The results of the hardware in the loop simulation of
the FCU are presented in this section. In accordance 710
EGT-SIM
to Figure 16, a step load is applied to the power tur- 700 EGT-HIL
690
bine shaft in the time interval between 50 and 70 s.
EGT/ EGT(des)

680
As the load changes, the control system, which aims 670
660
to keep the power turbine rotational speed constant, 650
changes the engine power by adjusting the amount of 640
injected fuel into the combustion chamber. The HIL 630
620
testing results are compared with the software simu- 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Time(Sec)
lation results of fuel control system and engine. The
software simulation results actually indicate the
desired operation of the control system. Figure 19. Exhaust gas temperature.
By reducing the applied load to the power turbine
shaft in t ¼ 50 s, the power turbine speed increases
according to Figure 17. The controller reduces the exhaust gas temperature, as illustrated in Figure 19.
power of the engine to prevent increase of the speed Thus, desired and accurate performance of the
and to keep it constant as much as possible. Hence, designed FCU is validated through HIL tests.
the speed of the power turbine decreases to its nom- To compare the ELS-FCU power consumption,
inal value. Also, in the t ¼ 70 s, the load applied to the the results are compared with the MIL simulation
power turbine shaft increases (Figure 16). In this situ- results of a conventional FCU6 used in modern
ation, the power turbine speed decreases as shown in fuel control systems. Figure 20 shows the schematic
Figure 17. The control system prevents this speed diagram of the conventional fuel control unit in
drop by increasing the amount of the injected fuel modern fuel control systems.6 The design uses a pro-
into the combustion chamber and increasing the portional valve to regulate the fuel flow and a pressure
power of the engine. compensating valve to keep the pressure difference
HIL test results indicate good consistency com- constant.
pared to software simulation results in terms of Figure 21 shows the power required by an ideal
power turbine speed, as illustrated in Figure 17, com- FCU, with 100% efficiency, and the power consump-
pressor rotor speed, as illustrated in Figure 18 and tion of ELS-FCU and conventional FCU for the
10
Figure 20. The structure of a conventional FCU used in modern fuel control systems.
Figure 21. Required power and power consumption of
FCUs.
Figure 22. Lost power of FCUs.
engine operating regime is presented in Figure 16
and Figure 22 shows the dissipative power of each
FCU in this regime and as it is illustrated, the dis-
sipative power of the ELS-FCU is considerably
decreased.
Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
Conclusion
In this paper, design and testing the FCU for a turbo-
shaft gas turbine engine have been investigated.
Electrohydraulic load sensing (ELS) method is uti-
lised to design the FCU based on the variable
displacement pump. In the ELS system, using the elec-
tronic controller makes it possible to take advantage
of software-based control algorithms and low pass
filters as well as high speed actuators (pressure control
valve), and consequently a higher speed fuel flow
control with better accuracy and stability can
be accomplished by FCU. ANFIS controller is
employed in order to control the load sensing line
pressure of FCU. For this purpose, a NARX-based
modeling is performed to model the ELS-FCU and
then the IWO optimization algorithm is used to tune
the ANFIS parameters. In addition, a test bench
was designed to perform the HIL simulations,
which makes it possible to test the FCU in the
near-real conditions. The HIL results comparison
with the software simulation results indicate the
correctness of the ELS-FCU performance and the
ability of the structure to provide proper fuel flow
control subject to the engine requirements and ECU
commands.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Salehi and Montazeri-GH
ORCID iD
Amin Salehi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8268-0913
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