Physical Chemistry

Atomic Structure
Structure of an Atom
- An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist independently
- an atom consists of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, electrons orbit around the nucleus
- protons are positively charged, neutrons have no charge, electrons are negatively charged
- the nucleus has an overall positive charge
- an atom has an overall neutral charge

Subatomic particles
- The protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom are subatomic particles
- their masses and charges are measured in relation to each other
- Such as Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Atomic Charge

Subatomic Particle Relative Atomic Charge Relative Atomic Mass

Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 1/1836

Atomic Number and Mass Number

- Atomic Number/Proton Number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
- The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom
- The Mass Number/Nucleon Number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
- The number of neutrons can be calculated by Mass Number - Atomic Number

Atomic Radius
- The atomic radius of an element is half the distance between the two nuclei of covalently
bonded atoms of the same type
- The atomic radius generally decreases across a period and increases down a group
- The atomic radius decreases across the period because with higher proton number there is
higher nuclear charge and more electrons are added in the same quantum shell with
approximately constant shielding, resulting in greater attraction between nucleus and electrons,
pulling them closer.
- Down the group, the quantum shells increase and there is increased shielding, resulting in
greater atomic radius.

2
Ionic Radius
- Size of cation is always smaller than that of its parent atom
- Size of anion is always greater than that of its parent atom
- Size of cation is always lesser than the size of anion provided they are in the same period.

Ionisation Energy
- Ionisation energy is the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous ions
- Ionisation energy is measured under standard conditions of temperature and pressure
- The unit of I.E is Kilo joule per mole (KJmol-1)
- Ionisation energy is always endothermic as we are breaking the electrostatic force between
proton and electron
- The first ionisation energy is the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of isolated gaseous atoms to form one mole of 1+ ions

The first I.E of an element X can be represented by the equation:

X(g) → X+(g) + e-

- Second I.E is always larger than the first I.E as upon removing electrons radius will become
smaller, and there will be less repulsion, and greater nuclear force of attraction thus we need
more I.E for the removal of second electron

Factors affecting Ionisation Energy

- The ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down the group
- The I.E depends on factors of atomic radius, nuclear charge, shielding effect, and spin-pair
repulsion
Atomic Radius: As the electrons get further from the nucleus, they experience lesser
attraction from the nucleus and are easier to remove
Nuclear Charge: As the nuclear charge increases, the electrons experience greater force of
attraction and are more difficult to remove
Shielding Effect: Electrons repel each other so the inner quantum shell electrons pushes the
outer quantum shells away from the nucleus, reducing the nuclear attraction and making the
electrons easier to remove
Spin pair repulsion: it occurs when two electrons are paired in the same orbital, they repel
each other making one electron easier to remove

- Across a period, the nuclear charge increases, which results in stronger attraction between
the nucleus and electrons, pulling the electrons closer and decreasing the atomic radius, the
shielding effect remains constant as the electron shell is the same. This requires more energy
to remove an electron, increasing the I.E
- Down the group, the atomic radius and shielding effect increases, which decreases the I.E

3
Ionisation Energy trends (Exceptions)
- An increase in subshell will decrease the I.E as outer subshell electrons are further away from
the nucleus such as between Beryllium and Boron
- Another example would be Magnesium and Aluminium
- There is a decrease in I.E when a second electron enters the px subshell as it experiences
spin-spin repulsion make it easier to remove an electron such between Nitrogen and Oxygen
- Another example would be Phosphorus and Sulfur
- There is a large decrease in ionisation energy between the last element in a period and the
first element of the next to the change in quantum shell

Successive Ionisation Energies of an Element

- The successive ionisation energies of an element increases
- it is harder to remove an electron from an ion as compared to its neutral atom
- this is due to the decreased shielding effect and increased nuclear attraction
- A change in quantum shell causes a large increase in successive ionisation energy
- The large jump can be used to deduce the group number of an element
- For example, a large increase between the third and fourth I.E indicates that the element
belongs to group 3

Isotopes
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
- An Isotope is represented by the name of the element followed by dash and mass number
- For example Carbon-12
- Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
- Due to the same number of electrons, isotopes react in the same manner
- Due to the different number of neutrons, isotopes have differences in mass and density

Electron Shells
- Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom
- Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in principal energy levels or principal quantum
shells
- The energy level or quantum shell is represented by the Principal Quantum Number (n)
- A higher principal quantum number means the shell is further from the nucleus
- Each quantum shell can hold a fixed number of electrons

Subshells
- The principal quantum shells are split into subshells
- Subshells are represented by s, p and d
- The energy of the subshells increases in the order s<p<d
- s subshell contains 2 electrons
- p subshell contains 6 electrons
- d subshell contains 10 electrons

4
Orbitals
- Subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
- Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these specific levels
- Each orbital can have a maximum of 2 electrons
- Hence, s subshell has 1 orbital, p subshell has 3, and d subshell has 5
- Each orbital has a specific shape
- the three orbitals of p subshell are px, py and pz

n Electrons (2n2) Subshells

1 2 1s2

2 8 2s2,2p6

3 18 3s2,3p6,3d10

4 32 4s2,4p6,4d10,4f14

Ground State
- The Ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom
which has the lowest amount of energy
- The subshells with lower energy levels are filled first
- The pattern is disrupted at quantum shells n=3 and above
- 4s has a lower energy level than 3d and hence is filled first

- Orbitals in the same subshell have the same energy and are known as
degenerate
- px, py and pz all have the same energy levels

5
S & p orbitals
- s orbitals are spherical in shape
- the s orbitals are bigger at a higher principal quantum number
- p orbitals are dumbbell shaped
- every p subshell has 3 orbitals except for when n=1
- the p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing quantum number

Electronic Configuration
- subshells are filled in increasing order of energy levels
- electrons are spinning charges rotating clockwise or anticlockwise about their own axis
- electrons with similar spin repel each other, causing spin-pair repulsion
- electrons occupy different orbitals in the same subshell first to avoid spin-pair repulsion
- they are paired when there are no more empty orbitals
- the paired electrons spin in opposite directions to minimise repulsion
- if there are three electrons in the p subshell, all three orbitals will have one electron each
- a fourth electron in the p subshell will pair in px subshell

Periodic Table Blocks

- Group 1 and 2 elements are known as s block elements
- s block elements have their electrons in an s subshell
- Group 13 to 18 elements are p block elements
- their valence electrons are located in the p subshell
- Transition block elements are d block elements
- Their valence electrons are in the d subshell

Exceptions
- Copper has configuration 3d5,4s1 instead of 3d4,4s2
- Chromium has configuration 3d10,4s1 instead of 3d9, 4s2
- This is because the configuration is more stable when the d subshell is half full or full as
compared to having one lesser, so one electron moves from 4s subshell to 3d subshell

6
Moles & Stoichiometry

Relative Mass
- Relative Atomic Mass is the average mass of all the isotopes of an element relative to 1/12th
of the mass of Carbon-12

- Relative Molecular Mass is is the average mass of a molecule of an element or compound

relative to 1/12th of the mass of Carbon-12

- Relative Formula Mass is the average mass of a formula unit of an ionic compound relative to
1/12th of the mass of Carbon-12

- Relative Isotopic Mass is the mass of an isotope of an element relative to 1/12th of the mass
of Carbon-12

Mole and Avogadro Constant

- One mole of any substance contains 6.02 x1023 atoms
- This number is known as Avogadro’s constant
- One mole of a substance has mass equal to its Relative Atomic or Molecular Mass
- One mole of a gas at room temperature and pressure occupies 24dm3 volume

Formulae
- Moles = Mass/Ar or Mr
- Moles = Volume x Concentration/1000
- Moles = Volume of gas at r.t.p/24
- Percentage Yield = actual mass / predicted mass x 100

Empirical and Molecular Formula

- Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule
- Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of all the elements present in a molecule

Steps to Calculate Empirical Formula

- Divide the mass of the elements present by the atomic mass to get the moles
- Divide all the values calculated by the smallest value calculated to get ratio
- The ratio corresponds to the number of atoms of each element in the Empirical Formula

Combustion
- Combustion is the burning of a substance in air (O2)
- General equation for combustion of gaseous Hydrocarbons:

CxHy(g) + x+y/2O2(g) → xCO2(g) + y/2H2O(l)

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Chemical Bonding

Electronegativity
- Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract or gain electrons
- Fluorine is the most electronegative atom
- Hydrogen is the least electronegative non-metal

Electronegativity Factors & Trends

- Electronegativity increases left to right across a period
- Electronegativity decreases down the group
- Increased nuclear charge results in increased electronegativity
- Increased atomic radius results in decreased electronegativity
- Increased shielding through increased quantum shells or subshell will decrease
electronegativity
- Metals are less electronegative than nonmetals

Electronegativity and Bonding

- A large difference in electronegativities between bonded atoms means the bond is ionic
- Small or no difference means the bond is covalent

Bond Energy
- It is the energy required to break one mole of a covalent bonds in gaseous state
- Bond Energy has units KJmol-1
- Bond Energy is always endothermic
- The higher the bond energy, the stronger the covalent bond

Bond Length
- It is the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms
- The greater the nuclear attraction, the lesser the bond length
- The lower the bond length, the stronger the covalent bond
- Hence, the lower the bond length, the higher the Bond Energy

Shapes of covalent molecules

- The shapes of covalent molecules are predicted by the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory (VSEPR)
- Electrons are negatively charged and repel each other when close
- The repulsion in bonding pair of electrons a molecule causes it to adopt a shape to minimise
the repulsion
- Lone pairs repel each other more than bond pairs
- Lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bond pair > bond pair-bond pair repulsion

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Bond Lone Shape Name Bond Angles Example
Pairs Pairs

2 0 Linear 180

3 0 Triangular Planar 120

4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5

5 0 Triangular Bipyramidal 90 & 120

6 0 Octahedral 90

3 1 Triangular Pyramidal 107

2 2 Bent non-linear 104.5

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Hydrogen Bonding
- Hydrogen Bonding is the strongest form of intermolecular bonding
- It is a type of a permanent dipole-permanent dipole bonding
- It is present in molecules where Hydrogen is covalently bonded to small, highly
electronegative atoms; F, O, N only
- Due to the electronegativity difference, the bond becomes highly polarised
- The H becomes so partial positive charged that it can bond with the lone pair of an O or N
atom of another molecule
- Hydrogen bonding causes high melting and boiling points, such as in water
- It causes high surface tension in water

Polarity
- Bond Polarity is the charge separation in a covalent molecule to a difference in
electronegativities between bonded atoms
- when two covalently bonded atoms have the same electronegativity, the bond is nonpolar
- The lesser electronegativity atom gains a partial positive charge (δ+)
- The higher electronegativity atom gains a partial negative charge (δ-)
- The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond becomes

Dipole
- The dipole moment is a measure of how polar a bond is
- It is represented by an arrow pointing towards the partial negative end of dipole

Polarity in Molecules
- The polarity of a molecule is determined by the polarity of each bond and the arrangement of
bonds
- Equal and opposite dipoles cancel each other out
- Symmetrical molecules like linear, planar or tetrahedral are non-polar as dipoles are equal
and opposite
- Molecules having lone pairs are polar because they distort symmetry

Van der Waals forces

- Intermolecular forces between covalent molecules are known as Van der Waals forces
- There are two types of Van der Waals forces:
1. temporary/induced dipole - induced dipole forces
2. Permanent dipole - permanent dipole forces

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Instantaneous dipole - Induced dipole forces
- present in non-polar covalent molecules
- when two nonpolar molecules come close together, electrons of the molecules repel each
other
- The repulsion causes electrons to be unevenly distributed, inducing a dipole
- the partial positive end of a molecule attracts the partial negative end of another
- this attraction is induced dipole - induced dipole force

- induced dipole - induced dipole forces increase with increasing electrons and greater surface
area of molecules to allow more points of contact

Permanent dipole - permanent dipole forces

- polar molecules have permanent dipoles
- the molecules always have partial positive and partial negative ends
- the forces between two polar molecules are permanent dipole-permanent dipole forces
- the partial positive end of one molecule attracts the partial negative end of another

- Permanent dipole-permanent dipole forces are stronger than induced dipole-induced dipole
forces in molecules having same number of electrons
- Hence, polar molecules have higher melting and boiling points

Coordinate/Dative bonding
- A dative bond is formed when one atom provides both electrons for a covalent bond
- The sharing is not mutual
- It is a represented by an arrow pointing away from the lone pair of electrons that form the
bond
- Al2Cl6 is a dimer formed by dative bonding, a chlorine atom of one AlCl3 gives two electrons to
the Aluminium atom of another

Incomplete and Expanded Octet

- Some species can have more or less than eight electrons in their outer shell
- GaCl3, AlCl3, BeCl2, BF3,BCl3 are examples of molecules having incomplete octet
- PCl5, SO2, SO3, SF6, SeF6 are examples of expanded octet

Sigma and Pi bonding

- It is the overlapping of two half filled atomic orbitals
- The greater the atomic orbital overlap, the stronger the bond

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Sigma bonds
- They are formed by the end to end overlapping of atomic orbitals
- Both s and p orbitals overlap this way
- the pair of electrons is found between the two nuclei
- the force between the electrons and nuclei bonds the atoms together
- All single covalent bonds are sigma bonds

Pi bonds
- are formed from the sideways overlap of adjacent p orbitals
- double covalent bonds contain 1 sigma and 1 pi bond
- Triple covalent bonds contain 1 sigma and 2 pi bonds

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States of Matter

Kinetic Theory of Gases

- No intermolecular forces are present between gas molecules
- The actual volume of gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied
- All collisions between gas molecules are elastic, no energy is lost
- The kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to temperature

Ideal Gases & Real Gases

- Gases that follow the kinetic theory are known as ideal gases, however, gases, in reality, do
not follow this theory exactly even though they come close, they are known as real gases
- Under conditions of low temperature and high pressure, real gases deviate from ideal
behaviour
- Under conditions of high temperature and low pressure, real gases show ideal behaviour
- Non-polar and small size gases behave more ideally; e.g He, H2, N2, O2
- Polar with Hydrogen Bonding and large molecule gases deviate from ideal behaviour; NH3

Ideal Gas Equation

pV = nRT
p = pressure (Pa)
V = volume (m3)
n = number of moles of gas (mol)
R = gas constant (8.31 JK-1mol-1)
T = temperature (Kelvin)

It’s necessary to convert to the correct units

Lattice Structures
- most ionic, covalent and metallic structures are lattice structures
- The ions, atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular and repeating arrangement

Giant Ionic Lattices

- An ionic bond is formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non metal atom
- The ions have an electrostatic force of attraction between them
- Ionic compounds are arranged in giant ionic lattices
- The positive and negative ions are arranged in an alternating order
- For example, NaCl and MgO
- They are strong but brittle
- They have high melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic forces
- Soluble in water as they can form ion-dipole bonds
- Only conduct electricity in molten or aqueous states as ions can move around

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Covalent Lattices
- Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between nonmetals
- Covalent compounds can have simple molecular or giant molecular lattices
- Iodine and Ice have simple molecular lattices
- Sand, Graphite and Diamond have giant molecular lattices

- Simple covalent structures have low melting and boiling points

- Mostly insoluble in water unless they are polar or can form Hydrogen bonds
- Do not conduct electricity in solid or liquid state

- Giant covalent compounds have high melting and boiling points

- Can be hard or soft depending on structure
- Mostly insoluble in water
- Mostly do not conduct electricity unless free electrons available

Metallic Lattices
- Metals form giant metallic lattices where metal ions are surrounded by a sea of delocalised
electrons
- are often packed in hexagonal layers or cubic arrangement
- Metallic compounds are malleable
- The metal layers can slide
- Metallic compounds are strong and hard due to strong forces between ions and electrons
- Metals have high melting and boiling points
- Pure metals are insoluble in water
- Can conduct electricity in solid or liquid states due to delocalised electrons

M.P/ Conductivity Solubility Hardness Forces Examples

B.P
Giant Ionic high Molten or soluble Hard, brittle Electrostatic attraction NaCl
aqueous
Giant high Solid or liquid insoluble Hard, Attraction between Copper
Metallic malleable Electrons and Ions

Simple low No Insoluble Soft Weak intermolecular Cl2

Covalent unless
polar
Giant V.high No except insoluble Very hard Strong covalent bonds SiO2
Covalent graphite except
graphite

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Chemical Energetics

Enthalpy Changes
- Total chemical energy inside a substance is called enthalpy
- the change in chemical energy during a chemical reaction is the enthalpy change
- Enthalpy change is represented by ΔH
- An enthalpy change can be positive or negative
- The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed for a reaction to take place
- The activation energy is represented by Ea

Exothermic Reactions
- A reaction is exothermic when the products have lesser energy than the reactants
- Heat energy is given off to the surroundings
- The enthalpy decreases so ΔH is negative
- They have a lower Ea than endothermic reactions
- Bond making is exothermic
- If more energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy is required to break
bonds, the reaction is exothermic

Endothermic Reactions
- A reaction is endothermic when the products have greater energy than the reactants
- Heat energy is absorbed from the surroundings
- The enthalpy increases so ΔH is positive
- Have a higher Ea than exothermic reactions
- Bond breaking is endothermic
- If more energy is required to break bonds than energy is released when new bonds are
formed, the reaction is endothermic

Energy Level Diagrams

- It is a graph of the energies of reactants and products against time

15
Enthalpy Changes at Standard Conditions
- Enthalpy changes are measured at standard conditions for fair comparison between reactions
- Pressure 101kPa
- Temperature of 298 K (25 degrees)
- Aqueous solutions should be at concentration of 1.0mol dm-1
- Enthalpy change under standard conditions is represented by ΔH°

Enthalpy Change of Formation (ΔH°f)

The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements
under standard conditions.

Enthalpy Change of Combustion (ΔH°c)

The enthalpy released when one mole of a substance is burnt in air completely under standard
conditions

Enthalpy Change of Neutralisation (ΔH°neut)

The enthalpy released when one mole of water is formed by the reaction between an acid and
an alkali under standard conditions

Bond Energy
- Exact bond energy is the amount of energy required to break one mole of a specific covalent
bond
- Average bond energy is the average of bond energies in different environments
- Average bond energy is calculated through enthalpy changes
- Average bond energy = total bond energy/number of bonds

Calculating Enthalpy Change with Bond Energies

ΔH = Total bond energy of reactants - total bond energy of products

Measuring Enthalpy Change

Q=mcΔT

Q = energy transferred (J)

m = mass (g)
c = specific heat capacity (Jg-1K-1)
ΔT = change in temperature

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Hess’s Law
- The law states that the total enthalpy change in a reaction is independent of the route by
which the chemical reaction takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are the same
- whatever route the reaction takes, the enthalpy change will be the same
- this is used to calculate enthalpy changes that cant be measured
- it can be calculated through the enthalpy change of formation, combustion

Calculating ΔH from standard enthalpy change of formation

ΔH = total standard enthalpy change of formation of products - total enthalpy change of

formation of reactants

Steps
1. Write down balanced equation
2. Write down all the elements that the compounds involved in the reaction form from
3. Draw arrows correctly from elements to compounds
4. Apply Hess Law, energy change of direct route should equal indirect route, subtract the
enthalpy going the opposite direction of an arrow and add when going in the same direction

Calculating ΔH from standard enthalpy change of combustion

ΔH = total standard enthalpy change of combustion of reactants - total standard enthalpy

change of combustion of products

Steps
1. Write down balanced equation
2. Write down all the products of combustion of reactants and products
3. Draw arrows correctly from reactants and products to combustion compounds
4. Apply Hess Law, energy change of direct route should equal indirect route, subtract the
enthalpy going the opposite direction of an arrow and add when going in the same direction

Calculating standard enthalpy change of formation from standard enthalpy change of

combustion

ΔHf = total standard enthalpy change of combustion of reactants - total standard enthalpy
change of combustion of products

Steps
1. Write down balanced equation
2. Write down all the products of combustion of reactants and products
3. Draw arrows correctly from reactants and products to combustion compounds
4. Apply Hess Law, energy change of direct route should equal indirect route, subtract the
enthalpy going the opposite direction of an arrow and add when going in the same direction

17
Electrochemistry

Oxidation Numbers
- oxidation number is a number that tells the electrons in an atom or ion
- a loss of electrons is represented by a positive oxidation number
- a gain of electrons is represented by a negative oxidation number
- The total oxidation state of a neutral compound is zero
- The total change in oxidation state in a reaction is equal

Redox
- Reduction is the gain of electrons or loss of oxidation state
- Oxidation is the loss of electrons or gain of oxidation state
- Reactions in which reduction and oxidation take place are known as redox
- A substance that oxidises another substance and reduces itself is known as an oxidising
agent
- A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another substances and oxidises itself
- A redox reaction must have both a reducing and oxidising agent

Disproportionation reaction
- A reaction in which one substance is both oxidised and reduced

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Equilibria

Reversible Reactions
- In a reversible reaction the products can react to form the reactants back
- the reaction can proceed in both the forward and backward directions

- Reversible reactions are represented by a double arrow

Dynamic Equilibrium
- When the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward direction in a closed
system

Le Chatelier’s principle
When any dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, it will shift the equilibrium in the forward or
backward direction to undo the disturbance and restore the equilibrium.

1. Temperature: Increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the endothermic

reaction, decreasing shifts towards exothermic

2. Pressure: Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium towards lesser number of moles of gas

3. Concentration: Increasing concentration of reactants or decreasing concentration of

products will shift equilibrium towards forward reaction. Decreasing concentration of reactants
or increasing concentration of products shifts equilibrium towards backward reaction.

Equilibrium Constant - Concentrations

- The equilibrium constant Kc is the ratio of concentrations of products in a reaction to the
concentrations of the reactants
- Square brackets [ ] represent concentration
- Kc = [products] / [reactants]
- The concentrations of different products and reactants are multiplied with each other, the
moles of each substance are taken as a power in the calculation
- The unit of Kc is deduced from its calculation
- Only a change in temperature affects the value of Kc

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Kc calculation example

2SO2(g) + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

2
[𝑆𝑂3]
Kc = 3
[𝑆𝑂2] [𝑂2]
Mole fraction
it is the number of moles of one gas divided by the total number of moles of gas at equilibrium

Partial Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by one gas in a mixture of gases
Sum of partial pressures = total pressure

Partial pressure = mole fraction x total pressure

Equilibrium Constant - Partial Pressures

- The equilibrium constant Kp is the ratio of the partial pressures of the products to the partial
pressure of the reactants
- Kp = partial pressure of products/partial pressure of reactants
- Only a change in temperature affects the value of Kp

2SO2(g) + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

2
𝑝(𝑆𝑂3)
Kc = 3
𝑝(𝑆𝑂2) 𝑝(𝑂2)

Conditions used in Haber’s process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

- The Haber’s process is carried out under the conditions of 450 - 500 degrees temperature,
200 - 250 atm, and Fe or Fe2O3 as catalyst
- Although temperature increases the rate of reaction, it shifts equilibrium backward since the
backward reaction is endothermic which decreases the yield of ammonia. Therefore, a
compromising temperature of 450-500 degrees is used.
- Increasing pressure increases both the rate of reaction but also shifts equilibrium forward and
increases yield. Thus, pressure is kept at 200-250 atm, however, maintaining higher pressures
is expensive.

20
Conditions used in the Contact Process

2SO2 (g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

- Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium forward

- However the reaction is carried out at 1 atm
- This is because the Kp is already high, higher pressures are expensive and unnecessary
- Although temperature increases the rate of reaction, it shifts equilibrium backward since the
backward reaction is endothermic which decreases the yield of ammonia. Therefore, a
compromising temperature of 450 degrees is used.

Lowry-Bronsted acid-base theory

- According to this theory, acids are proton donors (H+ ions) and bases are protons accepters
- A lowry-bronsted acid is a substance that gives away H+ ions
- A Lowry-Bronsted base is a substance that accepts H+ ions

CH3CO2H + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3CO2-

Bronsted Acid Conjugate Acid Conjugate Acid Conjugate Base

pH Scale
- it is a scale that shows how acidic or alkaline a substance is
- Acids have pH below 7
- Alkalis have pH above 7
- pH 7 is neutral, water has ph7
- the lower the pH, the more acidic a substance is
- the higher the pH, the more alkaline a substance is
- the most accurate way to measure pH is with a pH metre
- it can also be measured using a universal indicator which changes colour according to the pH
of the solution; acids are red/orange, neutral solutions are green, bases are blue/purple

Strong & Weak Acids

- Strong acids fully dissociate H+ ion in water
- The greater the concentration of the H+ ions, the more acidic the substance
- Weaker acids only partially dissociate H+ ions
- Stronger acids conduct electricity better due to the concentration of H+ ions
- Stronger acids are more reactive

Neutralisation Reaction
- A reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce a salt and water
- The ionic equation of any neutralisation reaction is the same

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O (l)

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pH Titration Curve
- Titration is a technique used to carry out neutralisation reactions
- It involves adding a titrant from a burette to a solution in a conical flask with an indicator
- The titrant is added till the end point, which is when solution changes colour
- Neutralisation takes place at the end point
- It is also known as the equivalence point

- The curve is drawn with the volume of titrant in cm3 at the x axis and pH on y axis
- It starts from the pH of the solution in the conical flask and goes to the pH of the titrant
- At the equivalence point, the line is vertical
- The shape of the curve changes according the pH of the solution and titrant

22
Reaction Kinetics

Rate of Reaction
- The rate of reaction is the speed at which a reaction takes place
- rate of reaction = change in reactants or products (mol dm-3)/time

Collision Theory
- For a reaction to take place, the particles need to collide with each other in correct orientation
and with enough energy
- The minimum energy required for successful collisions is known as the activation energy
- When particles don't have enough energy or correct orientation, the collision is ineffective and
the particles bounce off each other

Factors of Rate of Reaction

- The collision frequency is the number of collisions per unit time
- When collision frequency increases, more particles have energy above Ea
- Thus, increasing the collision frequency, increases the rate of reaction

Catalyst
- a substance that speeds up the rate of reaction without taking part in the reaction
- it increases the rate by lowering the energy of activation

Concentration
- The greater the concentration of a fluid, the more the particles in a given volume
- This increases the chances of collisions and hence the collision frequency
- Increased collision frequency thus means increased rate of reaction
- Reducing concentration reduces collision frequency and rate of reaction
- The rate of reaction keeps changing through a reaction because the concentration of
reactants and products keeps changing as more products are formed

Pressure
- Increasing the pressure pushes particles closer and there are more particles in a volume
- Thus the collision frequency increases and the rate of reaction

Temperature
- Increasing the temperature gives the particles more kinetic energy
- The particles then move faster, increasing the collision frequency and rate of reaction

23
Boltzmann Distribution Curve
- It is a graph of the distribution of energies in particles at a given temperature
- A few particles have very low and high energy, most particles will be in between
- This shows only a small amount of particles will have enough energy for successful collisions
and to chemically react

Changes in Temperature
- When the temperature is increased, particles gain more energy
- The collision frequency is increased and the rate of reaction increases
- On the Boltzmann distribution curve, this flattens the curve more and shifts the peak towards
higher energy
- The area under the curve remains same as it represents the total number of particles

Catalysts
- Since catalysts lower the activation energy, the point marked Ea on the curve shifts to the left
- Hence, more particles have a higher energy than the Ea which increases the rate of reaction

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts

- Homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same state as the reactants
- Heterogeneous catalysts are in a different state than the reactants

24
Inorganic Chemistry

Period 3

Elements of 3rd Period Properties

1, Atomic Radius
- The atomic radius decreases across the period
- Since the nuclear charge and number of electrons increase, there is greater attraction which
results in smaller atomic radius
- The smaller the atomic radius, the more the number of valence electrons, the stronger the
metallic bonding

2. Ionic Radius
- Ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an ion
- For isoelectronic species, ionic radius decreases when nuclear charge increases

3. Melting Point & Boiling Point

- The M.P/B.P increases left to right in the period, reaching a maximum at silicon then sharply
decreasing to reach a minimum at Argon
- Na, Mg, and Al are metallic elements that form giant ionic lattices
- The metallic bonding strength increases from Na to Al due to valence electrons
- Si has a giant covalent structure with a network of strong covalent bonds so it has the highest
melting point
- S8 molecules have stronger Vander Waals force hence have higher melting point than P4
- P, S, Cl, and Ar are non-metals with simple molecules and have low melting points due to
weak temporary dipole-dipole attraction

4. Electrical Conductivity
- metals are good conductors of electricity due to free valence electrons
- electrical conductivity of metals depends on the number of valence electrons
- the electrical conductivity increases from Na to Al
- From Si onwards, the elements are nonmetals and are non-conductors

25
Reactions of Period 3 elements

1. With water or steam

Metal(s) + Water (l) → Metal Hydroxide(aq) + H2(g)

Metal(s) + Steam (g) → Metal Oxide(s) + H2(g)

- Na reacts with cold water vigorously to form NaOH and H2 and Na dissolves quickly
- Mg reacts with cold water extremely slowly, solution formed is weak alkaline
- Mg reacts with steam vigorously to make MgO and H2, white solid left behind
- Cl will undergo disproportionation reaction to give acidic solution

2. With Oxygen

Equation Conditions Rate Flame Product

Na 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) heat vigorous Bright yellow White solid

Mg 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) heat vigorous Bright white White solid

Al 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s) Powdered fast Bright white White solid

Si Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(s) Powdered & heat slow Bright white White solid

P 4P(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s) heat vigorous Yellow/White White clouds

S S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) Powdered & heat gentle Blue Toxic fumes

3. With Chlorine

Equation Conditions Rate

Na 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) heat vigorous

Mg Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → 2MgCl(s) heat vigorous

Al 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → Al2Cl6(s) heat vigorous

Si Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) → SiCl4(l) heat slow

P 2P(s) + 5Cl2(g) → 2PCl5(l) heat slow

Excess chlorine

26
Acid Base Nature of Period 3 Oxides

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 / SO3

Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic Acidid

Reactions of Period 3 Oxides

1. With Water

Equation pH

Na2O Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) 12-14 (strong alkaline)

MgO MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) 8-10 (weak alkaline)

P4O10 P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) → 4H3PO4(aq) 3-4 (weak acid)

SO2 SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3 (aq) 1-2 (strong acid)

SO3 SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4 (aq) 1-2 (strong acid)

Al2O3 and SiO2 do not react with water since they are insoluble

2. With Acids/Bases

Equation

Na2O Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

MgO MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Al2O3 Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)

SiO2 SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)

P4O10 P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) → 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l)

SO2 SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

SO3 SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

27
Amphoteric Nature of Al2O3

- Al2O3 acts as a base in the presence of an acid

- Al2O3 + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O (l)
- Al2O3 acts as an acid to react with NaOH and produces an aluminate salt
- AlO3 (s) + 3NaOH(aq) +3H2O → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)

Reactions of Chlorides with Water

- NaCl and MgCl2 simply dissolve in water and form their respective aqueous ions
- No reaction takes place
- This is because as polar water molecule is attracted to ions dissolving the chlorides and
breaking down the giant ionic structures, the metals and chloride ions become hydrated ions

NaCl(s) + aq → Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) pH=7

MgCl2(s) + aq → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) pH=6.8-6.9

- The reaction of SiCl4 with water is known as hydrolysis of SiCl4

- white ppt, steamy white fumes are produced

SiCl4(l) + 2H2O → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) pH = 2

- PCl5 also undergoes hydrolysis

PCl5 + 4H2O → H3PO4 + 5HCl pH = 1-3

Reaction of AlCl3 with water

AlCl3(s) + aq → Al3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)

- Al3+ ion has high charge and small ionic radius

- Hence it has high polarising power.
- Polarising power is the tendency of a cation to distort electrons (electron cloud) of anion.
- Or to attract lone pair of electrons of water
- Distortion results in forming some covalent character in that compound.
- When water is added to AlCl3 the Al3+ ions become hydrated
- The bonded water molecule loses an H+ ion
- The H+ ion and Cl- ions reacted together to form white fumes of HCl

[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) → [Al(H2O)9OH](aq) + H+(aq)

28
Group 2 Elements

- Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals

- Beryllium is the least reactive while Barium is the most reactive
- Beryllium exhibits a non-metallic character; high charge density and high polarising power
- Down the group rate of reaction increases and reaction becomes more exothermic
- Down the group the density of group 2 metal increases

Reactions of Group 2 Elements

1. With water
- All group 2 metals react with water to form respective hydroxide and H2 gas
- Except for Beryllium it has no reaction with water
- The reactivity increases down the group
- The reaction becomes more vigorous down the group

2. With oxygen
- Group 2 metals react with oxygen gas when heated over bunsen flame, forming respective
oxides

Group 2 Metal Flame Colour

Mg white

Ca Brick red

Sr red

Ba Apple green

3. With dilute acid HCl

- Group 2 metals undergo displacement/redox reactions with dilute acid
- Beryllium reacts rapidly and the rest reacts vigorously
- Metal + dil HCl → Respective Chloride Salt + H2

4. With dilute acid H2SO4

- Group 2 metals undergo displacement/redox reactions with dilute acid
- Metal + dil H2SO4 → Respective Chloride Salt + H2
- SrSO4 and BaSO4 are insoluble salts formed
- Down the group, reaction slows down due to the formation of insoluble sulfate layer on the
metal surface

29
Reactions of Group 2 oxides

1. With water
- All group 2 oxides are basic oxides
- Except for BeO which is amphoteric
- They react with water to form respective hydroxides
- The solubilities of oxides and hydroxides increase down the group
- The solution produced becomes more alkaline down the group

2. With dilute HCl

- All group 2 oxides react with dilute acid to form salt and water through neutralisation
- MetalOxide + 2HCl → MetalCl2 + H2O

Reactions of Group 2 Carbonates with HCl

MCO3 + HCl → MCl2 + H2O + CO2

Thermal Decomposition
- Thermal decomposition is breakdown of a compound into 2 or more different substances
using heat
- The temperature at which thermal decomposition of G2 elements take place increases down
the group

Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Carbonates

- All group 2 carbonates decompose upon heating
- They form respective oxide and CO2
- Thermal stabilities of group 2 carbonates increases, higher temperature is required to
decompose carbonates down the group
- MCO3 → MO + CO2

Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Nitrates

- All group 2 nitrates decompose upon heating, forming respective oxide, NO2 and O2
- NO2 gas has brown colour
- White solid remains and brown gas is released during reaction
- 2M(NO3)2 → 2MO + 4NO2 + O2

Trend in solubilities of group 2 hydroxides and sulfates

- The solubility of group 2 hydroxides increases down the group
- The solubility of group 2 sulfates decreases down the group

30
Group 17 Halogens

All group 17 elements are diatomic covalent molecules

F2 (g) : Pale Yellow gas

Cl2(g) : Yellow-green gas
Br2(l) : Orange-Brown liquid
I2 (s) : Shiny blue-black crystals
At (s): Black solid

Trend in the Melting Point, Boiling Point and Volatility

- The melting and boiling points increase down the group
- The volatility decreases down the group
- Moving down, the number of electrons increase, strength of induced dipole-induced dipole
attraction increases, hence the M.P and B.P increase and volatility decreases

Note: Solid iodine sublimes upon heating to give violet/purple vapours

Trend in reactivity
- The relative reactivities of halogens depends on the electronegativity and relative oxidising
ability of halogens.
- All halogens are oxidising agents
- The relative oxidising ability decreases down the group, hence the relative reactivity
decreases down the group

Halide ions as reducing agents

- The halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) are reducing agents

- they reduce other species and are oxidised to form respective halogen
- The relative reducing ability of halide ions increases down the group
- Going down the group. Halide ions become larger, outermost electrons gets further away from
nucleus making it less tight to lose electron and thus reducing agent increases

Reaction with H2 gas

- F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 all react with H2 to form respective halogen halides
- Cl2(g) + H2 (g) → 2HCl(g)
- The reactivity decreases down the group
- All halogen halides are colourless gases at r.t.p and when added to water form strong acids

31
Trend in thermal stabilities of Hydrogen Halides

- The thermal stabilities of hydrogen halides decreases down the group

- This is because the Bond Energy decreases as H-X bond length increases
- Fluorine atoms have smaller bond enthalpy than Chlorine and Bromine because the atomic
size of F is smaller than that of Cl and Br, making it easier for F atoms to break bonds and
escape the molecule.
- When a hot metal wire or hot glass rod is taken into a glass jar containing HI gas, HI
decomposes into H2and I2 vapours since it is the least thermally stable
- The same hot metal wire or glass will not decompose HBr and HCl

Displacement reactions of halogens

- The more reactive halogen can displace less reactive halogen from its halide salt solution
- Cl2 (aq) + 2KIaq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2 (aq)
- Cl2 has oxidised I- ions to I2; I- ions have reduced Cl2 to Cl- ions

Reactions of halide ions with AgNO3 (aq) followed by NH3 (aq)

- When acidified AgNO3is added to an aqueous solution of Cl- ions, a white precipitate of AgCl
forms
- When an excess of dilute aqueous NH3 is added, the white ppt dissolves completely.
- NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → 2AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

- When acidified AgNO3 is added to aqueous bromide, a pale cream precipitate forms
- The precipitate is partially soluble in dilute aqueous NH3 and is fully soluble in concentrated
aqueous NH3
- MgBr2 (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → 2AgBr (s) +Mg(NO3)2 (aq)

- When acidified AgNO3 is added to Iodide ions, a yellow precipitate is formed

- The precipitate is insoluble in dilute and concentrated NH3(aq)
- KI(aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgI(s) + KNO3 (aq)

32
Reaction of Halide ions with Concentrated H2SO4
- Metal halides do not react with Dilute acids
- Cl-, Br-, I- will react with concentrated H2SO4 and will produce one or more toxic gases

Reaction Observations

NaCl + H2SO4 —> NaHSO4 + HCl White fumes of HCl

NaBr + H2SO4 —> NaHSO4 + HBr -

2HBr + H2SO4 —> Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O Red-brown fumes of Br2

NaI + H2SO4 —> NaHSO4 + HI -

2HI + H2SO4 —> I2 + SO2 + 2H2O Purple vapours of I2

6HI + H2SO4 —> 3I2 + S + 4H2O Yellow solid (S) formed

8HI + H2SO4 —> 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O Smell of rotten egg of H2S

Uses of Halogens
Fluorine: used to make insulating handles for pans
Chlorine: used for water purification and as bleaches agents
Bromine: used as Flame retardants and fire extinguishers
Iodine: used as antiseptic and disinfectant agents

Disproportionation reaction
- It is a reaction in which the same species are both oxidised and reduced

Chlorine in cold alkali

Cl2 + 2NaOH —> NaCl + NaClO + H2O

Chlorine in hot alkali

3Cl2 + 6NaOH —> 5NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O

Chlorine in water purification

Cl2 + H2O —> HCl + HClO

- Chlorine can be used to clean water and make it drinkable

- Chloric acid (HClO) sterilised water by killing bacteria
- Chloric acid can further dissociate in water to form ClO-
HClO —> H+ + ClO-
- ClO- also acts as a sterilising agent cleaning the water

33
Nitrogen and Sulfur

Reactivity of Nitrogen
- Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule
- Nitrogen gas is unreactive because of its triple covalent bond and lack of polarity
- It has a very high bond energy required to overcome the triple bond
- Nitrogen is non-polar which also makes it unreactive
- Nitrogen gas only reacts in very high temperatures such as during lightning

Ammonia
- Ammonia is an alkaline gas
- It turns damp red litmus paper blue
- It has a pungent smell

Preparation of Ammonia
- It is produced at a large scale in industries using the Haber process
- N2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
- It can be prepared in a laboratory by heating an ammonium salt with a base
- This is known as displacement of NH3 from ammonium salt
- NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + NH3

Basicity of Ammonia
- Ammonia is a base because of the lone pair of electrons of Nitrogen
- It acts as a proton acceptor
- NH3 reacts with acids to form respective ammonium salts

Structure and formation of Ammonium Ion

- the NH4+ ion is formed when NH3 accepts a proton (H+) from an acid
- A dative bond is formed between NH3 and H+
- NH3 has a pyramidal shape
- NH4+ ion has tetrahedral shape

Oxides of Nitrogen
- Nitrogen reacts with oxygen in air under extreme conditions of lightning to form nitrogen
oxides
- Nitrogen can also form oxides in the high temperature and pressure of car engine
- The oxides are atmospheric pollutants as they mix with rain to form acid rain
- Catalytic converter are used in car exhausts to convert harmful gases into harmless gases
- The nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen gas with a hot catalyst like platinum
- 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO2(g) + N2 (g)
- NO forms acid rain and respiratory problems
34
Nitrogen Dioxide as a Catalyst
- NO2 oxidises SO2 gas to SO3 and is reduced to NO
- NO is readily oxidised in the air to form NO2
- SO2(g) + NO2(g) → SO3(g) + NO (g)
- SO3 reacts with water to form sulfuric acid
- This way NO2 also acts as a catalyst to form acid rain

Oxides of Sulphur Dioxide

- SO2 is produced through volcanic eruption or through flue gases in industries like brick kilns
- It can be found in extraction of metal ores and combustion in car engines
- SO2 inhibits growth of bacteria and yeasts etc
- SO2 can be used as food preservatives or to bleach the wood pulp for paper production
- This acidic oxide works as a reducing agent as well
- SO2 can be reduced in air by process of flue gases desulfurization

Harmful effects of Acid Rain

- Acid rain causes respiratory problems such as asthma, and skin irritation
- It corrodes marble and limestone buildings
- It increases the acidity of soil, and affects root growth
- It destroys aquatic life

Treatment of soil
- Acid rain increases the acidity of soil which is harmful for the plant growth
- Acidic soil can be neutralised by adding CaO, Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3
- Excess of CaCO3 has no effect but adding others will make the soil basic
- CA(OH)2 should not be mixed with fertiliser, as upon reaction NH3 gas will produce, which will
decrease the nitrogen content in soil
- Alkaline soil can be neutralised by adding (NH4)2SO4

35
 Shapes of molecules 1

SHAPES OF SIMPLE MOLECULES AND IONS

Electron pair repulsion theory

This is used to predict the shapes of simple molecules and ions by considering the repulsions
between pairs of electrons (lone pair and bond pair) within the molecule. It states that,

“The shape adopted is the one which keeps repulsive forces to a minimum”

To determine the shape, count up the number of covalent bond pairs and lone pairs around the
central atom and work out the shape which keeps the bonds as far apart as possible.

Species without lone pairs

Only bond pair repulsions occur and the basic shapes are regular.

BOND BOND
MOLECULE STRUCTURE SHAPE
PAIRS ANGLE(S)

BeCl2 Be
Cl Cl Cl Be Cl 2 180° Linear

F
F F
BF3 B
Trigonal
B 3 120° planar
Knockhardy Publishing

F
F F

H H
CH4
H C H

H
C 4 109.5° Tetrahedral
H H
H

F F
F
PF5 F 120° Trigonal
F
P
F
P F 5 bipyramidal
F
F 90°
F

F
F

SF6 F F
F F
S S 6 90° Octahedral
F F F F
F

Species with lone pairs

Lone pairs of electrons have a greater repulsive power than bond pairs so their presence will
affect the angles of bonds as they push the bond pairs away. The order of repulsive power is ...

lone pair - lone pair > lone pair - bond pair > bond pair - bond pair

The resulting configuration is based on the number of electron pairs but the actual shape does
not include the lone pairs. A water molecule is angular despite the fact that it has 4 electron
pairs around oxygen. Two of the pairs are lone pairs and are “invisible”.

© KNOCKHARDY 2PUBLISHING 2015

2 Shapes of molecules

Ammonia 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair (total = 4 pairs) so

the shape is based on a tetrahedron. As the H

lone pair-bond pair repulsions are greater than

bond pair-bond pair repulsions the H-N-H bond H N H N
H
angle is reduced from 109.5° to 107°. H
H
:- shape is PYRAMIDAL

Water 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs (total = 4 pairs) H

H H
so the shape is based on a tetrahedron.
The extra lone pair-lone pair repulsion pushes O O
the H-O-H bond angle down further to 104.5°.
H
:- shape is ANGULAR or NON-LINEAR

Carbon 2 double bond pairs and no lone pairs

dioxide For repulsive purposes, double bonds act
like single bonds. The shape will be based O C O O C O
on two bond pairs repelling each other.
The bond angle is 180°.

:- shape is LINEAR

Knockhardy Publishing
Simple ions
Shapes can be worked out NH 3 +
NH4 NH 2-
according to the method shown.
It allows you to predict the shape Draw out the OUTER
electronic configuration N N N
but in some cases not the true of the central atom.
nature of the bonding.
If the species is an ion ...
For ions containing oxygen (e.g. Add one electron for
each negative charge +
SO42-) some bonds are double and N N N-
or
some single. In these cases add an
remove one electron
electron to an oxygen atom for every for each positive charge
-ive charge on the ion. Single bond
these oxygens to the central atom
and double bond the rest. H H
Pair up the electrons of H H

the central species with

e.g. SO42- those of the atom(s)
H N H H N
+ H N-

Sulphur has 6electrons in its outer surrounding it.

H
shell. As the ion has a 2- charge,
Count the electron pairs.
give two of the O’s an electron each
to make them O¯ and form a single
bond between them and S. The BOND PAIRS 3 BOND PAIRS 4 BOND PAIRS 2
ELECTRON PAIRS
other two O’s are then double LONE PAIRS 1 LONE PAIRS 0 LONE PAIRS 2
bonded to the sulphur. This
produces 4 bonds and no lone pairs SHAPE PYRAMIDAL TETRAHEDRAL ANGULAR
so the ion is tetrahedral..

Q.1 Determine the shapes of the following molecules and ions.

a) PCl3 b) AlH3 c) H2S d) SO2* e) SO3 * f) PF6¯ g) AlH4¯

* double bonds are treated as single bonds for repulsion purposes (e.g. CO2 is linear)

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

CIE Chemistry A Level

13 : Nitrogen and Sulfur

Notes

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Nitrogen

Reactivity of nitrogen
Nitrogen, N​2​, has a ​low reactivity​ due to its bonding.

A nitrogen molecule, shown on the left, has a ​triple covalent

bond ​between two nitrogen atoms. Chemical reactions
normally involve breaking bonds so that new bonds can be
formed. This is why nitrogen is so unreactive as such a large
amount of energy is required to break the strong triple covalent
bond.

The basicity of ammonia

Ammonia is a ​weak base​ as it only ​partially dissociates​ (ionises) in water:
NH​3​ + H​2​O ​⇌ NH​4​+​ + OH​-
Ammonia is a ​Bronsted-Lowry base​ because it accepts hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ion bonds
to the ammonia molecule by forming a ​coordinate bond​. This produces an ammonium ion. The
production of the hydroxide ions are what gives ammonia its basic character.

The ammonium ion

Ammonium ions ​are produced during ​acid-base reactions​.

The ammonium ion has a ​tetrahedral​ shape. The structure of the ion is shown below:

Displacement of ammonia from its salts

Ammonia can be​ displaced​ from its salts by heating an ammonium with an alkali. The ionic
equation for the reaction that takes place is:
NH​4​+​ + OH​-​ → NH​3​ + H​2​O

This is a common ​laboratory method​ of obtaining ammonia. Examples of these reactions can be
seen below:
NH​4​Cl + NaOH → NH​3​ + H​2​O + NaCl
2NH​4​Cl + Ca(OH)​2​ → 2NH​3​ + 2H​2​O + CaCl​2

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Industrial importance of ammonia and nitrogen compounds

Ammonia compounds
Ammonia compounds are used in ​fertilisers​ to provide plants with nutrients to ​help growth​ and
development. These compounds provide plants with nitrogen to​ replace the nitrogen​ that has
been lost from the soil. A very common nitrogen based compound used in fertilisers is ​ammonium
nitrate​, NH​4​NO​3​, formed from the following reaction:
NH​3​ + HNO​3​ → NH​4​NO​3
This compound contains two sources of nitrogen making it a useful fertiliser.

Nitrogen compounds
Nitric acid​ is used to make:
● Fertilisers (e.g.ammonium nitrate)
● Explosives (e.g. TNT)
● Dyes
● Polymers
● Paints
● Detergents
● Drugs

Consequences of uncontrolled use of nitrate fertilisers

Nitrates are ​water soluble​. When crops are treated with fertilisers containing nitrate compounds,
nitrates ​dissolve in rain water​ and ​leach​ into lakes and rivers. This fertilises plants and algae in
water. This has negative environmental consequences because ​algal bloom​ forms over the
surface of the water, ​preventing light​ reaching plants below the surface. This results in the death
of aquatic plants, meaning that the ​oxygen supply in the water is reduced​. This kills fish and
other aquatic life. This process is called ​eutrophication​.

Oxides of nitrogen
Nitrogen monoxide​, NO, can be formed as a result of ​combustion in car engines​. The reaction
between oxygen and nitrogen takes place at the ​high pressures and temperatures​ which are
created by car engine. The reaction that takes place is:
N​2​ + O​2​ → 2NO
Removal using catalytic converters
Catalytic converters​ can be used to ​remove nitrogen monoxide​ from car exhaust fumes.
Catalytic converters contain a ceramic honeycomb structure which is coated in a thin layer of metal
catalysts like ​rhodium​ and ​platinum​. This creates a ​larger surface area​ of metal. Catalytic
converters catalyse the reaction between carbon monoxide with nitrogen monoxide (harmful
gases) to produce nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
2NO + 2CO → N​2​ + 2CO​2

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Catalytic role of oxides of nitrogen in the production of sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide catalyses​ the reaction for the formation of ​sulfur trioxide​ from sulfur dioxide:
SO​2​ + NO​2​ → SO​3​ + NO
Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen to reform the catalyst (nitrogen dioxide):
2NO + O​2​ → 2NO​2
Sulfur trioxide​ is a ​pollutant​ because it reacts with water vapour in clouds to form ​acid rain
which causes various environmental problems.
SO​3​ + H​2​O → H​2​SO​4

Sulfur

Formation of sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide​ is formed when fossil fuels, containing ​sulfur impurities​, are burnt in ​oxygen​.
S + O​2​ → SO​2

Acid rain
Sulfur dioxide​ reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to form ​sulfur trioxide​. When sulfur trioxide
dissolved in ​water vapour​ in clouds, ​acid rain​ is produced. Acid rain causes environmental
damage such as:
● Corrosion​ of limestone buildings.
● Acidification of lakes​ ​and rivers​, damaging the ecosystems in the water.
● Damage to ​vegetation​.

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CIE Chemistry A Level

11 : Group 17
Notes

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Physical properties of the Group 17 elements
The Group 17 elements are also known as the halogens.

Colours and trends in volatility

At room temperature, the colours of the halogens get darker down the group. The boiling points
also increase due to the increasing strength of the ​intermolecular forces.
● Fluorine​ - pale yellow gas
● Chlorine​ - green gas
● Bromine​ - red-brown liquid
● Iodine​ - grey solid

Volatility and van der Waals

Fluorine​ has the lowest melting and boiling points in group 7 and is therefore the ​most volatile​.
This is because it has the ​weakest van der Waals​ (intermolecular) forces.
The number of electrons in each molecule and the size of the molecules increases down group 7.
This means that the ​temporary dipoles​ get stronger so there are more ​van der Waals forces
between molecules. More energy is needed to overcome these forces so ​volatility decreases
down Group 17.

Chemical properties of the elements and their hydrides

Reactivity of the elements as oxidising agents

When the halogens react, they ​gain an electron​ to form negative ions. ​Reactivity​ of the halogen
decreases ​down the group. This is because it becomes harder to gain an electron as ​electron
shielding​ and ​atomic radius​ increase down the group so there is weaker attraction between the
incoming electron and the protons in the nucleus.

Oxidising agents​ are elements/ compounds that gain electrons to oxidise another element/
compound. Halogens act as oxidising agents and they become ​less oxidising down the group
due to the decreasing reactivity. The relative oxidising strengths of the halogens can be seen by
their ​displacement​ reactions with other halide ions.

The table below shows that out of chlorine, bromine and iodine, ​chlorine​ is the ​strongest
oxidising agent​ and iodine is the weakest:

Halogen Displacement Ionic equation

Cl Chlorine (Cl​2​) will displace bromide Cl​2​ + 2Br​-​ → 2Cl​-​ + Br​2

and iodide ions. Cl​2​ + 2I​-​ → 2Cl​-​ + I​2

Br Bromine (Br​2​) will displace iodide Br​2​ + 2I​-​ → 2Br​-​ + I​2

ions.

I Iodine (I​2​) will not react with No reactions take place

chloride or bromide ions

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From this table, you can observe the ​basic trend​:
‘A halogen will displace a halide from a solution if the halide ion is below it in the periodic table.’
Displacement​ reactions can be identified by a ​change in the colour​ of the solution.

Chlorine solution - ​colourless

Bromine solution - ​orange
Iodine solution - ​brown

For example, if chlorine is added to a solution of potassium bromide, the solution will change from
colourless to orange due to the formation of bromine:
Cl​2​ + 2KBr → Br​2​ + 2KCl

Reaction with hydrogen

The halogens react with hydrogen to form ​hydrogen halides​. These reactions show that
reactivity decreases​ down Group 17.
The standard reaction equation for the reaction with hydrogen (where X is the halogen) is:

X​2​ + H​2​ → 2HX

● Fluorine​ reacts ​explosively​ with hydrogen to form hydrogen fluoride gas. This reaction
occurs even in a ​cold​ atmosphere.
● Chlorine​ reacts with hydrogen if ​lightly heated ​or exposed to ​sunlight​.
● Bromine​ reacts with hydrogen if ​heated​ with a flame.
● Iodine​ only partially reacts with hydrogen when ​constantly heated​. There is a ​partial
reaction​ because an ​equilibrium​ is set up:
I​2​ + H​2​ ​⇌ 2HI

Thermal stability of the hydrides

The ​thermal stability​ of a hydride is how easy a hydrogen halide is broken up into its constituent
elements when heated.

● Hydrogen fluoride​ and ​hydrogen chloride​ are ​very thermally stable​. They will not split
into hydrogen and the halogen if heated under laboratory conditions.
● Hydrogen bromide​ will ​split​ into hydrogen and bromine when ​heated​.
● Hydrogen iodide​ will split into hydrogen and iodine ​more easily than hydrogen bromide​.

These reactions show that ​thermal stability of the hydrides decreases down Group 17​. This is
because further down the group, the ​covalent bonds are weaker​ so they can be broken more
easily upon heating. The bonds are weaker further down the group because the halogen atoms get
larger. This means that the ​bonding pair gets further away from the nucleus ​so the attraction
gets ​weaker​ and the bond is easier to break.

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Bond energies
Bond enthalpies of the hydrides
The thermal stability of the halogens decreases down the group. This can be explained in terms of
bond energies (also known as bond enthalpies). Bond enthalpies of the hydrogen halides
decrease ​down Group 17 because the size of the halogen ​increases​. This means less energy is
required to break the covalent bond between hydrogen and halogen.

Bond enthalpies of the halogens

The ​bond enthalpies ​of the halogen molecules ​decrease ​from Cl​2​ to I​2​. This is because the size of
the molecules ​increases ​so the bonding pair is further from the nucleus. In the same way as the
hydrogen halides, the ​bonding pair is less attracted​ to the nucleus in larger molecules so the
covalent bond is more easily broken.

Reactions of the halide ions

Reactions with silver nitrate followed by aqueous ammonia

Silver nitrate solution​ can be used to ​test for halide ions​ in a solution:

1. Add ​nitric acid ​to the halide ion solution to remove any ions which may produce a false
positive for the test (e.g. carbonate ions).
2. Add a few drops of ​silver nitrate ​solution (AgNO​3​).
3. Observe the ​precipitate​ formed.
The standard equation for this reaction (where X is the halide ion) is:

Ag​+​(aq)​ + X​-​(aq)​ → AgX​(s)

Observations:
● Fluoride​ ions - no precipitate.
● Chloride​ ions - white precipitate.
● Bromide​ ions - cream precipitate.
● Iodide​ ions - yellow precipitate.

To ensure the precipitates have been correctly identified, ​aqueous ammonia​ can be added:
● Chloride precipitate ​- dissolves in dilute NH​3​.
● Bromide precipitate​ - dissolves in concentrated NH​3​.
● Iodide precipitate​ - insoluble in dilute and concentrated NH​3​.

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Reactions with concentrated sulfuric acid
All halide ions react with ​concentrated sulfuric acid​ to produce a ​hydrogen halide​. A secondary
reaction then takes place, which differs depending on which halide.

Reaction of ​NaCl​ and ​NaF ​with H​2​SO​4

NaF + H​2​SO​4​ → NaHSO​4​ + HF
NaCl + H​2​SO​4​ → NaHSO​4​ + HCl

For both of these reactions, HF and HCl can be identified as ​misty fumes​.
HF and HCl are ​not strong enough reducing agents​ so no further reactions occur.

Reaction of ​NaBr​ with H​2​SO​4

NaBr + H​2​SO​4​ → NaHSO​4​ + HBr

Misty fumes​ of HBr are produced. HBr is a strong enough ​reducing agent​ to react with H​2​SO​4​.
This second reaction produced the ​choking gas SO​2​ and ​brown fumes of Br​2​ in a ​redox
reaction​:

2HBr + H​2​SO​4​ → Br​2​ + SO​2​ + 2H​2​O

Reaction of ​NaI​ with H​2​SO​4

NaI + H​2​SO​4​ → NaHSO​4​ + HI

Misty fumes ​of HI are produced. HI is a strong enough ​reducing agent ​to react with the H​2​SO​4​.
Similarly to the reaction above, ​SO​2​ ​is produced. Since HI is a ​very strong reducing agent,​ the
SO​2​ is further reduced to ​H​2​S ​- which smells of ​rotten eggs​.

2HI + H​2​SO​4​ → I​2​ + SO​2​ + 2H​2​O

6HI + SO​2​ → H​2​S + 3I​2​ + 2H​2​O

Reactions of chlorine with aqueous sodium hydroxide

A ​disproportionation​ reaction is a reaction in which an element is both​ oxidised​ and ​reduced​.

Chlorine reacts with cold dilute sodium hydroxide:

2NaOH​(aq)​ + Cl​2 (g)​ → NaClO​(aq)​ + NaCl​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)

This is a​ disproportionation​ reaction because chlorine has been ​reduced​ from 0 in Cl​2​ to -1 in
NaCl and ​oxidised​ from 0 in Cl​2​ to +1 in NaClO. NaClO (also known as ​sodium chlorate(I)
solution) is ​bleach​. It is used in water treatment, to bleach textiles and paper, and for cleaning
because it ​kills bacteria.

Chlorine also reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide:

6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl​2(g)​ → 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO​3(aq)​ + 3H​2​O(l)

This is a ​disproportionation​ reaction because chlorine has been ​reduced​ from 0 in Cl​2​ to -1 in
NaCl and ​oxidised​ from 0 in Cl​2​ to +5 in NaClO​3​.

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Uses of halogens and halogen compounds

Chlorine in water purification

Chlorine is used in water purification because it​ kills bacteria.
Chlorine reacts with water in a ​disproportionation​ reaction, producing chloride and chlorate ions.
The reaction produces HCl so an ​alkali​ is usually added to the water to ​reduce the acidity​.

Cl​2​ + H​2​O ​⇌ 2H​+​ + Cl​-​ + ClO​-

Chlorate ions kill bacteria ​so treating water with chlorine or chlorate ions makes it safe to drink or
swim in.

Chlorine treats water in different ways:

● Kills dangerous microorganisms​ which could cause diseases.
● Some chlorine persists in the water which ​prevents reinfection​ in the long term.
● Prevents the growth of ​algae.
● Removes bad tastes​ and smells.
● Removes ​discolouration​.

Chlorine is toxic so there are discussions about whether chlorine should be added to water. In
addition to this, chlorine can react with organic matter in the water forming potentially cancer
causing compounds. On balance, since only a small amount of chlorine is added, it is agreed that
the benefits outweigh the risks.

Industrial importance and environmental significance of the halogens and their

compounds

Killing bacteria
Chlorine and chlorate ions are industrially important as they are used to kill bacteria, ​preventing
disease and infection​.

PVC
Organic compounds containing chlorine​ are very important. The polymer poly(chloroethene),
PVC, contains ​one chlorine atom​ in each polymer unit and is relied upon for many uses. It is very
hard​ so can be used for ​windows​ and ​drain pipes.
Plasticiser​ can be added to PVC to make it more ​flexible​ which extends its uses to other things
like ​electrical cable insulation​ and ​clothing​.

Halogenated hydrocarbons
Halogens react with alkanes to form ​halogenoalkanes​.
Chlorofluorocarbons​ (CFCs) are halogenoalkane molecules in which all hydrogen atoms have
been replaced by chlorine and fluorine. CFCs were used as ​coolants in fridges​ and as ​solvents
and propellants in ​aerosols​. However, CFCs cause ​damage to the ozone layer​ so they have
been banned and replaced with HFCs (​hydrofluorocarbons​) which don’t contain chlorine.

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Damage to the ozone layer:
Ozone​ (O​3​) is the layer in the upper atmosphere which ​absorbs a lot of UV radiation ​from the
sun, preventing it from reaching us. This is a crucial part of the atmosphere which prevent people
getting too much ​sun damage.
Ozone is formed when an ​oxygen molecule reacts with an oxygen free radical​ (which is
produced from an oxygen molecule in the presence of UV light):
​ O​.
O​2​ → O​.​ +
​ O​3
O​2​ + O​.​ →

Chlorine free radicals​ are formed in the upper atmosphere when CFCs are broken down by UV
radiation:
​ CCl​2​F​.
CCl​3​F → Cl​.​ +

The chlorine free radicals react with ozone, ​breaking it down into oxygen​. This creates holes in
the protective ozone layer.

Cl​.​ + O​3​ → O​2​ + ClO​.

ClO​.​ + O​3​ → 2O​2​ + Cl​.
Overall: 2O​3​ → 3O​2

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 The Halogens 1

THE HALOGENS - Group 17 (7)

General • non-metals
• exist as separate diatomic molecules.
• all have the electronic configuration ... ns2 n p5 .

TRENDS

Appearance F Cl Br I
Colour yellow green red-brown grey

State (at RTP) gas gas liquid solid

Boiling Point Increases down group F Cl Br I

Boiling point / °C -188 -34 58 183

• increased size makes induced diploe-dipole (V de W) interactions increase

• more energy is required to separate the molecules

Electronegativity Decreases down group F Cl Br I

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Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5

• increasing nuclear charge due to the greater number of protons should attract
electrons more, but there is an ...

• increasing number of shells; ∴ more shielding and less pull on electrons

• increasing atomic radius; ∴ attraction drops off as distance increases

Atomic size Increases down group F Cl Br I

Covalent radius / nm 0.064 0.099 0.111 0.128

Ionic size Increases down group F¯ Cl¯ Br¯ I¯

Ionic radius / nm 0.136 0.181 0.195 0.216

• The greater the atomic number the more electrons there are.
These go into shells increasingly further from the nucleus.

• Ions are larger than atoms - repulsion due to added electron expands radius

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2 The Halogens

Oxidising
power • halogens are oxidising agents - they need an electron to complete their octet
• the oxidising power gets weaker down the group

• the trend can be explained by considering the nucleus’s attraction for the
incoming electron which is affected by the...

• increasing nuclear charge which should attract electrons more; but is offset by
- increasing shielding
- increasing atomic radius

This can be demonstrated by reacting the halogens with other halide ions.

chlorine oxidises bromide ions to bromine Cl2 + 2Br¯ ——> Br2 + 2Cl¯
chlorine oxidises iodide ions to iodine Cl2 + 2I¯ ——> I2 + 2Cl¯
bromine oxidises iodide ions to iodine Br2 + 2I¯ ——> I2 + 2Br¯

As a result of its small size and high electronegativity,

fluorine can bring out the highest oxidation state in elements
e.g. PF5 (+5), SF6 (+6), IF7 (+7) and F2O (+2).

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Some reactions of chlorine

Water Halogen reactivity with decreases down the group as oxidising power decreases
Litmus will be turned red then decolourised in chlorine water

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

strong acid bleaches by oxidation

Q.1 What happens to the oxidation state of chlorine in this reaction?

Q.2 Explain the colour changes of litmus.

Q.3 What is the industrial importance of this reaction ?

Alkalis Chlorine reacts with aqueous sodium hydroxide; the products vary with conditions.

cold, dilute 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) ——> NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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 The Halogens 3

HALIDE IONS

Reducing
ability • halide ions behave as reducing agents
• they give an electron to what they are reducing Cl¯ ——> Cl + e¯

Trend least powerful F¯ < Cl¯ < Br¯ < I¯ most powerful reducing agent

Reason As the ionic radius get larger it becomes easier to remove the outer electrons.

Example The reaction between solid halides and concentrated sulphuric acid - see below

TESTING FOR HALIDE IONS

Silver
nitrate • make a solution of the halide
• acidify with dilute nitric acid - prevents formation of other insoluble silver salts
• add a few drops of silver nitrate solution
• treat any precipitate with dilute ammonia solution
• if a precipitate still exists, add concentrated ammonia solution

Solubility in dilute Solubility in conc.

Halide ion Precipitate Colour
ammonia solution ammonia solution
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Chloride AgCl WHITE SOLUBLE SOLUBLE

Bromide AgBr CREAM INSOLUBLE SOLUBLE

Iodide AgI YELLOW INSOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

• the halides are precipitated as follows Ag+(aq) + X¯(aq) ——> Ag+X¯(s)

• dissolving in ammonia gives the colourless diammine complex [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq)

Q.4 What use is made of silver salts ?

Alternative test for halides

Add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully to a solid halide

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4 The Halogens

Conc • add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully to a solid halide

H2SO4 • sulphuric acid displaces the weaker acids HCl, HBr, and HI from their salts
• hydrogen halides all fume in moist air
• as they become more powerful reducing agents down the group they can
react further by reducing the sulphuric acid to lower oxidation states of sulphur.

Summary Halide Observation(s) Product O.S. Reaction type

NaCl misty fumes HCl -1 Displacement of Cl¯

NaBr misty fumes HBr -1 Displacement of Br¯

brown vapour Br2 0 Oxidation of Br¯
colourless gas SO2 +4 Reduction of H2SO4

NaI misty fumes HI -1 Displacement of Cl¯

purple vapour I2 0 Oxidation of I¯
colourless gas SO2 +4 Reduction of H2SO4
yellow solid S 0 Reduction of H2SO4
bad egg smell H2S -2 Reduction of H2SO4

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HYDROGEN HALIDES

Boiling
points At room temperature and pressure HCl, HBr, HI colourless gases
HF colourless liquid

boiling points ... HF 20°C HCl -85°C HBr -69°C HI -35°C

The HF value is much higher than expected due to hydrogen bonding

Reducing
ability • Increases down the group as the bond strength decreases

bond energy / kJ mol-1 H-F H-Cl H-Br H-I

568 432 366 298

Preparation

Displacement Chlorides are made by displacing the acid from its salt
NaCl(s) + conc. H2SO4(l) ——> NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
Direct
combination Hydrogen halides can be made by direct combination
H2(g) + X2(g) ——> 2HX(g)

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 The Halogens 5

USES OF HALOGENS AND HALIDES

Chlorine, Cl2 • water purification - kills bacteria (toxic / chlorinated hydrocarbon formation)
• bleach
• solvents
• polymers - poly(chloroethene) or PVC
• CFC’s

Fluorine, F2 • CFC’s
• polymers - PTFE poly(tetrafluoroethene) as used in...
non-stick frying pans, electrical insulation, waterproof clothing

Fluoride, F¯ • helps prevent tooth decay - tin fluoride is added to toothpaste

- sodium fluoride is added to water supplies

Hydrogen
fluoride, HF • used to etch glass

Silver
bromide, AgBr • used in photographic film

Q.4 The automatic addition of fluoride to public drinking water has always been
controversial. Many people think it is a good thing as its use is linked to fewer
Knockhardy Publishing

fillings in children’s teeth. However, it can cause permanent discolouration of

teeth and liver damage.

Some people feel that taking fluoride should be a personal choice. What are
your thoughts?

Q.5 • Why are some environmental campaigners demanding that chlorine is no

longer used for purifying drinking water?

• Drinking bottled water bad for the environment - explain.

• Tap water or bottled water - which do you prefer?

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CIE Chemistry A Level

10 : Group 2
Notes

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Trends in the properties of Group 2 metals, magnesium to barium, and
their compounds

Group 2 metals and oxygen

Generally, the Group 2 metals burn in oxygen to form a ​metal oxide.

● Beryllium​ is coated in a thin layer of ​beryllium oxide​ which ​inhibits​ the reaction meaning
it only reacts in a powder form.
2Be + O​2​ → 2BeO
● Magnesium​ burns in oxygen with a ​bright white flame​.
2Mg + O​2​ → 2MgO
● Calcium​ burns with a ​bright white flame ​which is slightly red at the top.
2Ca + O​2​ → 2CaO
● Strontium​ is reluctant to start burning but burns intensely with a ​white flame.
2Sr + O​2​ → 2SrO
● Barium​ burns in oxygen with ​white flame​.
2Ba + O​2​ → 2BaO

Group 2 metals and water

The reactions of the Group 2 metals with water or steam can be used to see the ​trend in
reactivity​ down the group.

● Beryllium​ reacts with steam only at ​very high temperatures.

Be + H​2​O → BeO + H​2
● Magnesium​ has a very ​slight reaction​ with ​cold water. ​The reaction stops due to the
production of an insoluble coat of magnesium hydroxide.
Mg + 2H​2​O → Mg(OH)​2​ + H​2
Magnesium​ burns in ​steam​ more readily than cold water:
Mg + H​2​O → MgO + H​2
● Calcium​, ​strontium​ and ​barium​ all react in cold water to produce their hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. The reactions become ​increasingly vigorous​ down the group.
E.g. Ca + 2H​2​O → Ca(OH)​2​ + H​2

Beryllium only reacts with steam at high temperatures but, going down Group 2, the metals react
more readily and rapidly with cold water, with barium reacting the fastest. This shows that
reactivity increases down the group.

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Group 2 metals and dilute acids

Hydrochloric acid
All Group 2 metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce a ​metal chloride ​and ​hydrogen
gas. The reactions get ​more vigorous​ as you go down the group. The general equation for this
reaction is: X + 2HCl → XCl​2​ + H​2​ (where X is a Group 2 metal).
E.g. Ca + 2HCl → CaCl​2​ + H​2

Sulfuric acid
Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with Group 2 metals to produce a ​metal sulfate ​and ​hydrogen​. The
general equation for this reaction is: X + H​2​SO​4​ → XSO​4​ + H​2​ (where X is a Group 2 metal).
E.g. Mg + H​2​SO​4​ → MgSO​4​ + H​2

The reactions with dilute sulfuric acid ​do not get more vigorous​ down the group due to the
solubility of the sulfates ​produced. Beryllium and magnesium produce soluble sulfates so their
reactions with sulfuric acid are similar to their reactions with hydrochloric acid.
Calcium​ produces a ​sparingly soluble ​sulfate. ​Strontium ​and ​barium​ produce ​insoluble
sulfates. ​This means calcium, strontium and barium will only react with sulfuric acid for a short
period of time because the ​reaction will stop ​once the ​insoluble sulfate forms on the metal​.

Group 2 oxides
Reactions with water
Apart from ​beryllium​, all Group 2 oxides react with water to produce hydroxides.

● Magnesium oxide​ produces a solution that is around ​pH 9​. This is because the
magnesium hydroxide​ is only ​sparingly soluble ​so not many OH​-​ ions are released into
the solution.
MgO + H​2​O → Mg(OH)​2
● Calcium oxide ​(quicklime) undergoes an ​exothermic​ reaction to produce calcium
hydroxide (also known as slaked lime or lime water). ​Calcium hydroxide​ is ​partially
soluble ​so the resulting solution is ​pH 12.
CaO + H​2​O → Ca(OH)​2
● Strontium oxide ​and ​barium oxide​ produce hydroxides which are​ increasingly soluble​.
They react in the same way as calcium but produce solutions with a ​higher pH​ as more
OH​-​ ions get released into the solution.

Reactions with dilute acids

All Group 2 oxides react with dilute acids to produce ​salt and water.
The general equations for these reactions (where X is a group 2 metal) are:
XO + 2HCl → XCl​2​ + H​2​O
XO + 2HNO​3​ → X(NO​3​)​2​ + H​2​O
XO + H​2​SO​4​ → XSO​4​ + H​2​O

The reactions with ​hydrochloric and nitric acid are standard​ and reactivity increases down the
group.

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The reactions with ​sulfuric acid are different ​due to the different ​solubilities ​of the products.
Magnesium and beryllium oxides react as expected. ​Calcium​, ​barium​ and ​strontium​ oxides react
differently because their sulfates are​ increasingly insoluble​. The sulfate formed during the
reaction coats the metal oxide, ​slowing or stopping​ the reaction.

Group 2 hydroxides
Reactions with water
The Group 2 hydroxides ​do not react​ with water.

Reactions with dilute acids

The Group 2 hydroxides react with dilute acids in the ​same way as the metal oxides​ (explained
on the previous page). The only difference is that two water molecules are produced rather than
one.
E.g. Sr(OH)​2​ + 2HCl → SrCl​2​ + 2H​2​O

Metal carbonates
Reactions with water
The Group 2 metal carbonates are insoluble so they ​do not react ​with water.

Reactions with dilute acids

Group 2 carbonates react with dilute acids to produce a ​salt​, ​water​ and ​carbon dioxide.

The general equations for these reactions (where X is a Group 2 metal) are:
XCO​3​ + 2HCl → XCl​2​ + H​2​O + CO​2
XCO​3​ + 2HNO​3​ → X(NO​3​)​2​ + H​2​O + CO​2
XCO​3​ + H​2​SO​4​ → XSO​4​ + H​2​O + CO​2

The reactions with ​hydrochloric and nitric acid are standard​ and ​reactivity increases​ down the
group.
The reactions with ​sulfuric acid are different ​due to the different ​solubilities ​of the products.
Magnesium and beryllium carbonates react as expected. ​Calcium​, ​barium​ and ​strontium
carbonates react differently because their sulfates are​ increasingly insoluble​. The sulfate formed
during the reaction coats the metal carbonate, ​slowing or stopping​ the reaction.

Thermal decomposition of the nitrates and carbonates

Nitrates
All Group 2 nitrates undergo ​thermal decomposition​ to produce a ​metal oxide​, ​oxygen​ and
nitrogen dioxide​. The nitrates are ​heated more strongly ​as you go down the group.
The general equation for this reaction (where X is the Group 2 metal) is:
2X(NO​3​)​2​ → 2XO + 4NO​2​ + O​2
Observations:​ The nitrate and the oxide are both ​white solids​. Nitrogen dioxide is a ​brown gas​.

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Carbonates
All Group 2 carbonates undergo ​thermal decomposition​ to produce a ​metal oxide​ and ​carbon
dioxide​. The carbonates are ​heated more strongly​ as you go down the group.
The general equation for this reaction (where X is the Group 2 metal) is:
XCO​3​ → XO + CO​2
Observations:​ The carbonate and the oxide are both ​white solids​. Carbon dioxide is a ​colourless
gas​.

Both Group 2 carbonates and nitrates become ​more stable to heat​ as you go down the group.
This means as you go down the group, the nitrates and carbonates have to be ​heated more
strongly ​for thermal decomposition to occur.

Thermal stability of the nitrates and carbonates ​(A Level only)

Both ​carbonates​ and ​nitrates​ become ​more thermally stable ​as you go down Group 2. The
stability of the compounds is influenced by ​charge density of the cation​ and how ​polarised​ the
anion​ becomes.
Ions formed from elements at the top of group 2 are ​smaller​ than those at the bottom. A ​smaller
+2 ion​ has a ​greater charge density​ because the same charge is packed into in a small volume.
This means smaller group 2 ions have a ​greater polarising effect​ on neighbouring negative ions.

When a carbonate or nitrate ion is placed near the metal cation, the ​anion becomes polarised
because the ​cation draws the electrons ​towards itself. Smaller Group 2 ions are more polarising
due to their greater charge density. The ​more polarised the anion ​is, the ​less heat is required
for thermal decomposition to occur. This means that ​thermal stability increases down the group
because ions further down the group are worse at polarising the anion so more heat energy is
required to break bonds for thermal decomposition.

Predicting trends
The reactions of Group 2 metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates generally
indicate that ​reactivity increases as you go down Group 2.
Reactivity increases down the group because ​ionisation energy decreases​ due to the ​increasing
atomic radius​ and the ​shielding effect ​of electrons. This means further down the group, the
electrons become easier to remove so reactivity increases.

Some ​exceptions​ to this trend can be seen when ​sulfates and hydroxides are produced​,
however this is due to the ​insolubility​ of some sulfates and hydroxides inhibiting reactions.

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Solubility of hydroxides and sulfates
The ​solubilities​ of the Group 2 metal ​hydroxides​ and ​sulfates​ show trends in the group. The
trend in the solubility of sulfates is ​opposite​ to the trend in the hydroxides:

Group 2 element - X Hydroxide - X(OH)​2 Sulfate - XSO​4

Magnesium Least soluble Most soluble

Calcium

Beryllium

Barium Most soluble Least soluble

Compounds with very ​low solubilities​, like magnesium hydroxide, are often said to be ​sparingly
soluble​. Most sulfates are soluble in warm water except barium sulfate which is insoluble.

Solubility in terms of enthalpy change of hydration and lattice energy ​(A Level only)

The trends in the solubilities of the Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates can be seen above.
As you go ​down Group 2​, the ​lattice enthalpy ​required to break up the compound ​decreases
because the ​size of the positive ions increases​. Larger cations means there is ​more space
between ions​ in the compound so there are ​weaker forces of attraction​ between the ions.
As the ​cations increase in size ​down the group, ​the enthalpy change of hydration​ (the amount
of energy released as the ions bond to water molecules) also ​decreases​.

Hydroxides
For hydroxide ions (relatively ​small​ ions), the ​lattice enthalpy falls faster than the enthalpy
change of hydration ​of the cations. This means the ​enthalpy change of solution​ will become
more negative​ down the group (more exothermic).

Sulfates
For sulfate ions (relatively ​large​ ions), the ​lattice enthalpy falls slower than the hydration
enthalpy ​of the cations. This means the ​enthalpy of solution​ will become ​more positive ​down
the group (more endothermic).

The ​more exothermic​ the ​enthalpy of solution​ is, the ​more soluble​ a compound is. Therefore
sulfates become less soluble down the group and hydroxides become more soluble down the
group.

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Uses of Group 2 compounds

Calcium hydroxide​ and ​calcium carbonate​ are both compounds used in ​agriculture​.
Calcium carbonate is ​powdered limestone​. Calcium hydroxide is formed when calcium oxide is
added to water. Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are often referred to as ​lime​ and ​slaked
lime​, respectively.

Crops grow best in soil is around ​pH 6​. If soil becomes ​too acidic​, calcium carbonate or calcium
hydroxide can be added to raise the pH. This is because both compounds ​react with and
neutralise acids​.

Calcium carbonate ​reacts more slowly​ than calcium hydroxide since it is ​not water soluble​,
however it is used more often as it is ​cheaper​ and ​easier to handle.

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 Group II 1

GROUP 2 ELEMENTS - Beryllium to Barium

Introduction Group I (alkali metals) and Group 2 (alkaline earths) are known as s-block
elements because their valence (bonding) electrons are in s orbitals.

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Atomic Number 4 12 20 38 56

Electronic configuration 1s22s2 [Ne] 3s2 [Ar] 4s2 [Kr] 5s2 [Xe] 6s2

TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Atomic Radius Increases down each group electrons in shells further from the nucleus

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Atomic radius / nm 0.106 0.140 0.174 0.191 0.198

Ionic Size Increases down the group nuclear charge exceeds the electronic charge

The size of a positive ions is always less than the original atom because the
nuclear charge exceeds the electronic charge.

2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
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Ionic radius / nm 0.030 0.064 0.094 0.110 0.134

Melting Points Decrease down each group metallic bonding gets weaker due to
increased size and lower charge density

Each atom contributes two electrons to the delocalised cloud. Melting points
tend not to give a decent trend as crystalline structure affects melting points.

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Melting point / °C 1283 650 850 770 710

TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Overall • undergo redox reactions involving the ‘loss’ of electrons to form 2+ ions
• reactivity increases down the Group due to the ease of cation formation

Reason • ionisation energies (I.E.) decrease down the group

REMINDER
1st I.E. The energy required to remove one mole of electrons (to infinity) from
one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous positive ions.

e.g. Mg(g) ——> Mg+(g) + e¯

2nd I.E. e.g. Mg+(g) ——> Mg2+(g) + e¯

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

2 Group II

Ionisation Energy Decreases down the group atomic size increases

Values for Group I are low because the electron has just gone into a new
level and is shielded by filled inner levels. This makes them reactive.

Group 2 values are higher than their Group I equivalents due to the
increased nuclear charge.
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
-1
Ist I.E. / kJ mol 899 738 590 550 500
-1
2nd I.E. / kJ mol 1800 1500 1100 1100 1000
-1
3rd I.E. / kJ mol 14849 7733 4912 4120 3390

Large increase for 3rd I.E. the electron is now being removed from a shell
nearer the nucleus and there is less shielding.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS

Oxygen • react with increasing vigour down the group

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Mg burns readily with a bright white flame
0 0 +2 -2
2Mg(s) + O2(g) ——> 2MgO(s)

Ba burns readily with an apple-green flame

2Ba(s) + O2(g) ——> 2BaO(s)

In both cases metal is oxidised Oxidation No. increases from 0 to +2

oxygen is reduced Oxidation No. decreases from 0 to -2

Mg ——> Mg2+ + 2e¯

O + 2e¯ ——> O2-

Water • react with increasing vigour down the group

Mg reacts very slowly with cold water

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) ——> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

but reacts quickly with steam

Mg(s) + H2O(g) ——> MgO(s) + H2(g)

Ba react with vigourously with cold water

Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) ——> Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

 Group II 3

Dilute acid • react with increasing vigour down the group to produce hydrogen + a salt
• reactions are more vigorous than with water

e.g. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) ——> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ——> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

ionically Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ——> Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

OXIDES OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS

Properties • ionic solids; EXC. beryllium oxide which has covalent character

• BeO beryllium oxide MgO magnesium oxide

CaO calcium oxide SrO strontium oxide
BaO barium oxide

Reaction
with water Most Group 2 oxides react with water to produce the hydroxide

e.g. CaO(s) + H2O(l) ——> Ca(OH)2(s)

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BeO MgO CaO SrO BaO

Reactivity with water NONE reacts reacts reacts reacts

Solubility of hydroxide
3 insoluble sparingly slightly quite very
g/100cm of water

approx. pH of 0.1M solution - 10.4 12.5 13.0 13.1

Hydroxides • basic strength also increases down group

• this is because the solubility increases
• the metal ions get larger so charge density decreases
• there is a lower attraction between the OH¯ ions and larger dipositive ions
• the ions will split away from each other more easily
• there will be a greater concentration of OH¯ ions in water

Uses Ca(OH)2 • used in agriculture to neutralise acid soils

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H+ (aq) ——> Ca2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Mg(OH)2 • used in toothpaste and indigestion tablets as an antacid

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+ (aq) ——> Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

• both the above are weak alkalis and not as caustic as sodium hydroxide

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

4 Group II

CARBONATES OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS

Properties • insoluble in water

• undergo thermal decomposition to oxide and carbon dioxide
e.g. MgCO3(s) ——> MgO(s) + CO2(g)

• ease of decomposition decreases down the group

MgCO3 CaCO3 SrCO 3 BaCO3

3 -4 -5 -6 -6
Solubility (g/100cm of water) 1.5 x 10 1.3 x 10 7.4 x 10 9.1 x 10

Decomposition temperature / °C 400 980 1280 1360

SULFATES OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS

Sulphates • white crystalline solids

• solubility in water decreases down the Group

Salt Ionic radius Hydration Enthalpy Solubility

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2+ 2+ -1
(M ) / nm (M ) / kJ mol moles/100g
-4
MgSO4 0.064 -1891 3600 x 10
-4
CaSO4 0.094 -1562 11 x 10
-4
SrSO4 0.110 -1413 0.62 x 10
-4
BaSO4 0.134 -1273 0.009 x 10

- there is little change in the lattice enthalpy BUT

- as the cation gets larger the hydration enthalpy gets much smaller
- a larger cation has a lower charge density so is less attracted to water

Test for
sulfates • barium sulfate’s high insolubility is the basis for a laboratory test for sulfates

Method - make up a solution of the compound to be tested

- acidify it with dilute hydrochloric (or nitric) acid *
- add a few drops of barium chloride solution
- white precipitate of barium sulfate conforms presence of sulfate ion
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ——> BaSO4(s)

* adding acid prevents precipitation of other insoluble ions such as carbonate

Q.1 How is the high insolubility of barium sulfate made use of in hospitals?

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

CIE Chemistry A Level

9 : The Periodic Table

Notes

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Periodicity of physical properties of the elements in Period 3

Atomic radius
When comparing the atomic radius of period 3 atoms, the ​metallic radii ​is used for Na, Mg and Al
an the ​covalent radii ​is used for Si, P, S and Cl.
Across period three, ​atomic radius decreases from sodium to chlorine.​ The radius of argon
can’t be compared as it does not form compounds. Across the period, atomic number increases so
the ​nucleus has a higher positive charge​. This draws electrons slightly closer to the nucleus
meaning the atomic radius decreases.

Ionic radius
Across period 3, the ionic radius ​decreases from sodium to aluminium​ (positive ions) then
increases from silicon to chlorine ​(negative ions).
The ​positive​ ions have a decreasing ionic radius because, although the ions have the same
electron configuration, the number of protons in the nucleus increases so ​nuclear attraction
increases.
The ​negative​ ions have an increasing ionic radius because the ions have gained electrons
meaning there are now ​more electrons than protons​. As a result, the nuclear attraction to the
electrons is weaker so they are not pulled in as strongly.

Melting point
The melting points of elements in period 3 depend on ​structure and bonding​:
● Sodium, magnesium ​and ​aluminium​ are ​giant metallic structures ​with metallic bonding.
Their melting points ​increase​ across the period as the metal-metal bond strength
increases. The bond strength increases because the charge of the metal ion increases and
the atomic radius decreases.
● Silicon​ is a ​macromolecule​ with strong covalent bonds linking all its atoms together. This
means it has the highest melting point of all the elements in period 3.
● Phosphorus​ (P​4​), ​sulfur​ (S​8​) and ​chlorine​ (Cl​2​) are all simple covalent molecules. Their
melting points are dependent on the strength of their ​van der Waals​/ intermolecular forces.
The more atoms in a molecule mean stronger van der Waals forces so sulfur has the
greatest melting point of these three molecules. Chlorine will have the lowest melting point
since it is only made up of two atoms.
● Argon​ will have the ​lowest melting point​ of period 3 because it exists as single atoms so
there are very weak van der Waals intermolecular forces which are easy to overcome.

Electrical conductivity
Conductivity of a compound relies on the presence of ​charged particles ​(such as ions or
electrons) which are free to move.
Metallic compounds can conduct electricity due to the sea of ​delocalised electrons. ​Conductivity
increases from sodium to aluminium​ because the number of delocalised electrons increases so
more electrons are ​free to carry charge​.
The molecules silicon to chlorine are ​covalent compounds with no charged particles ​so they
are non-conductors. Similarly argon is monatomic so is unable to conduct electricity.

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First ionisation energy
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to ​remove one mole of electrons ​from one mole
of gaseous atoms to ​form one mole of gaseous ions.

First ionisation energy ​generally increases​ across period 3. This is because the number of
protons increases across the period while electron shielding remains the same. As a result, across
the period, the ​electrons are attracted more strongly ​to the nucleus so they are harder to
remove, leading to a higher first ionisation energy.

Exceptions to the trend:

● The first ionisation energy of ​aluminium​ is ​lower​ than that of magnesium. This is because
the electron is being removed from a ​3p orbital ​rather than a 3s orbital. This means there is
more ​electron​ ​shielding​ from the 3s orbital so the electron can be removed more easily.
● The first ionisation energy of ​sulfur​ is ​lower​ than that of phosphorus. Sulfur is the first
element to have an electron pair in a 3p orbital so an electron is being removed from a pair.
The electrons in the pair repel each other slightly making it easier to remove an electron.

Properties of ceramics
The term ceramics is usually applied to any class of ​non-metal inorganic product ​which has
been subjected to ​high temperatures​. Ceramics can either be ​giant covalent structures or giant
ionic structures.​ Examples of ceramics include magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide and silicon
dioxide.

Strength:
The strong ​covalent or ionic bonds ​that hold the atoms / ions together in a giant ceramic
structure make it ​strong​ and hard. Despite this, they are also ​brittle​. Whilst metals bend before
they fracture, ceramics ​fracture​ straight away as the ​covalent bonds break or the ionic lattice is
distorted.

Melting point:
Ceramics with a ​giant covalent ​structures (like ​silicon​ ​dioxide​) have ​many covalent bonds
which require a lot of energy to break. This means they have ​high melting points​.
Ceramics with ​giant ionic​ structures (like ​aluminium oxide ​and ​magnesium oxide​) have strong
electrostatic attraction​ between the oppositely charged ions which requires a lot of energy to
break. This means they also have ​high melting points​.

Electrical insulating properties:

Ceramics are generally ​good electrical insulators​. This is because giant covalent compounds
have ​no charged particles ​so are unable to carry charge.
In ionic compounds, the ​ions are fixed in an ionic lattice​ when solid so they are unable to carry
charge when solid. This means they are good electrical insulators in the solid state.

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Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in Period 3

Reactions with oxygen

● Sodium​ burns in oxygen with an ​orange flame​ to produce a ​white solid.
4Na + O​2​ → 2Na​2​O
● Magnesium​ burns in oxygen with a ​bright white flame​ to produce a ​white solid.
2Mg + O​2​ → 2MgO
● Aluminium​ burns in oxygen if the ​aluminium oxide layer ​on the outside of the metal is
removed. This can be done by ​powdering​ the aluminium. ​Sparks​ can be seen when the
powder is burned and a ​white solid ​is produced.
4Al + 3O​2​ → 2Al​2​O​3
● Silicon​ will only burn in oxygen if it is heated strongly enough.
Si + O​2​ → SiO​2
● White phosphorus ​reacts ​spontaneously​ in the air to produce a ​white solid.
P​4​ + 5O​2​ → P​4​O​10
● Sulfur​ burns with a ​blue flame ​in oxygen when heated gently. It produces a colourless gas
of ​sulfur dioxide​ which reacts further with oxygen to form ​sulfur trioxide.
S + O​2​ → SO​2
2SO​2​ + O​2​ → 2SO​3
● Chlorine​ does not react with oxygen (directly).
● Argon​ does not react with oxygen.

Reactions with chlorine

● Sodium​ burns in chlorine with a ​bright orange flame ​to form sodium chloride (white solid).
2Na + Cl​2​ → 2NaCl
● Magnesium​ burns in chlorine with a ​bright white flame​ to form magnesium chloride (white
solid).
Mg + Cl​2​ → MgCl​2
● Aluminium​ burns in a stream of chlorine to produce ​pale yellow aluminium chloride.
2Al + 3Cl​2​ → 2AlCl​3
At high temperatures, aluminium chloride (AlCl​3​) is converted into its molecular form Al​2​Cl​6​.
● If ​chlorine​ is passed over silicon powder, a ​colourless liquid​ forms (silicon tetrachloride).
Si + 2Cl​2​ → SiCl​4
● White phosphorus​ burns ​spontaneously​ in chlorine to produce phosphorus(V) chloride
(off-white solid).
P​4​ + 10Cl​2​ → 4PCl​5

Reactions with water

● Sodium​ undergoes a very ​exothermic​ reaction with cold water, producing hydrogen (seen
as bubbles) and a colourless solution of sodium hydroxide.
2Na + 2H​2​O → 2NaOH + H​2
● Magnesium​ reacts ​slowly​ with ​cold water.​ Bubbles of hydrogen are produced and a thin
layer of magnesium hydroxide forms on the magnesium which inhibits further reaction.
Mg + H​2​O → Mg(OH)​2​ + H​2

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 Magnesium burns in ​steam​ with a ​bright white flame​ to produce white magnesium oxide
and hydrogen: Mg + H​2​O → MgO + H​2

Variation in oxidation numbers

Oxidation states​ can be worked out using the following rules:
● The oxidation state of an uncombined element is 0.
● The sum of oxidation states in a compound is 0 and the sum of oxidation states in an ion is
equal to the overall charge.
● Common oxidation states:
○ +1 for group one atoms
○ +2 for group two atoms
○ -2 for oxygen (except when in a peroxide or F​2​O)
○ +1 for hydrogen (except in metal hydrides where it is -1)
○ -1 for fluorine
○ -1 for chlorine (except when bonded with fluorine or oxygen)

The oxidation states of group 3 oxides are shown in the table below:

Compound Oxidation state of non-oxygen element

Na​2​O +1

MgO +2

Al​2​O​3 +3

SiO​2 +2

P​4​O​10 +5

SO​2 +6

SO​3 +4

The oxidation states of group 3 chlorides are shown in the table below:

Compound Oxidation state of non-chlorine

element

NaCl +1

MgCl​2 +2

AlCl​3 +3

SiCl​4 +4

PCl​4 +5

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In each of the cases above, the oxidation state has the same value as the number of ​valence
shell electrons​ (the number of electrons in the outer energy level of the atom).

Period 3 oxides and water

● Sodium oxide ​is a strongly basic oxide which reacts ​exothermically​ with water to form a
solution of sodium hydroxide (​around pH 14​).
Na​2​O + H​2​O → 2NaOH
● Magnesium oxide​ undergoes a slight reaction with water, forming some ​magnesium
hydroxide​ ions. As these are only ​partially soluble​, the pH of the resulting solution is
about 9 since not many hydroxide ions are released into the solution.
MgO + H​2​O → Mg(OH)​2
● Aluminium oxide​ does not react with water.
● Silicon dioxide​ does not react with water because it is difficult to break up the
macromolecule.
● Phosphorus(V) oxide​ reacts ​violently​ with water to form ​phosphoric acid.
P​4​O​10​ + 6H​2​O → 4H​3​PO​4
● Sulfur dioxide ​reacts with water to form an acidic solution of ​sulfurous acid.
SO​2​ + H​2​O → H​2​SO​3
● Sulfur trioxide​ reacts ​violently​ with water to produce ​sulfuric acid.
SO​3​ + H​2​O → H​2​SO​4

Acid / base behaviour of period 3 oxides and hydroxides

Oxides:
● Sodium oxide​ is a ​strong base ​which reacts with acid to form a salt and water.
Na​2​O + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H​2​O
● Magnesium oxide ​reacts with warm dilute hydrochloric acid to form a salt and water.
MgO + HCl 2HCl→ MgCl​2​ + H​2​O
● Aluminium oxide​ is ​amphoteric​ so reacts with ​acids and bases​. It reacts with warm
dilute hydrochloric in the same way as magnesium and sodium:
Al​2​O​3​ + 6HCl → 2AlCl​3​ + 3H​2​O
Aluminium oxide also reacts with bases:
Al​2​O​3​ + 2NaOH + 3H​2​O → 2NaAl(OH)​4
● Silicon dioxide​ reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. A ​colourless
solution​ is formed.
SiO​2​ + NaOH → Na​2​SiO​3​ + H​2​O
● Phosphorus(V) oxide​ can form a ​range of salts​ when reacted with a base. Here is one
example:
P​4​O​10​ + 12NaOH →4Na​3​PO​4​ + 6H​2​O
● Sulfur dioxide​ will react with a base when bubbled through it:
SO​2​ + NaOH → Na​2​SO​3​ + H​2​O
● Sulfur trioxide ​reacts with a base to form sulfuric acid and water.
SO​3​ + 2NaOH → Na​2​SO​4​ + H​2​O

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Hydroxides:
● Sodium and magnesium hydroxides​ are both simple ​basic hydroxides.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H​2​O
Mg(OH)​2​ + 2HCl → MgCl​2​ + 2H​2​O
● Aluminium hydroxide​ is ​amphoteric​ so will react with acids and bases:
Al(OH)​3​ + 3HCl → AlCl​3​ + 3H​2​O
Al(OH)​3​ + NaOH → NaAl(OH)​4
● The​ other period three hydroxides​ each act as ​acids​ since the ​OH group is covalently
bonded ​to the element.

Period 3 chlorides and water

● Sodium chloride ​and ​magnesium chloride ​are ionic compounds so they ​dissolve in
water ​to form their ions.
● Aluminium chloride​ reacts ​violently​ with water. Lots of ​misty fumes​ of hydrogen chloride
are produced:
AlCl​3​ + 6H​2​O → [Al(H​2​O)​6​]​3+​ + 3Cl​-
​
An ​equilibrium​ is set up with the product so H​+ ions, and hence HCl, are formed:
3+​
[Al(H​2​O)​6​]​ ⇌ ​ ​[Al(H​2​O)​5​(OH)]​ + H​
2+​ +

● Silicon tetrachloride ​reacts with water in the air to produce hydrogen chloride.
SiCl​4​ + 2H​2​O → SiO​2​ + 4HCl
● Phosphorus(V) chloride​ also reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen chloride.
PCl​5​ + H​2​O → POCl​3​ + 2HCl
● Disulfur dichloride​ reacts slowly with water to produce a range of products. There are lots
of examples of equations that could take place so it is unlikely this will be asked in an exam.
Potential products include ​HCl, S and H​2​S​.

Chemical bonding in chlorides and oxides

In chlorides and oxides, the chemical bonding is ​ionic​ from sodium to aluminium and ​covalent
from silicon to sulfur. This can be deduced from observing the physical and chemical properties of
the chloride or oxide being analysed.

Sodium and magnesium form ionic bonds with oxygen and chlorine. Aluminium forms covalent
bonds with oxygen and either covalent or ionic bonds with chlorine. Other period 3 elements form
simple molecular compounds (covalent). This is because the difference in ​electronegativity
between chlorine/ oxygen and the period 3 element decreases across the period. There is
sufficient difference in the electronegativity of chlorine/ oxygen and sodium or magnesium to form
ions. After aluminium, the difference in electronegativity is ​too small​ for ions to form.

Bonding and properties of chlorides and oxides

The type of bonding can be deduced using the ​physical properties ​of group 3 compounds. For
example, a high ​melting point​ means that it is a giant molecular structure, either ionic like NaCl
and MgO or covalent like SiO​2​.

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Chemical properties​ can also be used to identify the type of bonding:
- Chlorides that dissolve in water to form a solution with a pH close to 7 are ionic whereas
chloride that react with water to form an acidic solution and hydrogen chloride gas are
covalent.
- If a period 3 oxide forms an acidic solution when it dissolves in water, it is covalent. If it is
ionic, it may react with water to form an alkaline solution or it may not react with water.
- Generally, ionic oxides are basic and can react with acids. Covalent oxides tend to be
acidic and can react with bases.Amphoteric oxides such as aluminium oxide are usually
ionic with some covalent character.
- If a molten oxide or chloride can undergo electrolysis, it must be ionic.

Chemical periodicity of other elements

The chemical properties of an element can be predicted by using knowledge of chemical

periodicity​. Similarly, an unknown element can be identified from information given about its
chemical and physical properties​.

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 Periodicity 1

PERIODICITY
Periodic Table An arrangement of the elements
(i) by increasing atomic (proton) number
(ii) in periods showing repeating trends in chemical and physical properties
(iii) in groups having similar chemical properties

Summary • consists of rows, or ................................

• columns, or ................................
• is split into several blocks
• in each block the elements are filling, or have just filled, particular types of orbital

Group and sections

s block ..............................................
s d p
p block ..............................................
d block ..............................................
f block .............................................. f

The outer electron configuration is a periodic function i.e. it repeats every so often
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Because many physical and chemical properties are influenced by the outer shell
configuration of an atom, it isn’t surprising that such properties also exhibit periodicity...

ionisation energy, electron affinity, atomic radius, ionic radius,

electronegativity, melting points and boiling points

Periods

Introduction • the first two periods in the periodic table are not typical
• the first contains only two elements (H, He)
• the second (Li - Ne) contains the top elements of each group; these have small
sizes and relatively high ionisation energies
• Period 3 is best for studying periodic trends.

Periods 2 & 3

Elements As you move from left to right the elements go from highly electropositive metals through
metalloids with giant structures to the simple molecular structure of non-metals.

Li Be B C N2 O2 F2 Ne
< - metals - > metalloid giant molecule < non metals (simple molecules) >

Na Mg Al Si P4 S8 Cl2 Ar
< - - - - metals - - - - > metalloid < - non metals (simple molecules) - >

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

2 Periodicity

Initially one is filling the 3s orbital then the 3p orbitals

The nuclear charge increases by one each time giving an increased pull on the electrons.

Atomic
0.16
Radius A problem with measuring atomic radius
is that one is not measuring the true
radius of an atom. In metals one
measures the metallic radius (half the 0.14
distance between the inter-nuclear
distance of what are effectively ions).
Covalent radius is half the distance
0.12
between the nuclei of atoms joined by a
covalent bond. The values are measured
by X-ray or electron diffraction.
0.10
UNITS:- nanometres

Decreases across a given period 0.08

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
due to ...

increased nuclear charge attracting the electrons

(which are going into the same shell) more strongly.

Argon’s value cannot be measured as it doesn’t form compounds.

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Q.1 Explain the variation in atomic and ionic size for the following isoelectronic species.

atoms ions

N3- O2- F¯ Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

Protons 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Electrons 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Electronegativity

A measure of the attraction an atom has 3.0

for the electron pair in a covalent bond.
Do not confuse with electron affinity. 2.5

UNITS:- Pauling Scale

2.0

1.5
Groups Decreases down a group.

1.0
Periods Increases across a period
As the nuclear charge increases so does
0.5
the attraction for the shared pair of Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
electrons in a covalent bond.

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 Periodicity 3

Ionisation
Energy e.g. M(g) ——> M+(g) + e¯ 2400

2200
PERIOD 2 PERIOD 3
2000

-1
Groups Decreases down a group

Ist IONISATION ENERGY / kJ mol

1800

1600

Despite the increase in nuclear charge, 1400

the increased shielding and the increased 2500 1200

1000

distance from the nucleus means the 800

600

electrons are held less strongly and need 2000

400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

less energy for their removal. ATOMIC NUMBER

1500
Periods Increases across a period
Nuclear charge increases by one each
1000
time. Each extra electron, however, is
going into the same main energy level so
is subject to similar shielding and is a 500
similar distance away from the nucleus.
The electrons are held increasingly more
0
strongly and are harder to remove.
Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

BUT...

Minor differences occur...

aluminium 1st Ionisation Energy is lower than that of magnesium

because of the shielding effect of the newly filled 3s orbital.

sulphur 1st Ionisation Energy is less than that of phosphorus due to additional
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repulsion between the newly paired up electrons in one of the p orbitals.

Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity takes place when ions or electrons are free to move.

UNITS:- Siemens per metre

0.4
Groups Where appropriate, electrical conductivity
Decreases down a group.

0.3

Periods Decreases across a period

0.2
Na, Mg, Al metallic bonding with
delocalised electrons

Si, P, S, Cl covalently bonded so no 0.1

electrons are free to move

Ar monatomic so electrons 0
are held very tightly Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

4 Periodicity

Melting Point &

Boiling Point
3000
Boiling and melting points are a Boiling
measure of the energy required to 2500
separate the particles in a substance.

Bond type is significant. 2000

Boiling points tend to be a better

1500
measure and show better trends
because solids can be affected by the
crystal structure as well as the type of 1000
bonding.

500
Melting
UNITS:- Kelvin

0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Periods A general increase then a decrease

Metals

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Na-Al Melting point increases due to the increasing metallic bonding caused by ...

• larger number of electrons contributed to the “cloud”

• larger charge and smaller size of ions gives rise to a larger charge density.

Non-metals

Si Large increase in melting point as it has a giant molecular structure like diamond
A lot of energy is required to break the many covalent bonds holding the atoms together.

P, S, Cl Very much lower melting points as they are simple covalent molecules
The melting point depends on the weak intermolecular van der Waals forces.
The larger the molecule the greater the van der Waals’ forces

P4 S8 Cl2
relative mass 124 256 71
melting point 44°C 119°C -101°C

Shape of P4 Shape of S8

Ar Monatomic species with the lowest melting point

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

 Periodicity 5

A COMPARISON BETWEEN PERIOD 2 AND PERIOD 3

Electronic
Configuration Electronic configurations change in a similar fashion across the group. However,
the elements in Period 3 have more electrons, and hence, more shells.

Period 2 ...2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6

Period 3 ...3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5 3s23p6

Superimpose an equivalent graph for Period 2

elements and explain any trend and difference in values

Atomic
0.16
Radius Period 2 radii are smaller

due to ... 0.14

lower atomic number so fewer electrons

0.12
are going into shells closer to the nucleus

0.10 Period 3
units nanometres
0.08
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Knockhardy Publishing

Melting 3000
Point
2500

2000

1500

1000

500
Period 3
units Kelvin
0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

3000
Boiling Point
2500

2000

1500

1000

500
Period 3
units Kelvin 0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

 Acids, bases & salts 1

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

ACIDS Release H+ ions (protons) in aqueous solution

Hydrochloric HCl —> H+(aq) + Cl¯(aq) MONOPROTIC 1 replaceable H

Nitric HNO3 —> H+(aq) + NO3¯(aq) MONOPROTIC 1 replaceable H

Sulphuric H2SO4 —> 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) DIPROTIC 2 replaceable H’s

Ethanoic CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO¯(aq) + H+(aq) A WEAK ACID

BASES React with acids by accepting H+ ions (protons) to form salts

carbonates K2CO3 MgCO3 CuCO3

hydrogencarbonates NaHCO3
metal oxides MgO ZnO CuO
metal hydroxides NaOH KOH Ca(OH)2
ammonia NH3
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ALKALIS SOLUBLE BASES which release OH¯ (hydroxide ions) in aqueous solution

Soluble metal oxides Na2O + H2O(l) —> 2Na+(aq) + 2OH¯(aq)

Soluble metal hydroxides NaOH —> Na+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

sodium hydroxide

KOH —> K+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

potassium hydroxide

Aqueous ammonia NH3 (aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

SALTS Formed from the reaction between acids and bases

hydrochloric acid makes CHLORIDES
nitric acid makes NITRATES
sulphuric acid makes SULPHATES / HYDROGENSULPHATES

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

2 Acids, bases & salts

SALT FORMATION

Formation A salt is produced when the H+ ion of an acid is replaced by...

a metal ion or the ammonium ion NH4+

SUMMARY
Acids react with...

metals to give a salt + hydrogen

oxides of metals a salt + water
hydroxides of metals a salt + water
carbonates a salt + water + carbon dioxide
hydrogencarbonates a salt + water + carbon dioxide
ammonia an ammonium salt

Water of
crystallisation • loosely bonded water molecules attached to salts

Knockhardy Publishing
CuSO4.5H2O FeSO4.7H2O Na2CO3.10H2O

• the water can be driven off by heating

e.g. CuSO4.5H2O(s) ———> CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

HYDRATED copper(II) sulphate ANHYDROUS copper(II) sulphate
BLUE CRYSTALS WHITE POWDER

PROPERTIES AND REACTIONS OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Hydrochloric acid is a typical acid; in dilute aqueous solution HCl —> H+(aq) + Cl¯(aq)

Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas; it is a poor conductor of

electricity because there are no free electrons or ions present. It
has no action on dry litmus paper because there are no
aqueous hydrogen ions present.

In water, the covalent hydrogen chloride molecules dissociate

into ions. The solution now conducts electricity showing ions are
present. For each hydrogen chloride molecule that dissociates
one hydrogen ion and one chloride ion are produced. The The dissociation of hydrogen chloride
solution turns litmus paper red because of the into ions when put in water
presence of the H+(aq) ion.

Appearance Bonding and formula Conductivity Dry litmus

hydrogen chloride colourless gas covalent molecule HCl(g) poor no reaction
hydrochloric acid colourless soln. aqueous ions HCl(aq) good goes red

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

 Acids, bases & salts 3

THE REACTIONS OF ACIDS

Metals magnesium + hydrochloric acid ——> magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ——> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) ——> Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) + H2(g)

cancel ions Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ——> Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Basic
Oxides copper(II) oxide + hydrochloric acid ——> copper(II) chloride + water

CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ——> CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Cu2+O2-(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) ——> Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) + H2O(l)

cancel ions O2- + 2H+(aq) ——> H2O(l)

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Alkalis sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ——> sodium chloride + water

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ——> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Na+(aq) + OH¯(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl¯(aq) ——> Na+(aq) + Cl¯(aq) + H2O(l)

cancel ions H+(aq) + OH¯(aq) ——> H2O(l)

Carbonates calcium + hydrochloric ——> calcium + carbon + water

carbonate acid chloride dioxide

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ——> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ca2+CO32-(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) ——> Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl¯(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

cancel ions CO32- + 2H+(aq) ——> CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Hydrogencarbonates H+(aq) + HCO3¯ ——> CO2(g) + H2O(l)

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

4 Acids, bases & salts

Q.1 Write the formulae for...

a) zinc chloride b) zinc sulphate

c) magnesium sulphate d) magnesium nitrate

e) aluminium sulphate f) potassium carbonate

g) ammonium chloride h) ammonium sulphate

Q.2 Write balanced equations for the reactions between...

a) zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid

b) zinc and dilute sulphuric acid

c) magnesium oxide and dilute sulphuric acid

Knockhardy Publishing
d) zinc oxide and dilute nitric acid

e) potassium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid

f) potassium hydroxide and dilute sulphuric acid

g) magnesium carbonate and dilute sulphuric acid

h) ammonia solution and dilute hydrochloric acid

i) ammonia solution and dilute sulphuric acid

Q.3 Calculate the percentage of water (by mass) in the following hydrated salts;

a) CuSO4.5H2O

b) Na2CO3.10H2O

© KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING 2015

 CIE Chemistry A-Level
Topic 9 - The Periodic Table: Chemical
Periodicity
Flashcards

PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

This work by https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

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Describe and explain the trend in atomic
radius across period 3

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Describe and explain the trend in atomic radius
across period 3
As you go across the period, atomic radius decreases:

● Number of protons in the nucleus/ nuclear charge increases.

● Number of electrons in the outer shell increases.
● Shielding remains the same.
● Nuclear attraction between the electrons and the nucleus
increases so electron shells are drawn closer to the nucleus,
decreasing the atomic radius.

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Describe and explain the trend in ionic
radius across period 3

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Describe and explain the trend in ionic radius across
period 3
● From Na+ to Mg2+ to Al3+:
Ionic radius decreases because the number of electrons decreases so
there is greater attraction between outer shell electrons and the
nucleus meaning the electrons are drawn inwards.

● From P3- to S2- to Cl-:

Ionic radius increases because the number of electrons increases
which weakens the nuclear attraction meaning the electrons are not
drawn inwards as strongly.
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Use a diagram to describe the trend in
melting points across period 3

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Use a diagram to describe the trend in melting points
across period 3

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Describe the trend in melting point
across period 3

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Describe the trend in melting point across period 3

● Melting point increases from sodium to silicon.

● There is a sharp decrease in melting point
between silicon and phosphorus.
● There is a slight increase in melting point between
phosphorus and sulfur.
● Melting point then decreases from sulfur to argon.
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Why does melting point increase from
sodium to silicon?

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Why does melting point increase from sodium to
silicon? Na → Mg → Al → Si
● Na, Mg and Al are all giant metallic structures.
● As you go from Na to Mg to Al, number of protons and electrons
increases. Atomic radius decreases.
● This leads to greater electrostatic attraction between nuclei and
electrons which requires more energy to overcome and melt the metal.
● Silicon has a giant covalent lattice structure which has strong
covalent bonds between atoms which require a lot of energy to
overcome.
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Why is there is a sharp decrease in
melting point between silicon and
phosphorus?

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Why is there is a sharp decrease in melting point
between silicon and phosphorus?
● Silicon has a giant covalent lattice structure whereas
phosphorus has a simple covalent structure.
● The strong covalent bonds between the silicon atoms
require a lot of energy to overcome.
● The weak London forces between P4 molecules
require little energy to overcome.

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 Why is there is a slight increase in
melting point between phosphorus and
sulfur?

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Why is there is a slight increase in melting point between
phosphorus and sulfur?
● Sulfur has more atoms per molecule than phosphorus so
sulfur molecules contain more protons and electrons.
● As a result, the London forces between molecules are
stronger so more energy is required to overcome these
forces during melting.
● The increase is only small because sulfur is still a simple
molecular compound.
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Why does melting point decreases from
sulfur to argon?

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Why does melting point decreases from sulfur to argon?

● S8, Cl2 and Ar are all simple covalent substances.

● From S8 to Cl2 to Ar, the molecules are getting
smaller.
● This means that there are weaker intermolecular
(London) forces between molecules.
● As a result, less energy is required to overcome
these forces and melt the substance.
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Describe and explain how electrical
conductivity varies across period 3

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Describe and explain how electrical conductivity
varies across period 3
● Conductivity increases from sodium to magnesium to
aluminium because metallic bonding means that they
contain delocalised electrons that are free to move.
● Silicon is a semiconductor.
● Elements from phosphorus to argon are
non-conductors because they are simple molecular
substances (no delocalised electrons/ mobile charges).
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How does ionisation energy vary across
period 3?

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How does ionisation energy vary across period 3?
In general, ionisation energy increases across a period
because:
● Nuclear charge and atomic radius increase, shielding
remains the same.
● Nuclear attraction increases.
● As a result, more energy is required to remove an
electron so ionisation energy increases.
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What are the properties of ceramics?

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What are the properties of ceramics?

● Strong
● High melting point
● Electrically insulating

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Give some examples of ceramics

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Give some examples of ceramics

● Magnesium oxide (ionic)

● Aluminium oxide (ionic)
● Silicon dioxide (covalent)

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How are the properties of ceramics
based on their structure?

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How are the properties of ceramics based on their
structure?
● Strength: The ionic/ covalent bonds in ceramics are very
strong (giant structures).
● High melting points: Lots of energy is required to overcome
these strong ionic or covalent bonds to melt the substance.
● Electrically insulating: non-conductors. Covalent compounds
have no mobile electrons and when ionic compounds are
solid, the ions are fixed in a giant ionic lattice.
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Describe how sodium reacts with oxygen
(include an equation)

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Describe how sodium reacts with oxygen (include an
equation)
2Na + ½O2 → Na2O
Sodium burns in oxygen with an orange
flame to produce sodium oxide, a white
solid.
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Describe how magnesium reacts with
oxygen (include an equation)

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Describe how magnesium reacts with oxygen
(include an equation)
Mg + ½O2 → MgO
Magnesium burns in oxygen with an
intense white flame to form magnesium
oxide, a white solid.
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Describe how aluminium reacts with
oxygen (include an equation)

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Describe how aluminium reacts with oxygen (include
an equation)
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Aluminium will burn in oxygen if
powdered. Sprinkling this powder into a
bunsen gives white sparkles and forms
aluminium oxide, a white solid.
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Describe how phosphorus reacts with
oxygen (include an equation)

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Describe how phosphorus reacts with oxygen
(include an equation)
P4 + 5O2 → P4O10
White phosphorus catches fire
spontaneously in air (burns with a white
flame). In excess oxygen, phosphorus (V)
oxide forms.
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Describe how sulfur reacts with oxygen
(include an equation)

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Describe how sulfur reacts with oxygen (include an
equation)
S + O2 → SO2

Sulfur burns in air on gentle heating with a pale blue flame. This
produces colourless SO2 gas.

To convert SO2 to SO3:

● 2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
● 400 - 450℃, 1-2 atm, V2O5 catalyst.
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Describe sodium reacts with chlorine
(include an equation)

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Describe sodium reacts with chlorine (include an
equation)
Na + ½Cl2 → NaCl
Sodium burns in chlorine with a bright
orange flame to produce sodium
chloride, a white solid.
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Describe how magnesium reacts with
chlorine (include an equation)

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Describe how magnesium reacts with chlorine
(include an equation)
Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
Magnesium burns in chlorine with an
intense white flame to form magnesium
chloride, a white solid.
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Describe how aluminium reacts with
chlorine (include an equation)

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Describe how aluminium reacts with chlorine
(include an equation)
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3

Dry chlorine is passed over aluminium foil to form aluminium

chloride, a very pale yellow solid.

2AlCl3 ⇌ Al2Cl6

At around 180 - 190℃ (dependent upon pressure), AlCl3 is

converted to Al2Cl6 which then vaporises.
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Describe how silicon reacts with chlorine
(include an equation)

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Describe how silicon reacts with chlorine (include an
equation)
Si + 2Cl2 → SiCl4
If chlorine is passed over powdered silicon and
heated, it reacts to form silicon tetrachloride, a
colourless liquid, which then vaporises (can be
condensed further along the apparatus).
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Describe how phosphorus reacts with
chlorine (include an equation)

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Describe how phosphorus reacts with chlorine
(include an equation)
P4 + 10Cl2 → 4PCl5
White phosphorus burns spontaneously
in excess chlorine to form PCl5, an
off-white/ almost yellow solid.
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Describe how sodium reacts with cold
water (include an equation)

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Describe how sodium reacts with water (include an
equation)
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
A very exothermic reaction forms
hydrogen gas and a colourless solution
of sodium hydroxide.
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Describe how magnesium reacts with
cold water (include an equation)

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Describe how magnesium reacts with cold water
(include an equation)
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
Magnesium hydroxide forms on the outside of
the metal strip. A few bubbles of hydrogen
float to the surface of container. The reaction
generally stops after this.
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Describe how magnesium reacts with
steam (include an equation)

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Describe how magnesium reacts with steam (include
an equation)
Mg + H2O → MgO + H2
Magnesium burns with its typical white
flame.

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How do period 3 oxides (from sodium to
sulfur) vary in oxidation number?

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How do period 3 oxides (from sodium to sulfur) vary
in oxidation number?

Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, P4O10, SO2, SO3.

+1 +2 +3 +5 +4 +6

The general trend is that oxidation

number increase (apart from SO2)
across period 3 oxides.
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How do period 3 chlorides (from sodium
to phosphorus) vary in oxidation
number?

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How do period 3 chlorides (from sodium to
phosphorus) vary in oxidation number?

NaCl, MgCl2, Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl5

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5

From sodium to phosphorus, the

oxidation number increases.

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Why does the oxidation number of period
3 oxides and chlorides vary?

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Why does the oxidation number of period 3 oxides
and chlorides vary?
● Each element in period 3 has a different number of
electrons in its outer shell.
● Hence each element needs to gain/lose/share a different
number of electrons to have a full outer shell and form the
oxide/chloride.
● This leads to each element having a different oxidation
state.
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Describe how sodium oxide reacts with
water (include an equation)

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Describe how sodium oxide reacts with water
(include an equation)
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
● Exothermic.
● Forms a highly alkaline solution.

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Describe how magnesium oxide reacts
with water (include an equation)

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Describe how magnesium oxide reacts with water
(include an equation)
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
● Forms a slightly alkaline solution.
● Most of the Mg(OH)2 that is made is insoluble
and hence doesn’t dissolve in solution to
increase the pH.
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 Describe how phosphorus(V) oxide
reacts with water (include an equation)

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Describe how phosphorus(V) oxide reacts with water
(include an equation)
P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4
● Forms an acidic solution.
● Violent reaction

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Describe how sulfur dioxide reacts with
water (include an equation)

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Describe how sulfur dioxide reacts with water
(include an equation)
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
● Forms an acidic solution

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Describe how sulfur trioxide reacts with
water (include an equation)

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Describe how sulfur trioxide reacts with water
(include an equation)
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
● Forms an acidic solution
● Violent reaction

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How does sodium oxide react with
hydrochloric acid?

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How does sodium oxide react with hydrochloric
acid?

Na2O is a strong base. It reacts with an

acid to form a salt and water:
Na2O + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O

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How does magnesium oxide react with
hydrochloric acid?

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How does magnesium oxide react with hydrochloric
acid?
MgO is a weaker base than Na2O though. It
reacts with warm dilute HCl to form a salt and
water:
MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O

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What does amphoteric mean?

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What does amphoteric mean?

An amphoteric compound is able to act

as both an acid and a base.

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How is aluminium oxide amphoteric?

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How is aluminium oxide amphoteric?

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is amphoteric as

it reacts with both acids and bases

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How does phosphorus (V) oxide react
with NaOH?

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How does phosphorus (V) oxide react with NaOH?

There are many different reactions that

can occur between phosphorus (V) oxide
and NaOH, an example is:
P4O10 + 12NaOH → 4Na3PO4 + 6H2O

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How does sulfur dioxide react with
NaOH?

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How does sulfur dioxide react with NaOH?

● Sulfur dioxide is bubbled through sodium

hydroxide solution:
SO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SO3 + H2O
● If the sulfur dioxide is in excess:
Na2SO3 + H2O + SO2 → 2NaHSO3

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What oxides don’t react with water?

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What oxides don’t react with water?

● Aluminium oxide - insoluble in water

● Silicon dioxide - breaking up its giant
covalent lattice structure is too difficult.

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Does silicon dioxide react with acids or
bases?

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Does silicon dioxide react with acids or bases?

Bases (e.g. sodium hydroxide)

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Describe how NaCl reacts with water
(include an equation)

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Describe how NaCl reacts with water (include an
equation)
NaCl dissolves in water to form a neutral
solution (pH 7).
+ -
NaCl(s) → Na (aq)
+ Cl (aq)

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Describe how MgCl2 reacts with water
(include an equation)

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Describe how MgCl2 reacts with water (include an
equation)
MgCl2 dissolves in water to form a faintly acidic solution
(pH 6)
MgCl2 + 6H2O → [Mg(H2O)6]2+ + 2Cl-
A small proportion of hydrogen ions are removed from
the hydrated magnesium ion, as it a weak acid:
[Mg(H2O)6]2+ + 2H2O ⇌ [Mg(H2O)5(OH)]+ + H3O+
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Describe how AlCl3 reacts with water
(include an equation)

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Describe how AlCl3 reacts with water (include an
equation)
AlCl3 + 6H2O → [Al(H2O)6]3+ + 3Cl-
Hydrated aluminium ions are a stronger acid than
hydrated magnesium ions so the position of
equilibrium lies further to the right:
[Al(H2O)6]3+ + H2O ⇌ [Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3O+
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Describe how SiCl4 reacts with water
(include an equation)

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Describe how SiCl4 reacts with water (include an
equation)
SiCl4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4HCl
Violent reaction, produces silicon dioxide and
fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.

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Write an equation for the reaction
between PCl5 and cold water

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Write an equation for the reaction between PCl5 and
cold water
PCl5 + H2O → POCl3 + 2HCl

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How does PCl5 react with boiling water?

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How does PCl5 react with boiling water?

With water: PCl5 + H2O → POCl3 + 2HCl

If the water is boiling the POCl3 will continue to react:
POCl3 + 3H2O → H3PO4 + 3HCl
Overall boiling water equation:
PCl5 + 4H2O → H3PO4 + 5HCl

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 Describe how the bonding in group 3
oxides and chlorides varied across the
period

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Describe how the bonding in group 3 oxides and
chlorides varied across the period
Sodium and magnesium form ionic bonds with
oxygen and chlorine. Aluminium forms covalent
bonds with oxygen and either covalent or ionic
bonds with chlorine. Other period 3 elements
form simple covalent compounds.
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Why does the bonding in group 3 oxides
and chlorides vary across the period?

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Why does the bonding in group 3 oxides and
chlorides vary across the period?
The difference in electronegativity between chlorine/
oxygen and the period 3 element decreases across the
period. There is sufficient difference in the
electronegativity of chlorine/ oxygen and sodium or
magnesium to form ions. After aluminium, the difference
in electronegativity is too small for ions to form.
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How can physical properties be used to
predict the type of chemical bonding in
group 3 oxides and chlorides?

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How can physical properties be used to predict the
type of chemical bonding in group 3 oxides and
chlorides?
A high melting point indicates a giant
molecular structure. This could either be
ionic (like NaCl and MgO) or covalent
(like SiO2).
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How can chemical properties be used to
predict the type of chemical bonding in
group 3 oxides and chlorides?

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How can chemical properties be used to predict the
type of chemical bonding in group 3 oxides and
chlorides?
● Chlorides and water: ionic chlorides form a solution with a pH close to 7.
Covalent chlorides react to form an acidic solution and HCl gas.
● Oxides and water: covalent oxides form an acidic solution. Ionic oxides
may react to form an alkaline solution or they may not react.
● Acids and bases: ionic oxides are generally basic (react with acids).
Covalent oxides tend to be acidic (react with bases). Amphoteric oxides
such as aluminium oxide are usually ionic with some covalent character.
● Electrolysis: only molten ionic chlorides/ oxides undergo electrolysis.

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What is meant by periodicity?

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What is meant by periodicity?

The recurring variations or trends in the

properties of elements in the periodic
table.

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What group normally forms stable -1
ions?

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What group normally forms stable -1 ions?

Group 7:
F–, Cl–, Br– and I–

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What group normally forms stable +1
ions?

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What group normally forms stable +1 ions?

Group 1:
Li+, Na+, K+ and Rb+

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What group normally forms stable +2
ions?

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What group normally forms stable +2 ions?

Group 2:
Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and Sr2+

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What structure do group 4 elements
normally have?

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What structure do group 4 elements normally have?

Giant covalent structure

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Which elements in the periodic table
form giant metallic structures?

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Which elements in the periodic table form giant
metallic structures?

The metals.

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CIE Chemistry A-Level
Topic 10 - Group 2
Flashcards

PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

This work by https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

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What is formed when group 2 elements
react with oxygen?

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What is formed when group 2 elements react with
oxygen?
Group 2 metal oxide
(This is a redox reaction)

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What is observed when group 2
elements react with oxygen?

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What is observed when group 2 elements react with
oxygen?
● Beryllium only reacts in powdered form.
● Magnesium burns with an intense white flame.
● Calcium burns with a bright white flame (red at the
top).
● Strontium is reluctant to start burning but burns
intensely with a white flame.
● Barium burns with a white flame.
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Write an equation for the reaction
between calcium and oxygen

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Write an equation for the reaction between calcium
and oxygen
Ca(s) + ½O2(g) → CaO(s)

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What is formed when group 2 elements
react with water?

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How do group 2 elements react with water?

An alkaline hydroxide and hydrogen gas

(This is a redox reaction)

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Describe the trend in the reactions with
water as you go down group 2

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Describe the trend in the reactions with water as you
go down group 2
As you go down the group, the reactions
become more vigorous.

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Write an equation for the reaction
between strontium and water

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Write an equation for the reaction between strontium
and water
Sr + 2H2O → Sr(OH)2 + H2

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 Why does beryllium only react with
steam at very high temperatures and not
with cold water?

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Why does beryllium only react with steam at very
high temperatures and not with cold water?
Because beryllium is the least reactive
group 2 metal.

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Why does magnesium stop reacting with
cold water after a short time?

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Why does magnesium stop reacting with cold water
after a short time?
Because an insoluble coat of magnesium
hydroxide forms on the surface.

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What is formed when group 2 elements
react with dilute acids?

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What is formed when group 2 elements react with
dilute acids?
A salt and hydrogen gas
(This is a redox reaction)

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 Write an equation for the reaction
between magnesium and hydrochloric
acid

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Write an equation for the reaction between
magnesium and hydrochloric acid
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

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Describe the trend in the reactivity of
group 2 metals with hydrochloric acid

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Describe the trend in the reactivity of group 2 metals
with hydrochloric acid
Reactivity increases / the reactions get
more vigorous.

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 Describe and explain the trend in the
reactivity of group 2 metals with sulfuric
acid

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Describe and explain the trend in the reactivity of
group 2 metals with sulfuric acid
The reactions do not get more vigorous down the group due to the solubility of
the sulfates produced.

- Beryllium and magnesium: soluble sulfates so similar reaction as with HCl

- Calcium: sparingly soluble sulfate
- Strontium and barium: insoluble sulfates

Calcium, strontium and barium only react with sulfuric acid for a short time as
the formation of the insoluble sulfate on the metal stops the reaction.

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Why might a precipitate be seen when a
group 2 oxide reacts with water?

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Why might a precipitate be seen when a group 2
oxide reacts with water?
Group 2 hydroxides are only slightly
soluble in water so when the solution is
saturated, the metal hydroxide doesn’t
dissolve (meaning it appears as a
precipitate).
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Write an equation for the reaction
between calcium oxide and water

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Write an equation for the reaction between calcium
oxide and water
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)

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 Describe the trend in the solubility of
group 2 hydroxides. Use this to explain
the trend in pH

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Describe the trend in the solubility of group 2
hydroxides. Use this to explain the trend in pH
The solubility of group 2 hydroxides
increases down the group. As a result,
more OH- ions are release in solution
meaning pH increases down the group.
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Which group 2 oxide doesn’t react with
water?

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Which group 2 oxide doesn’t react with water?

Beryllium oxide

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What is formed when group 2 oxides
react with dilute acids?

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What is formed when group 2 oxides react with dilute
acids?
A salt and water

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 Write an equation for the reaction
between barium oxide and hydrochloric
acid

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Write an equation for the reaction between barium
oxide and hydrochloric acid
BaO + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O

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How do group 2 hydroxides behave in
water? Use Ca(OH)2 as an example

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How do group 2 hydroxides behave in water? Use
Ca(OH)2 as an example
Group 2 hydroxides dissociate in water
to form their constituent ions:
Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

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What is formed when group 2 hydroxides
react with dilute acids?

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What is formed when group 2 hydroxides react with
dilute acids?
A salt and water
E.g. Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O

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How do group 2 carbonates behave in
water?

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How do group 2 carbonates behave in water?

All group 2 carbonates are sparingly

soluble in water. They do not react with
water.

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 What is formed when group 2
carbonates react with dilute acids?

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What is formed when group 2 carbonates react with
dilute acids?
A salt, water and carbon dioxide gas

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 Write an equation for the reaction
between magnesium carbonate and
nitric acid

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Write an equation for the reaction between
magnesium carbonate and nitric acid
MgCO3 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

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Describe how group 2 nitrates thermally
decompose

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Describe how group 2 nitrates thermally decompose

Upon heating, group 2 nitrates

decompose to form a group 2 metal
oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.

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Write an equation for the thermal
decomposition of strontium nitrate

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Write an equation for the thermal decomposition of
strontium nitrate

Sr(NO3)2 → SrO + 2NO2 + ½O2

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What is the trend in thermal stability of
group 2 nitrates?
(A level only)

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What is the trend in thermal stability of group 2
nitrates? (A level only)

● Thermal stability increases down the group.

● This is because as you go down the group,
charge density of the ion decreases.
● This means that the ability of the group 2 ion
to polarise a nitrate ion decreases.
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Describe the thermal decomposition of
group 2 carbonates

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Describe the thermal decomposition of group 2
carbonates
Upon heating, group 2 carbonates decompose to
form a group 2 oxide and carbon dioxide.
E.g. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

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What is the trend in thermal stability of
group 2 carbonates?
(A level only)

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What is the trend in thermal stability of group 2
carbonates? (A level only)
● Thermal stability increases down the group.
● This is because as you go down the group,
charge density of the ion decreases.
● This means that the ability of a group 2 ion to
polarise a carbonate ion decreases.
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Explain the trend in the solubility of
group 2 hydroxides
(A level only)

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Explain the trend in the solubility of group 2
hydroxides (A level only)
● The solubility of group 2 hydroxides increases down the
group.
● Lattice dissociation enthalpy and enthalpy change of
hydration both decrease down the group, but lattice
dissociation enthalpy decreases more.
● This means enthalpy change of solution is more
exothermic further down the group.
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Explain the trend in solubility of group 2
sulfates
(A level only)

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Explain the trend in solubility of group 2 sulfates
(A level only)
● As you go down the group, the solubility of group 2
sulfates decreases.
● This is because lattice dissociation enthalpy and the
enthalpy change of hydration both decrease as you go
down the group but hydration enthalpy decreases more.
● This leads to the enthalpy change of solution becoming
more endothermic.
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What is the use of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3
in agriculture?

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What is the use of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 in agriculture?

● Both compounds can be added to soil to raise the pH

so that it is not too acidic to grow crops. This is
because they react with and neutralise acids.
● CaCO3 is used in the manufacture of quicklime,
slaked lime, cement and mortar.
● Ca(OH)2 is used for cement, mortar and sewage
treatment.
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CIE Chemistry A-Level
Topic 11 - Group 17
Flashcards

PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

This work by https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

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 What are the colours and states of
chlorine, bromine and iodine at room
temperature?

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What are the colours and states of chlorine, bromine
and iodine at room temperature?

● Chlorine: yellow-green gas

● Bromine: red-brown liquid
● Iodine: grey solid

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 Describe and explain the trend in
volatility from chlorine to bromine to
iodine

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Describe and explain the trend in volatility from
chlorine to bromine to iodine
● Volatility decreases down the group.
● This is because the number of electrons per molecule
increases, causing stronger van der Waals forces to
form.
● More energy is required to overcome these stronger
intermolecular forces and so volatility/ boiling point
increases.
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What is an oxidising agent?

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What is an oxidising agent?

Elements / compounds that gain

electrons to oxidise another element/
compound.

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Describe and explain the trend in relative
reactivity of the halogens down the group

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Describe and explain the trend in relative reactivity of
the halogens down the group
● As you go down the group, the oxidising ability of the
halogens decreases (reactivity decreases).
● This is because nuclear charge, atomic radius and
shielding increase meaning nuclear attraction decreases.
● As a result, it is harder for a halogen atom to gain an
electron and act as an oxidising agent further down the
group.
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How can the reactivity of the halogens as
oxidising agents be investigated?

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How can the reactivity of the halogens as oxidising
agents be investigated?
Using the displacement reactions of halogens with other halides.
If a displacement reaction has occurred, there will be a colour
change. The results of this experiment are shown below:
Halogen Displacement Ionic equation Oxidising ability

Cl Chlorine (Cl2) will displace bromide and iodide ions. Cl2 + 2Br- → 2Cl- + Br2 Strongest oxidising agent
Cl2 + 2I- → 2Cl- + I2

Br Bromine (Br2) will displace iodide ions. Br2 + 2I- → 2Br- + I2

I Iodine (I2) will not react with chloride or bromide ions No reactions take place Weakest oxidising agent

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What colours are the halogens in
solution?

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What colours are the halogens in solution?

Chlorine solution - colourless

Bromine solution - orange
Iodine solution - brown

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Write an equation to show how chlorine,
reacts with hydrogen

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Write an equation to show how chlorine reacts with
hydrogen
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl

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 How do the reactions of group 17
elements with hydrogen show that
reactivity decreases down the group?

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How do the reactions of group 17 elements with
hydrogen show that reactivity decreases down the
group?
- Fluorine reacts explosively with hydrogen, even in a cold
atmosphere.
- Chlorine reacts with hydrogen when lightly heated or when
exposed to sunlight.
- Bromine reacts with hydrogen if heated with a flame.
- Iodine only partially reacts with hydrogen when heated
constantly (equilibrium).
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Describe and explain how the thermal
stability of hydrogen halides varies

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Describe and explain how the thermal stability of
hydrogen halides varies
● Bond enthalpy decreases from H-F to H-I (this is
because atomic radius and shielding increase so there
is weaker attraction between the nucleus and the
bonding electrons).
● This means less energy is required to overcome the
hydrogen-halogen bond as you go down the group.
● Thermal stability therefore decreases.
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Describe the reactions of halide ions with
silver nitrate followed by ammonia

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Describe the reactions of halide ions with silver nitrate
followed by ammonia
Observations upon addition of Observations upon addition Observations upon
silver nitrate. of dilute ammonia. addition of concentrated
ammonia.

Cl- White precipitate of AgCl forms. White precipitate dissolves to White precipitate
form a colourless solution. dissolves to form a
colourless solution.

Br- Cream precipitate of AgBr forms. Precipitate remains. Cream precipitate

dissolves to form a
colourless solution.

I- Yellow precipitate of AgI forms. Precipitate remains. Precipitate remains.

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Describe the reactions of NaCl and NaF
with concentrated sulfuric acid

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Describe the reactions of NaCl and NaF with
concentrated sulfuric acid
NaF + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HF
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl
(HF and HCl are misty fumes)
HF and HCl are not strong enough reducing agent for
further reactions to occur.

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Describe the reactions of NaBr with
concentrated sulfuric acid

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Describe the reactions of NaBr with concentrated
sulfuric acid
NaBr + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HBr
(HBr- misty fumes)
HBr is a strong enough reducing agent for a further
reaction to occur:
2HBr + H2SO4 → Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O

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Describe the reactions of NaI with
concentrated sulfuric acid

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Describe the reactions of NaI with concentrated
sulfuric acid
NaI + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HI
(HI - misty fumes)
HI is a very strong reducing agent meaning 2 further
reactions occur:
2HI + H2SO4 → I2 + SO2 + 2H2O
6HI + SO2 → 3I2 + H2S + 2H2O
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What is a disproportionation reaction?

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What is a disproportionation reaction?

A reaction in which the same species is

oxidised and reduced.

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 Write an equation for the reaction of
chlorine with cold dilute sodium
hydroxide solution. Use oxidation
numbers to state what has been oxidised
and reduced.

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Write an equation for the reaction of chlorine with cold
dilute sodium hydroxide solution. Use oxidation
numbers to state what has been oxidised and reduced.
2NaOH + Cl2 → NaCl + NaClO + H2O
Chlorine has been oxidised from 0 in Cl2 to +1 in
NaClO and reduced from 0 in Cl2 to -1 in NaCl.
This is a disproportionation reaction.

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 Write an equation for the reaction of
chlorine with hot concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution. Use oxidation
numbers to state what has been oxidised
and reduced.

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Write an equation for the reaction of chlorine with hot
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. Use oxidation
numbers to state what has been oxidised and reduced.
6NaOH + 3Cl2 → 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
The chlorine has been oxidised from 0 in Cl2 to
+5 in NaClO3 and reduced from 0 in Cl2to -1 in
NaCl. This is a disproportionation reaction.

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Why is chlorine used in water
purification?

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Why is chlorine used in water purification?

● Chlorine kills bacteria that could cause disease.

● Removes bad tastes and smells.
● Removes discolouration.
● Prevents growth of algae.
● Chlorine that persists in the water prevents
reinfection in the long term.
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What are the concerns regarding the use
of chlorine in water purification?

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What are the concerns regarding the use of chlorine
in water purification?
● Chlorine is toxic.
● Chlorine can react with organic matter in water
to form potentially cancer causing compounds.
As a small amount of chlorine is added, it is
agreed that the benefits outweigh the risks.
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 What is the industrial importance of
halogens and the compounds that they
form?

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 What is the industrial importance of halogens and
the compounds that they form?
● Chlorine is used in water purification to kill bacteria and prevent
disease.
● Halogens are used in bleaches.
● Halogens are present in PVC (used for windows and drain pipes.
When plasticisers are added, PVC is used for electrical cable
insulation and clothing).
● Halogenated hydrocarbons are used as solvents, refrigerants and in
aerosols.
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What is the environmental problem with
the use of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)?

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 What is the environmental problem with the use of
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)?
● CFCs damage the ozone layer (ozone is in the upper
atmosphere and it absorbs a lot of UV radiation).
● CFCs are broken down by UV light, releasing a chlorine radical.
This chlorine radical react with ozone and breaks it down:
Cl. + O3 → O2 + ClO.
ClO. + O3 → 2O2 + Cl.
Overall: 2O3 → 3O2
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CIE Chemistry A-Level
Topic 13 - Nitrogen and Sulfur
Flashcards

PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

This work by https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

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Why is nitrogen very unreactive?

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Why is nitrogen very unreactive?
● Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule whereby 2
nitrogen atoms are joined by a triple bond (N≡N).
● The enthalpy of this bond is very high and hence
requires a lot of energy to break.
● There isn’t a permanent dipole in the molecule so
it is fairly resistant to electrophilic and nucleophilic
attack.
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How does ammonia act as a base?

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How does ammonia act as a base?

Ammonia (NH3) is a weak base because

there is a lone pair of electrons on the
nitrogen atom that allow the molecule to
accept a proton, forming an ammonium
ion, NH4+.
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Describe the bonding and structure of
ammonia

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Describe the bonding and structure of ammonia
There are 3 bonding pairs of
electrons (N-H covalent
bonds. In addition to this,
there is 1 lone pair of
electron. Shape is pyramidal,
107° bond angle.
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Describe the bonding and structure of
ammonium ions

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Describe the bonding and structure of ammonium
ions
● 4 bonding pairs, no lone
pairs.
● One dative covalent bond.
● Tetrahedral shape and
bond angle of 109.5°.

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How is an ammonium ion formed during
the reaction between hydrochloric acid
and ammonia?

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How is an ammonium ion formed during the reaction
between hydrochloric acid and ammonia?
Full equation: NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4Cl(aq)
Ionic equation: NH3(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)
Ammonia accepts a proton from the acid to form
an ammonium ion.
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 What can be used to displace ammonia
from its salts? What is formed during this
reaction?

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What can be used to displace ammonia from its
salts? What is formed during this reaction?
When an alkali is reacted with an
ammonium salt, ammonia is displaced.
This also forms a salt and water.

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Write an equation for the reaction of
ammonium chloride with sodium
hydroxide

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Write an equation for the reaction of ammonium
chloride with sodium hydroxide

NH4Cl(s) + NaOH(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l) +

NaCl(aq)

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What is the industrial importance of
ammonia and its compounds?

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What is the industrial importance of ammonia and its
compounds?
● Ammonium nitrate is used as a plant fertiliser.
● Ammonium hydroxide is used in household cleaning
products.
● Purifies water supplies and is used in wastewater treatment.
● Used as a refrigerant gas and in air-conditioning equipment.
● Used to make explosives, dyes, polymers, paints, detergents
and drugs.

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 What are the environmental
consequences of excessive /
uncontrolled fertiliser use?

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What are the environmental consequences of excessive or
uncontrolled fertiliser use?
Eutrophication:
● Rainwater causes excess fertilisers to leach into lakes and rivers.
● Excessive algal growth occurs and algal bloom forms on the water
surface.
● The algal bloom prevents light reaching the plants below the water
meaning they die as a result of being unable to photosynthesis.
● Dead plants are broken down by decomposers which, along with the
algae, use up the oxygen dissolved in the water for respiration.
● This leaves little oxygen for respiration in other organisms such as fish.
As a result, the fish die.
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Name the following compounds:
N2O, NO and NO2

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Name the following compounds: N2O, NO and NO2

● N2O = Nitrous oxide

● NO = Nitric oxide
● NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide

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State the colours of the following gases:
N2O, NO and NO2

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State the colours of the following gases:
N2O, NO and NO2

● N2O = colourless
● NO = colourless
● NO2 = reddish-brown

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How are oxides of nitrogen produced
naturally?

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How are oxides of nitrogen produced naturally?
By lightning:

● N2 + O2 → 2NO
● NO + ½O2 → NO2

By microbes in the soil: produce nitrous oxide, N2O, nitrate

ions (NO3-), nitrite ions (NO2-) and other nitrogen-containing
compounds.

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How are oxides of nitrogen produced by
human activity?

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How are oxides of nitrogen produced by human
activity?
● Made via fossil fuel combustion.
● Can also be formed in nitric acid manufacture.
● NO made as a result of the high pressures
and temperatures of car engines
(N2 + O2 → 2NO).

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Describe how catalytic converters work

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Describe how catalytic converters work
● Nitrogen monoxide is formed in car engines:
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g).
● A catalytic converter removes a majority of NO so it
isn’t released into the atmosphere:
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + CO2(g) .
● A ceramic honeycomb structure is coated in a thin
layer of metal catalysts (such as platinum and
rhodium).
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Why are atmospheric oxides of nitrogen
pollutants?

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Why are atmospheric oxides of nitrogen pollutants?

● Nitrogen monoxide can catalyse a the

oxidation of SO2, causing acid rain.
● Nitrogen dioxide can also contribute to
photochemical smog.

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How does nitrogen dioxide catalyse the
oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide?

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How does nitrogen dioxide catalyse the oxidation of
atmospheric sulfur dioxide?
Nitrogen dioxide catalyses the conversion of SO2 into SO3:
NO2(g) + SO2(g) → SO3(g) + NO(g).
Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen to reform the
catalyst:
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g).
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 How does the combustion of
sulfur-contaminated fossil fuels lead to
the formation of atmospheric sulfur
dioxide?

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How does the combustion of sulfur-contaminated fossil fuels
lead to the formation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide?

● Fossil fuels (such as coal and oil)

contain small amounts of sulfurous
compounds.
● When combusted, sulfur dioxide will
be released.
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How does acid rain form?

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How does acid rain form?

Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen in the

atmosphere to form sulfur trioxide (catalysed
by nitrogen monoxide). Sulfur trioxide
dissolves in water vapour in the clouds to form
dilute sulfuric acid. This falls as acid rain.
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Write an equation to show the formation
of acid rain from sulfur trioxide (include
state symbols).

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Write an equation to show the formation of acid rain
from sulfur trioxide (include state symbols)

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

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What are the main environmental
consequences of acid rain?

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What are the main environmental consequences of
acid rain?
● Corrosion of buildings/statues made from
limestone.
● Corrosion of ironwork.
● Acidification of lakes and rivers.
● Damage to vegetation.
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