Concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard

mass due to chemical action between the cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser
aggregate acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate. The cement in
conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly
by the use of admixtures.
Benefits: 1) It is a relatively cheap material and has a relatively long life with few maintenance requirements. 2) It is strong in
compression. 3) Before it hardens it is a very pliable substance that can easily be shaped. 4)It is non-combustible.
Limitations: 1) Relatively low tensile strength when compared to other building materials. 2) Low ductility. 3)Low strength-to-weight
ratio.4) It is susceptible to cracking.
Concrete Manufacturing Processes:
1) Batching: The first step involves gathering the ingredients necessary to produce the particular type of concrete. The type of
batching, volume or weighted, is contingent on the amount of concrete being produced. Volume batching, typically involved in
producing smaller batches, requires a tedious amount of manual gauge box measuring and lifting. Due to the strenuous
environment, this stage of the manufacturing process requires critical care in selecting the right safety gear to safeguard against
cuts, blisters and other environmental hazards.
2) Mixing: Depending on the type and quantity needed for a particular job, concrete can be mixed by hand, by stationary mixer, or
during transport. Regardless of how it is mixed, the critical point is to ensure the concrete is uniform in color and consistency for
optimal setting. Hand mixing cement, using shovels, and other mixing tools takes its toll on workers’ hands, again requiring a
strong durable glove for enhanced protection.
3) Transporting and Placing: Methods of transporting concrete vary widely from wheelbarrow and manual hauling to conveyor belt
operations, to more advanced projects involving cranes and pumps. All of these methods require some level of manual operating
demanding advanced safety wear. From physically hauling wheelbarrows to operating and securing larger machines and
equipment hauling the concrete, companies have an obligation to ensure their gloves meet safety requirements.
4) Compacting and Placing: During mixing and transport air is often entrapped, greatly reducing the quality and strength. One of
the final stages of production involves compacting the product to eliminate the air pockets and ensure durability. This can be done
by involving machinery that temporarily liquefies the concrete, instantly expelling trapped air, or by hand tooling.
5) Curing and Finishing: This process takes place immediately after concrete is compressed and involves close attention to detail
regarding moisture levels and contracting as it dries. This process is crucial in preventing cracking and durability issues. Many
types of curing involve potent chemicals to seal the slab that can be incredibly hazardous to workers if exposed.
Grades of concrete are defined by the strength and composition of the concrete, and the minimum strength the concrete should
have following 28 days of initial construction. The grade of concrete is understood in measurements of MPa, where M stands for
mix and the MPa denotes the overall strength. Concrete mixes are defined in ascending numbers of 5, starting at 10, and show the
compressive strength of the concrete after 28 days. For instance, M10 has the strength of 10 newtons, M15 has the strength of 15
newtons, M20 has 20 newtons strength and so on. Different mixes (M) come in various mix proportions of the various ingredients
of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. For instance, M20 comes in the respective ratio of 1:1:5:3.
GRADES OF CONCRETE
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa
M7.5 1 : 4 : 8 7.5 MPa
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa
STANDARD GRADE OF CONCRETE
M25 1:1:2 25 MPa
M30 Design Mix 30 MPa
M35 Design Mix 35 MPa
M40 Design Mix 40 MPa
M45 Design Mix 45 MPa
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GRADES
M50 Design Mix 50 MPa
M55 Design Mix 55 MPa
M60 Design Mix 60 MPa
M65 Design Mix 65 MPa
M70 Design Mix 70 MPa
Composition of Cement: There are eight major ingredients of cement. The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is
given below:

Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1

Functions of Cement Ingredients: The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:
Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.
o Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o Excessive presence of lime cause cement to expand and disintegrate.
Silica:Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
o Silica usually present to the extent of about 30 percent cement.
Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.
Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts color to cement. It acts as a flux.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and aluminum to form tricalcium
alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3.
o Should not be present more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.
Alkaline:
o Should not be present more than 1%. Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

COMPOUNDS OF CEMENT
About 90-95% of a Portland cement is comprised of the four main cement minerals, which are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, with the
remainder consisting of calcium sulphate, alkali sulphates, unreacted (free) CaO, MgO, and other minor constituents left over from
the clinkering and grinding steps. The four cement minerals play very different roles in the hydration process that converts the dry
cement into hardened cement paste. Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. In general, the early strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased percentages of C3S. 50 % by weight
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increases at ages beyond 7 days. 25 % by weight
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hardening and, together with C3S and C2S
may somewhat increase the early strength of the hardening cement (this effect being due to the considerable heat of hydration that
this compound evolves). It does affect set times. 12 % by weight
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength gain. However, acts as a flux during manufacturing.
Contributes to the color effects that makes cement gray. 8 % by Weight.