UNIT 1

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WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?
“Energy in transit due to temperature difference.”
Thermodynamics tells us:
 How much heat is transferred (Q)
 How much work is done (W)
 Final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:
 How (with what modes) Q is transferred
 At what rate Q is transferred
 Temperature distribution inside the body

Heat transfer complementary Thermodynamics

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 MODES:
• Conduction
- needs matter
- molecular phenomenon (diffusion process)
- without bulk motion of matter
• Convection
- heat carried away by bulk motion of fluid
- needs fluid matter
• Radiation
- does not needs matter
- transmission of energy by electromagnetic
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 APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Energy production and conversion
- steam power plant, solar energy conversion etc.
 Refrigeration and air-conditioning
 Domestic applications
- ovens, stoves, toaster
 Cooling of electronic equipment
 Manufacturing / materials processing
- welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
 Automobiles / aircraft design
 Nature (weather, climate etc..)

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 CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of heat
conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing
x. The negative sign in the equation ensures that heat
transfer in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the The rate of heat conduction
direction of heat through a solid is directly7
transfer. proportional to its thermal
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conductivity.
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 Thermal Conductivity

• Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat

transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
• The thermal conductivity of a material is
a measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat.
• A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates that
the material is a poor heat conductor or A simple experimental setup
insulator. to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.

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The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room
temperature.
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 Thermal Diffusivity
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity
will obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into
the medium.
• A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed
by the material and a small amount of heat is conducted further.

cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit mass

cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast heat diffuses through a
material

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 STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE
WALLS
• Heat transfer through the wall of a house can be modeled as steady and
one-dimensional.
• The temperature of the wall in this case depends on one direction only (say
the x-direction) and can be expressed as T(x).

for steady operation

In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer through the wall is

constant.
11
Fourier’s law of
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heat conduction

• Under steady conditions, the
temperature distribution in a
plane wall is a straight line: dT/dx
= const.
The rate of heat conduction through
a plane wall is proportional to the
average thermal conductivity, the
wall area, and the temperature
difference, but is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness.
Once the rate of heat conduction is
available, the temperature T(x) at
any location x can be determined by
replacing T2 by T, and L by x.
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 Thermal Resistance Concept

Conduction resistance of the wall:

Thermal resistance of the wall
against heat conduction.
Thermal resistance of a medium
depends on the geometry and the
thermal properties of the medium.
Electrical resistance
Analogy between thermal and electrical
resistance concepts.
rate of heat transfer  electric current
thermal resistance  electrical resistance
temperature difference  voltage difference
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 Newton’s law of cooling

Convection resistance of the surface:

Thermal resistance of the surface
against heat convection.

• Schematic for convection resistance at a surface.

When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ),

the convection resistance becomes zero and Ts  T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it
does not slow down the heat transfer process.
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This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling
and condensation occur.
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 Radiation resistance of the
surface: Thermal resistance of the
surface against radiation.

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

Combined heat transfer

coefficient

• Schematic for convection and 15

radiation resistances at a surface.
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 Thermal Resistance Network

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to
convection on both sides, and the electrical analogy.
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 Temperature drop

U overall heat
transfer coefficient

Once Q is evaluated, the

surface temperature T1 can
be determined from

The temperature drop across a layer is

proportional to its thermal resistance. 17

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 Multilayer Plane Walls

• The thermal resistance

network for heat transfer
through a two-layer plane
wall subjected to convection
on both sides.

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 19

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 THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates 20
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact.
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• When two such surfaces are
pressed against each other,
the peaks form good
material contact but the
valleys form voids filled with
air.
• These numerous air gaps of
varying sizes act as
insulation because of the low
thermal conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers
some resistance to heat
transfer, and this resistance
per unit interface area is
called the thermal contact
resistance, Rc.
A typical experimental setup for
the determination of thermal
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contact resistance

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 The value of thermal
contact resistance
hc thermal contact depends on:
conductance • surface roughness,
• material properties,
• temperature and
pressure at the
interface
• type of fluid trapped
at the interface.

Thermal contact resistance is significant and can even dominate the

22
heat transfer for good heat conductors such as metals, but can be
disregarded for poor heat conductors such as insulations.
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The thermal contact resistance can be minimized by
applying
• a thermal grease such as silicon oil
• a better conducting gas such as helium or hydrogen
• a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver, copper, nickel, or
aluminum

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 GENERALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE
NETWORKS

Thermal resistance network for two

parallel layers. 24

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Two assumptions in solving complex
multidimensional heat transfer
problems by treating them as one-
dimensional using the thermal
resistance network are
(1) any plane wall normal to the x-axis is
isothermal (i.e., to assume the
temperature to vary in the x-direction
only)
(2) any plane parallel to the x-axis is
adiabatic (i.e., to assume heat transfer Thermal resistance network for 25
to occur in the x-direction only) combined series-parallel
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 HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDERS AND
SPHERES Heat transfer through the pipe
can be modeled as steady
and one-dimensional.
The temperature of the pipe
depends on one direction only
(the radial r-direction) and can
be expressed as T = T(r).
The temperature is
independent of the azimuthal
angle or the axial distance.
This situation is approximated
in practice in long cylindrical
Heat is lost from a hot-water pipe to
pipes and spherical
the air outside in the radial direction,
containers.
and thus heat transfer from a long
pipe is one-dimensional. 26

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A long cylindrical pipe (or spherical
shell) with specified inner and outer
surface temperatures T1 and T2.

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Conduction resistance of the cylinder layer
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 A spherical shell
with specified
inner and outer
surface
temperatures T1
and T2.

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Conduction resistance of the spherical layer
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 • for a cylindrical layer

• for a spherical layer

The thermal resistance
network for a cylindrical (or
spherical) shell subjected
to convection from both the 29
inner and the outer sides.
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 Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres

The thermal resistance

network for heat transfer
through a three-layered
composite cylinder
subjected to convection
on both sides.

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 Once heat transfer rate Q has been
calculated, the interface temperature
T2 can be determined from any of the
following two relations:

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 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
Adding more insulation to a wall or
to the attic always decreases heat
transfer since the heat transfer area
is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal
resistance of the wall without
increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, the additional insulation
increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer
but decreases the convection An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
resistance of the surface because convection from the outer surface and
of the increase in the outer surface the thermal resistance network
area for convection. associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe
may increase or decrease,
32
depending on which effect
dominates.
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 The critical radius of insulation
for a cylindrical body:

The critical radius of insulation

for a spherical shell:

The largest value of the critical

radius we are likely to
encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or

steam pipes freely without
worrying about the possibility of
increasing the heat transfer by
insulating the pipes. JIT
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The variation of heat transfer
rate with the outer radius of the
33
insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
 UNIT II

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 Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces
• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-

dimensional?

– If heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid by convection, what

surface condition is dictated by the conservation of energy requirement? 35

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 – What is the actual functional dependence of the temperature distribution in
the solid?
– If the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, that is,
T=T(x) , how should the value of T be interpreted for any x location?
– How doesqcond , x vary with x ?
– When may the assumption of one-dimensional conduction be viewed as an
excellent approximation?
The thin-fin approximation.
• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when
h is small,
as for a gas and natural convection.
• Some typical fin configurations:

36
Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
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 HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINNED
SURFACES
Newton’s law of cooling: The rate of heat transfer
from a surface to the surrounding medium

When Ts and T are fixed, two ways to

increase the rate of heat transfer are
• To increase the convection heat transfer
coefficient h. This may require the
installation of a pump or fan, or replacing
the existing one with a larger one, but this
approach may or may not be practical.
Besides, it may not be adequate.
• To increase the surface area As by
attaching to the surface extended surfaces
called fins made of highly conductive
materials such as aluminum.

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 The thin plate fins of a car
radiator greatly increase the
rate of heat transfer to the air.

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 Fin Equation

Differential
Volume element of a fin at location x equation 39
having a length of x, cross-sectional Temperature
area of Ac, and perimeter of p. excess
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 The general solution of the
differential equation

Boundary condition at fin base

1 Infinitely Long Fin

(Tfin tip = T)
Boundary condition at fin tip Boundary conditions at the fin
base and the fin tip.

The variation of temperature along the fin

The steady rate of heat transfer from the entire fin

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 Under steady conditions, heat
transfer from the exposed surfaces
of the fin is equal to heat conduction
to the fin at the base.
The rate of heat transfer from the fin could also
be determined by considering heat transfer from
a differential volume element of the fin and
integrating it over the entire surface of the fin:

A long circular fin of uniform 41

cross section and the variation
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of temperature along it.
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 2 Negligible Heat Loss from the Fin Tip
(Adiabatic fin tip, Qfin tip = 0)
Fins are not likely to be so long that their temperature approaches the
surrounding temperature at the tip. A more realistic assumption is for
heat transfer from the fin tip to be negligible since the surface area of
the fin tip is usually a negligible fraction of the total fin area.

Boundary condition at fin tip

The variation of temperature along the fin

Heat transfer from the entire fin

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 3 Specified Temperature (Tfin,tip = TL)
In this case the temperature at the end of the fin (the fin tip) is
fixed at a specified temperature TL.
This case could be considered as a generalization of the case of
Infinitely Long Fin where the fin tip temperature was fixed at T.

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 4 Convection from Fin Tip
The fin tips, in practice, are exposed to the surroundings, and thus the proper
boundary condition for the fin tip is convection that may also include the effects
of radiation. Consider the case of convection only at the tip. The condition
at the fin tip can be obtained from an energy balance at the fin tip.

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 A practical way of accounting for the
heat loss from the fin tip is to replace
the fin length L in the relation for the
insulated tip case by a corrected
length defined as

t the thickness of the rectangular fins

D the diameter of the cylindrical fins
Corrected fin length Lc is defined such
that heat transfer from a fin of length Lc
with insulated tip is equal to heat transfer
45
from the actual fin of length L with
convection at the fin tip.
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 Fin Efficiency

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 Zero thermal resistance or infinite
thermal conductivity (Tfin = Tb)

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Efficiency of straight fins of rectangular, triangular, and parabolic profiles.

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Efficiency of annular fins of constant thickness t.

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 50

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• Fins with triangular and parabolic profiles contain less material and
are more efficient than the ones with rectangular profiles.
• The fin efficiency decreases with increasing fin length. Why?
• How to choose fin length? Increasing the length of the fin beyond a
certain value cannot be justified unless the added benefits outweigh
the added cost.
• Fin lengths that cause the fin efficiency to drop below 60 percent 51
usually cannot be justified economically.
• The efficiency
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 Fin
Effectiveness

The
effectivene
ss of a fin

• The thermal conductivity k of the fin

should be as high as possible. Use
aluminum, copper, iron.
• The ratio of the perimeter to the cross-
sectional area of the fin p/Ac should be
as high as possible. Use slender pin fins.
• Low convection heat transfer coefficient
52
h. Place fins on gas (air) side.

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 The total rate of heat transfer from a
finned surface

Overall effectiveness for a finned surface

The overall fin effectiveness depends

on the fin density (number of fins per
unit length) as well as the
effectiveness of the individual fins.
The overall effectiveness is a better
measure of the performance of a 53
Various surface areas associated
finned surface than the effectiveness with a rectangular surface with
of the individual
5/26/2017 fins. JIT three fins.
 Proper Length of a
Fin

mL = 5  an infinitely long fin

mL = 1 offer a good compromise
between heat transfer
Because of the gradual temperature drop
performance and the fin size. 54
along the fin, the region near the fin tip makes
little or no contribution to heat transfer.
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 A common approximation used in the analysis of fins is to assume the fin
temperature to vary in one direction only (along the fin length) and the
temperature variation along other directions is negligible.
Perhaps you are wondering if this one-dimensional approximation is a
reasonable one.
This is certainly the case for fins made of thin metal sheets such as the fins
on a car radiator, but we wouldn’t be so sure for fins made of thick
materials.
Studies have shown that the error involved in one-dimensional fin analysis
is negligible (less than about 1 percent) when

where  is the characteristic thickness of the fin, which is taken to

be the plate thickness t for rectangular fins and the diameter D for
cylindrical ones.

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• Heat sinks: Specially
designed finned surfaces
which are commonly used in
the cooling of electronic
equipment, and involve one-
of-a-kind complex
geometries.
• The heat transfer
performance of heat sinks is
usually expressed in terms of
their thermal resistances R.
• A small value of thermal
resistance indicates a small
temperature drop across the
heat sink, and thus a high fin
efficiency.

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 HEAT TRANSFER IN COMMON CONFIGURATIONS
So far, we have considered heat transfer in simple geometries such as large plane
walls, long cylinders, and spheres.
This is because heat transfer in such geometries can be approximated as one-
dimensional.
But many problems encountered in practice are two- or three-dimensional and
involve rather complicated geometries for which no simple solutions are available.
An important class of heat transfer problems for which simple solutions are
obtained encompasses those involving two surfaces maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2.
The steady rate of heat transfer between these two surfaces is expressed as

S: conduction shape factor

k: the thermal conductivity of the medium between the surfaces
The conduction shape factor depends on the geometry of the system only.
Conduction shape factors are applicable only when heat transfer between
the two surfaces is by conduction. 57
Relationship between the conduction
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factor and the thermal resistance
 58

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 59

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Once the value of the shape factor is known for a specific geometry, the
total steady heat transfer rate can be determined from the following
equation using the specified two constant temperatures of the two
surfaces and the thermal conductivity of the medium between them.
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 Objectives
• Assess when the spatial variation of temperature is
negligible, and temperature varies nearly uniformly with
time, making the simplified lumped system analysis
applicable
• Obtain analytical solutions for transient one-dimensional
conduction problems in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical geometries using the method of separation of
variables, and understand why a one-term solution is
usually a reasonable approximation
• Solve the transient conduction problem in large mediums
using the similarity variable, and predict the variation of
temperature with time and distance from the exposed
surface
• Construct solutions for multi-dimensional transient
conduction problems using the product solution approach 61

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 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Interior temperature of some
bodies remains essentially
uniform at all times during a
heat transfer process.
The temperature of such
bodies can be taken to be a
function of time only, T(t).
Heat transfer analysis that
utilizes this idealization is
known as lumped system
analysis.

A small copper ball

can be modeled as a 62
lumped system, but
a roast beef
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cannot.
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Integrating with
T = Ti at t = 0 The geometry and
T = T(t) at t = t parameters involved in the
lumped system analysis.

time
constant 63

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 • This equation enables us to
determine the temperature
T(t) of a body at time t, or
alternatively, the time t
required for the temperature
to reach a specified value T(t).
• The temperature of a body
approaches the ambient
temperature T exponentially.
• The temperature of the body
changes rapidly at the
beginning, but rather slowly
later on. A large value of b
indicates that the body
approaches the environment
temperature in a short time
The temperature of a lumped system
approaches the environment 64
temperature as time gets larger.
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 The rate of convection heat
transfer between the body
and its environment at time t

The total amount of heat transfer

between the body and the surrounding
medium over the time interval t = 0 to t

The maximum heat transfer between

the body and its surroundings

Heat transfer to or from a

body reaches its
maximum value when the
body reaches the 65

environment temperature.
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Criteria for Lumped System Analysis
Characteristic
length

Biot number

Lumped system analysis

is applicable if

When Bi  0.1, the temperatures

within the body relative to the
surroundings (i.e., T −T) remain
within 5 percent of each other.

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 Small bodies with high
thermal conductivities
and low convection
coefficients are most
likely to satisfy the
criterion for lumped
system analysis.

When the convection coefficient h is

high and k is low, large temperature
differences occur between the inner
and outer regions of a large solid.

67
Analogy between heat
transfer to a solid and
5/26/2017 JIT passenger traffic to an island.
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN LARGE PLANE
WALLS, LONG CYLINDERS, AND SPHERES WITH
SPATIAL EFFECTS
We will consider the variation of temperature
with time and position in one-dimensional
problems such as those associated with a large
plane wall, a long cylinder, and a sphere.

Transient temperature profiles in a

plane wall exposed to convection
from its surfaces for Ti >T.

Schematic of the
simple geometries 68
in
which heat transfer is
one-dimensional.
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Nondimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient
Conduction Problem

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 Nondimensionalization
reduces the number of
independent variables in one-
dimensional transient
conduction problems from 8 to 70
3, offering great convenience
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in the presentation of results.
Exact Solution of One-Dimensional Transient
Conduction Problem

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 72

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 The analytical solutions of
transient conduction problems
typically involve infinite series,
and thus the evaluation of an
infinite number of terms to
determine the temperature at a
specified location and time.

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Approximate Analytical and Graphical Solutions
The terms in the series solutions converge rapidly with increasing time,
and for  > 0.2, keeping the first term and neglecting all the remaining
terms in the series results in an error under 2 percent.
Solution with one-term approximation

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 (a) Midplane temperature

Transient temperature and heat transfer charts (Heisler

and Grober charts) for a plane wall of thickness 2L initially
at a uniform temperature Ti subjected to convection from 75
both sides to an environment at temperature T with a
convection coefficient
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(b) Temperature distribution 76

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(c) Heat transfer

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 The physical significance of the Fourier number

• The Fourier number is a

measure of heat
conducted through a body
relative to heat stored.
• A large value of the
Fourier number indicates
faster propagation of heat
through a body.

Fourier number at time t

can be viewed as the
ratio of the rate of heat
conducted to the rate of 78
heat stored at that time.
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 Biot No. Bi
•Defined to describe the relative resistance in a thermal circuit of
the convection compared

Lc is a characteristic length of the body

Bi→0: No conduction resistance at all. The body is isothermal.
Small Bi: Conduction resistance is less important. The body may
still be approximated as isothermal
Lumped capacitance analysis can be performed.
Large Bi: Conduction resistance is significant. The body cannot be
treated as isothermal.

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Transient heat transfer with no internal
resistance: Lumped Parameter
Analysis
Valid for Bi<0.1

Solid
Total Resistance= Rexternal + Rinternal

dT hA T t  0   Ti
GE:  T  T  BC:
dt mc p
Solution: let   T  T , therefore
d hA
  80
dt mc p
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 Lumped Parameter
Analysis
 i  Ti  T
 hA
ln  t
i mc p
hA
  t
e
mc p

i
T  T
mc p - To determine the temperature at a given time, or
t
e hA - To determine the time required for the
Ti  T temperature to reach a specified value.

Note: Temperature function only of time and not of space!

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 Lumped Parameter
Analysis

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T  T hA
T  exp(  t)
T0  T cV

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hA  hLc  k  1 1 
t    t  Bi 2 t
cV  k  c  Lc Lc Lc
Thermal diffusivity:  k  (m² s-1)
   
 c  82
 Lumped Parameter Analysis
Define Fo as the Fourier number (dimensionless time)

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
Fo  2
t and Biot number Bi  hLC
Lc k

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The temperature variation can be expressed as

T = exp(-Bi*Fo)
where Lc is a characteristic length scale : realte to the size of the solid invloved in the problem

r
for example , Lc  o (half - radius) when the solid is a cylinder.
2

r
Lc  o (one - third radius) when the solid is sphere 83
3

Lc  L (half thickness) when the solid is aplane wall with a 2L thickness

 UNIT III

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 Convection
• Heat transfer in the presence of a fluid motion on a solid surface
•Various mechanisms at play in the fluid:
- advection  physical transport of the fluid
- diffusion  conduction in the fluid
- generation  due to fluid friction
•But fluid directly in contact with the wall does not move relative to it; hence
direct heat transport to the fluid is by conduction in the fluid only.

U y U T
y
u(y) q” T(y)
Ts
y T
T  U

qconv  kf   hTs  T  T(y)
y  y 0
Ts
85
But depends on the whole fluid motion, and both fluid flow
5/26/2017 JIT
and heat transfer equations are needed
 Convection
Free or natural convection
(induced by buoyancy May occur with
forces) phase change
Convection (boiling,
condensation)
forced convection (driven
externally)

Heat transfer rate q = h( Ts-T  )W

Typical values of h (W/m2K)

h=heat transfer coefficient (W /m2K) Free convection: gases: 2 - 25

(h is not a property. It depends on liquid: 50 - 100
geometry ,nature of flow,
thermodynamics properties etc.)
Forced convection: gases: 25 - 250
liquid: 50 - 20,000
Boiling/Condensation: 2500 -100,000
86

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 Convection rate equation
U y U T
y
u(y) q” T(y)
Ts
Main purpose of convective heat q’’=heat flux = h(Ts - T)
transfer analysis is to determine:
q’’ = -k(T/ y)y=0
• flow field
Hence, h = [-k(T/ y)y=0] / (Ts - T)
• temperature field in fluid
• heat transfer coefficient, h

The expression shows that in order to determine h, we

must first determine the temperature distribution in the 87
thin 5/26/2017
fluid layer JITthat coats the wall.
 Classes of convective flows:
• extremely diverse
• several parameters involved (fluid properties, geometry, nature of flow,
phases etc)
• systematic approach required
• classify flows into certain types, based on certain parameters
• identify parameters governing the flow, and group them into meaningful
non-dimensional numbers
• need to understand the physics behind each phenomenon
Common classifications:
A. Based on geometry:
External flow / Internal flow
B. Based on driving mechanism
Natural convection / forced convection / mixed convection
C. Based on number of phases
Single phase / multiple phase 88
D. Based on nature of flow
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Laminar / turbulent
How to solve a convection problem ?
• Solve governing equations along with boundary conditions
• Governing equations include
1. conservation of mass
2. conservation of momentum
3. conservation of energy
• In Conduction problems, only (3) is needed to be solved.
Hence, only few parameters are involved
• In Convection, all the governing equations need to be
solved.
 large number of parameters can be involved 89

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 Forced convection: Non-dimensional groupings
• Nusselt No. Nu = hx / k = (convection heat transfer strength)/
(conduction heat transfer strength)
• Prandtl No. Pr = / = (momentum diffusivity)/ (thermal diffusivity)
• Reynolds No. Re = U x /  = (inertia force)/(viscous force)
Viscous force provides the dampening effect for disturbances in the
fluid. If dampening is strong enough  laminar flow
Otherwise, instability  turbulent flow  critical Reynolds number

 
90
Laminar
5/26/2017 JIT
Turbulent
 FORCED CONVECTION:
external flow (over flat plate)
An internal flow is surrounded by solid boundaries that can restrict the
development of its boundary layer, for example, a pipe flow. An external flow, on
the other hand, are flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid so that the
flow boundary layer can grow freely in one direction. Examples include the flows
over airfoils, ship hulls, turbine blades, etc.
•Fluid particle adjacent to the
les solid surface is at rest
T
•These particles act to retard the
Ts motion of adjoining layers
x q • boundary layer effect
Momentum balance: inertia forces, pressure gradient, viscous forces,
body forces
Energy balance: convective flux, diffusive flux, heat generation, energy
91
storage
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h=f(Fluid, Vel ,Distance,Temp)
 Hydrodynamic boundary layer
One of the most important concepts in understanding the external flows is the
boundary layer development. For simplicity, we are going to analyze a boundary
layer flow over a flat plate with no curvature and no external pressure variation.
U U
U U
Dye streak

laminar turbulent
transition
Boundary layer definition
Boundary layer thickness (): defined as the distance away from the surface
where the local velocity reaches to 99% of the free-stream velocity, that is 92
u(y=)=0.99U. Somewhat an easy to understand but arbitrary definition.
Boundary usually very thin: /x usually << 1.
layer is JIT
5/26/2017
 Hydrodynamic and Thermal
boundary layers
• As we have seen earlier,the hydrodynamic boundary layer is a
region of a fluid flow, near a solid surface, where the flow
patterns are directly influenced by viscous drag from the surface
wall.
• 0<u<U, 0<y<

• The Thermal Boundary Layer is a region of a fluid flow, near a

solid surface, where the fluid temperatures are directly
influenced by heating or cooling from the surface wall.
• 0<t<T, 0<y<t
• The two boundary layers may be expected to have similar
characteristics but do not normally coincide. Liquid metals
tend to conduct heat from the wall easily and temperature
changes are observed well outside the dynamic boundary layer.93
Other materials tend to show velocity changes well outside the
thermal layer.
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 Effects of Prandtl number, Pr

 T
T , T 

Pr >>1 Pr = 1 Pr <<1
 >>  =  << 
e.g., oils e.g., air and gases e.g., liquid metals
have Pr ~ 1
(0.7 - 0.9)
u T  TW
similar to
U T  TW

(Reynold’s analogy) 94

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 Boundary layer equations (laminar flow)
• Simpler than general equations because boundary layer is thin
T
U
U
y T

x TW
• Equations for 2D, laminar, steady boundary layer flow
u v
Conservation of mass :  0
x y
u u dU    u 
Conservation of x - momentum: u  v  U   
x y dx y  y 
T T   T 
Conservation of energy : u v   
x y y  y  95

dU 
• Note: for a flat plate,
5/26/2017 JIT U  is constant, hence 0
dx
 Exact solutions: Blasius
 4.99
Boundary layer thickness 
x Re x
w 0.664
Skin friction coefficient C f  1 
2 U 
2
Re x
 
 Re  U  x ,    u 
 x 
w
y 
 y 0 

 UL 
L
1 1.328
Average drag coefficient CD   C f dx   Re L  
L0 Re L   
Local Nusselt number Nu x  0.339 Re x Pr
1 1
2 3

96

Average Nusselt number N u  0.678 Re L2 Pr

1 1
3

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 Heat transfer coefficient
• Local heat transfer coefficient:
1 1
Nu x k 0.339 k Re x Pr 2 3

hx  
x x
• Average heat transfer coefficient:
1 1
Nu k 0.678 k Re L Pr
2 3

h 
L L
• Recall: qw  h ATw  T , heat flow rate from wall

• Film temperature, Tfilm

For heated or cooled surfaces, the thermophysical properties within
97

 
the boundary layer should be selected based on the average
T
temperature of the wall and the free stream; film  2 Tw  T
1

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 Heat transfer coefficient
Convection Thermal Boundary
Coefficient, h. Layer, t
U

x Hydrodynamic
Boundary Layer, 

Laminar and turbulent b.l.

Laminar Region Turbulent Region

98

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 Turbulent boundary layer

* Re x increases with x.Beyond a critical value of Reynolds number

(Re x  Re xc ), the flow becomes transitional and eventually turbulent.
U  xc
Re xc  (For flow over flat plate, xc  5  105 )

* Turbulent b.l. equations are similar to laminar ones, but infinitely
more difficult to solve.
* We will mainly use correlations based on experimental data :
C f  0.059 Re x 0.2 (Re x  5  105 )

C D  0.072 Re L 
1
Re L

0.072 Re 0xc.8  1.328 Re 0xc.5 
Nu x  0.029 Re 0x.8 Pr
1
3

1 1

N u  0.036 Re 0L.8 Pr 3  Pr 3 0.036 Re 0xc.8  0.664 Re 0xc.5  99
Nu k
* Calculate heat transfer coefficient in usual way: h  etc.
5/26/2017 JIT x
 Laminar Boundary Layer Development
1

• Boundary layer growth:   x

( x ) 0 .5 • Initial growth is fast
• Growth rate d/dx  1/x,
decreasing downstream.
0
0 0 .5 1
x

10

• Wall shear stress: w  1/x

• As the boundary layer grows, the
 w( x ) 5
wall shear stress decreases as the
velocity gradient at the wall becomes
less steep.
100

0
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0 0 .5 1
x
 Example
Determine the boundary layer thickness, the wall shear stress of a laminar water flow
over a flat plate. The free stream velocity is 1 m/s, the kinematic viscosity of the water
is 10-6 m2/s. The density of the water is 1,000 kg/m3. The transition Reynolds number
Re=Ux/=5105. Determine the distance downstream of the leading edge when the
boundary transitions to turbulent. Determine the total frictional drag produced by the
laminar and turbulent portions of the plate which is 1 m long. If the free stream and
plate temperatures are 100 C and 25 C, respectively, determine the heat transfer rate
from the plate.

x
 ( x)  5  5  103 x ( m).
U
Therefore, for a 1m long plate, the boundary layer grows by 0.005(m),
or 5 mm, a very thin layer.
0.332 U 2 U  0.0105
The wall shear stress,  w   0.332U   ( Pa )
Re x x x
U  xtr 101
The transition Reynolds number: Re   5  10 , xtr  0.5( m)
5

5/26/2017 JIT 
 Example (cont..)

The total frictional drag is equal to the integration of the wall shear stress:
U  0.664 U 2
xtr xtr

FD  
0
w (1)dx   0.332U
0

x
dx 
Re xtr
 0.939( N )

Define skin friction coefficient: Cf

w 0.664
Cf   for a laminar boundary layer.
1 U 
2
Re x
2

102

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 Forced convection over exterior bodies
• Much more complicated.
•Some boundary layer may exist, but it is likely
to be curved and U will not be constant.
• Boundary layer may also separate from the
wall.
• Correlations based on experimental data can
be used for flow and heat transfer calculations
• Reynolds number should now be based on a  UD
characteristic diameter. Re 
D

• If body is not circular, the equivalent
diameter Dh is used 4 Area
Dh 
Perimeter
Drag force hD Nu k 103
CD  1 ; Nu  ; h
2 
JIT
U 2
 Anormal k D
5/26/2017
 Flow over circular cylinders

Pr.62
Nu  C Re m
D
Prs.25
Re D C m
1  40 0.75 0.4
40 - 103 0.51 0.5
103 - 2  105 0.26 0.6
2  105 - 106 0.08 0.7

All properties at free stream

temperature, Prs at cylinder
104
surface temperature
5/26/2017 JIT
 FORCED CONVECTION: Internal flow
• Thermal conditions
 Laminar or turbulent
 entrance flow and fully developed thermal condition
e.g. pipe flow

Thermal entrance region, xfd,t

For laminar flows the thermal entrance length is a function of the

Reynolds number and the Prandtl number: xfd,t/D  0.05ReDPr,
where the Prandtl number is defined as Pr = / and  is the thermal
diffusitivity. 105

For turbulent xfd,t  10D.

5/26/2017flow, JIT
 THERMAL CONDITIONS
• For a fully developed pipe flow, the convection
coefficient does not vary along the pipe length.
(provided all thermal and flow properties are constant)
h(x)

constant

x
xfd,t

• Newton’s law of cooling: q”S = hA(TS-Tm)

Question: since the temperature inside a pipe flow does not remain
constant, we should use a mean temperature Tm , which is defines
106
as follows:
5/26/2017 JIT
 ENERGY TRANSFER
Consider the total thermal energy carried by the fluid as
 VC TdA  (mass flux) (internal energy)
A
v

Now imagine this same amount of energy is carried by a body

of fluid with the same mass flow rate but at a uniform mean
temperature Tm. Therefore Tm can be defined as

 VC TdA
v

Tm  A
&v
mC
Consider Tm as the reference temperature of the fluid so that the
total heat transfer between the pipe and the fluid is governed by the
Newton’s cooling law as: qs”=h(Ts-Tm), where h is the local
convection coefficient, and Ts is the local surface temperature.
Note: usually Tm is not a constant and it varies along the pipe 107
depending
5/26/2017on theJIT
condition of the heat transfer.
 ENERGY BALANCE
Example: We would like to design a solar water heater that can heat up the water
temperature from 20° C to 50° C at a water flow rate of 0.15 kg/s. The water is
flowing through a 0.05 m diameter pipe and is receiving a net solar radiation
flux of 200 W/m of pipe length. Determine the total pipe length required to
achieve the goal.

108

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EXAMPLE (CONT.)

Questions: (1) How to determine the heat transfer coefficient,

h?

There are a total of six parameters involved in this problem: h, V, D,

, kf, cp. The temperature dependence of properties is implicit and is
only through the variation of thermal properties. Density  is
included in the kinematic viscosity, /. According to the
Buckingham theorem, it is possible for us to reduce the number of
parameters by three. Therefore, the convection coefficient
relationship can be reduced to a function of only three variables:

Nu=hD/kf, Nusselt number, Re=VD/, Reynolds number, and

Pr=/, Prandtl number.

This conclusion is consistent with empirical observation, that is 109

Nu=f(Re, Pr). If we can determine the Reynolds and the Prandtl
numbers, we can JIT
5/26/2017
find the Nusselt number and hence, the heat
 CONVECTION CORRELATIONS
 Laminar, fully developed circular pipe flow:
hD
Nu D   4.36, when q s "  constant, (page 543, ch. 10-6, ITHT)
kf
Nu D  3.66, when Ts  constant, (page 543, ch. 10-6, ITHT)
Note: the therma conductivity should be calculated at Tm .

 Fully developed, turbulent pipe flow: Nu  f(Re, Pr),

Nu can be related to Re & Pr experimentally, as shown.
Fixed Pr Fixed Re

ln(Nu) ln(Nu)
slope m
slope n
110

5/26/2017 ln(Re) JIT ln(Pr)

 EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS

Dittus-Boelter equation: Nu D  0.023 Re 4 / 5 Pr n , (eq 10-76, p 546, ITHT)

where n  0.4 for heating (T s  Tm ), n  0.3 for cooling (Ts  Tm ).
The range of validity: 0.7  Pr  160, Re D  10, 000, L / D  10.
Note: This equation can be used only for moderate temperature difference with all
the properties evaluated at Tm.

Other more accurate correlation equations can be found in other references.

For example,
Caution: the Gnielinski
The ranges correlation
of application is the mostcan
for these correlations accurate
be quite different.
among all these equations:
( f / 8)(Re D  1000) Pr
Nu D  (from other reference)
1  12.7( f / 8) (Pr  1)
1/ 2 2/3

It is valid for 0.5  Pr  2000 and 3000  Re D  5  106 .

All properties are calculated at Tm .
111

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 EXAMPLE (CONT.)

In our example, we need to first calculate the Reynolds number: water at 35°C,
Cp=4.18(kJ/kg.K), =7x10-4 (N.s/m2), kf=0.626 (W/m.K), Pr=4.8.

&
VD m A D 4m& 4(0.15)
Re      5460
   D   (0.05)(7  10 )
4

Re  4000, it is turbulent pipe flow.

Use the Gnielinski correlation, from the Moody chart, f  0.036, Pr  4.8
( f / 8)(Re D  1000) Pr (0.036 / 8)(5460  1000)(4.8)
Nu D    37.4
1  12.7( f / 8) (Pr  1) 1  12.7(0.036 / 8) (4.8  1)
1/ 2 2/3 1/ 2 2/3

kf 0.626
h NuD  (37.4)  469(W / m 2 . K )
D 0.05
112

5/26/2017 JIT
 ENERGY BALANCE

Question (2): How can we determine the required pipe length?

Use energy balance concept: (energy storage) = (energy in) minus (energy out).
energy in = energy received during a steady state operation (assume no loss)

q '( L)  mC
& P (Tout  Tin ),
& P (Tin  Tout ) (0.15)(4180)(50  20)
mC
L   94(m)
q' 200

q’=q/L

Tin Tout

113

5/26/2017 JIT
 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Question (3): Can we determine the water temperature variation along the pipe?
Recognize the fact that the energy balance equation is valid for
any pipe length x:
q '( x )  mC
& P (T ( x )  Tin )
q' 200
T ( x )  Tin  x  20  x  20  0.319 x
&P
mC (0.15)(4180)
It is a linear distribution along the pipe
Question (4): How about the surface temperature distribution?
From local Newton's cooling law:
q  hA(Ts  Tm )  q ' x  h ( D x )(Ts ( x )  Tm ( x ))
q' 200
Ts ( x )   Tm ( x )   20  0.319 x  22.7  0.319 x (C )
 Dh  (0.05)(469) 114

At the end5/26/2017
of the pipe, JITT ( x  94)  52.7( C )
s
TEMPERATURE VARIATION FOR CONSTANT HEAT FLUX
60

Constant temperature
50
difference due to the
constant heat flux.
T m( x )

40
T s( x )

30

20
0 20 40 60 80 100
x
Note: These distributions are valid only in the fully developed region. In the
entrance region, the convection condition should be different. In general, the
115
entrance length x/D10 for a turbulent pipe flow and is usually negligible as
compared to the totalJIT
5/26/2017 pipe length.
INTERNAL FLOW CONVECTION
-CONSTANT SURFACE TEMPERATURE CASE
Another commonly encountered internal convection condition is when the
surface temperature of the pipe is a constant. The temperature distribution in
this case is drastically different from that of a constant heat flux case. Consider
the following pipe flow configuration:
Constant Ts
Tm, dx Tm,o
i

Energy change  mC
& p [(Tm  dTm )  Tm ]
 mC
& p dTm
Tm Tm+dTm
Energy in  hA(Ts  Tm )

qs=hA(Ts-Tm) Energy change  energy in

116
& p dTm  hA(Ts  Tm )
mC
5/26/2017 JIT
 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

& p dTm  hA(Ts  Tm ),

mC
Note: q  hA(Ts  Tm ) is valid locally only, since Tm is not a constant
dTm hA
 , where A  Pdx, and P is the perimeter of the pipe
(Tm  Ts ) & P
mC
Integrate from the inlet to a diatance x downstream:
Tm ( x ) dTm x hP P x
Tm ,i (Tm  Ts )   0 mC
& P
dx  
& P
mC 0
hdx

Ph
ln(Tm  Ts ) |TTmm ,(i x )   x, where L is the total pipe length
& P
mC
and h is the averaged convection coefficient of the pipe between 0 & x.
1 x x
h   hdx, or  hdx  hx 117
x 0 0

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 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Tm ( x )  Ts Ph
 exp(  x ), for constant surface temperature
Tm,i  Ts &P
mC
Constant surface temperature
Ts

T( x)

Tm(x)

The difference between the averaged fluid temperature and the surface
118
temperature decreases exponentially further downstream along the pipe.
5/26/2017 JIT
 LOG-MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
For the entire pipe:
Tm ,o  Ts To h ( PL) hAs
  exp(  ) & P 
or mC
Tm ,i  Ts Ti & P
mC To
ln( )
Ti
q  mC
& P (Tm ,o  Tm ,i )  mC
& P ((Ts  Tm ,i )  (Ts  Tm ,o ))
To  Ti
 mC
& P ( Ti  To )  hAs  hAs Tlm
To
ln( )
Ti
To  Ti
where Tlm  is called the log mean temperature difference.
To
ln( )
Ti
This relation is valid for the entire pipe. 119

5/26/2017 JIT
 FREE CONVECTION

A free convection flow field is a self-sustained flow driven by the

presence of a temperature gradient. (As opposed to a forced
convection flow where external means are used to provide the flow.)
As a result of the temperature difference, the density field is not
uniform also. Buoyancy will induce a flow current due to the
gravitational field and the variation in the density field. In general,
a free convection heat transfer is usually much smaller compared to
a forced convection heat transfer. It is therefore important only
when there is no external flow exists.
cold
Flow is unstable and a circulatory
pattern will be induced.
T  
T   120

5/26/2017 JIT hot

BASIC DEFINITIONS
Buoyancy effect:

Surrounding fluid, cold, 

Warm,  Net force=(- gV

Hot plate

The density difference is due to the temperature difference and it can be

characterized by ther volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, b:
1  1    1 
b   ( )P   
 T  T  T  T
  bT 121

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GRASHOF NUMBER AND RAYLEIGH NUMBER

Define Grashof number, Gr, as the ratio between the buoyancy force and the
viscous force:
g bTL3
g b (TS  T ) L
3
Gr  
 2
2
• Grashof number replaces the Reynolds number in the convection correlation
equation. In free convection, buoyancy driven flow sometimes dominates the
flow inertia, therefore, the Nusselt number is a function of the Grashof number
and the Prandtle number alone. Nu=f(Gr, Pr). Reynolds number will be
important if there is an external flow. (combined forced and free convection.

• In many instances, it is better to combine the Grashof number and the

Prandtle number to define a new parameter, the Rayleigh number, Ra=GrPr.
The most important use of the Rayleigh number is to characterize the laminar
to turbulence transition of a free convection boundary layer flow. For
example, when Ra>109, the vertical free convection boundary layer flow over
122
a flat plate becomes turbulent.
5/26/2017 JIT
 EXAMPLE
Determine the rate of heat loss from a heated pipe as a result of
natural (free) convection.
T=0°C D=0.1 m

Ts=100C
Film temperature( Tf): averaged boundary layer temperature Tf=1/2(Ts+T )=50 C.
kf=0.03 W/m.K, Pr=0.7, =210-5 m2/s, b=1/Tf=1/(273+50)=0.0031(1/K)

g b (TS  T ) L3 (9.8)(0.0031)(100  0)(0.1) 3

Ra  Pr  (0.7)  7.6  10 6
.
2 5 2
(2  10 )
0.387 Ra1/ 6
NuD  {0.6  }2
 26.0 (equation 11.15 in Table 11.1)
[1  (0.559 / Pr) ]
9 /16 8 / 27

kf 0.03
h NuD  (26)  7.8(W / m 2 K )
D 0.1
123
q  hA(TS  T )  (7.8)( )(0.1)(1)(100  0)  244.9(W )
5/26/2017 JIT
Can be significant if the pipe are long.
 UNIT IV

124

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• Thermal energy emitted by matter as a result of vibrational and rotational
movements of molecules, atoms and electrons. The energy is transported by
electromagnetic waves (or photons). Radiation requires no medium for its
propagation, therefore, can take place also in vacuum. All matters emit radiation
as long as they have a finite (greater than absolute zero) temperature. The rate
at which radiation energy is emitted is usually quantified by the modified Stefan-
Bolzmann law:

EA = q=dQ/dt=esTb4

• where the emissivity, e , is a property of the surface characterizing how effectively

the surface radiates compared to a "blackbody" (0<e<1 ). E=q/A (W/m2) is the
surface emissive power. s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• (s=5.67x10-8 W/(m2K4)). Tb is the absolute surface temp. (in K)

125

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Electromagnetic radiation spectrum
Thermal radiation spectrum range: 0.1 to 100 mm
It includes some ultraviolet (UV) radiation and all visible (0.4-
0.76 mm) and infrared radiation (IR).

Wavelength, , m

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The Planck Distribution

The Planck law describes theoretical spectral distribution

for the emissive power of a black body. It can be written as

C1
E ,b  5
 exp( C42 / 2 T )  1
where C1=3.742x10 (W.m /m ) and C2=1.439x104 (m.K)
8

are two constants. The Planck distribution is shown in the

following figure as a function of wavelength for different
body temperatures.
127

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SPECTRAL BLACKBODY EMISSIVE POWER

128

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 PLANCK DISTRIBUTION

•At given wavelength, the emissive power increases with

increasing temperature

• As the temperature increases, more emissive energy

appear at shorter wavelengths

• For low temperature (>800 K), all radiant energy falls in

the infrared region and is not visible to the human eyes.
That is why only very high temperature objects, such as
molten iron, can glow.

• Sun can be approximated as a blackbody at 5800 K

129

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Angles and Arc Length
We are well accustomed to L = r·α
α L
thinking of an angle as a two
dimensional object. It may be
used to find an arc length:
Solid Angle
We generalize the idea of an angle and
an arc length to three dimensions and
define a solid angle, Ω, which like the
A=
standard angle has no dimensions. r2·dΩ
The solid angle, when multiplied by
r
the radius squared will have
dimensions of length squared, or area,
130
and will have the magnitude of the
encompassed
5/26/2017area. JIT
Projected Area
The area, dA1, as seen from the
prospective of a viewer, situated at an
θ
angle θ from the normal to the
surface, will appear somewhat dA1 dA1·cos θ
smaller, as cos θ·dA1. This smaller
area is termed the projected area.
Aprojected = cos θ·Anormal
Intensity
The ideal intensity, Ib, may now be defined as the energy
emitted from an ideal body, per unit projected area, per unit
time, per unit solid angle.
dq
I 131

5/26/2017 JIT cos   dA1  d

Spherical Geometry
R·sin θ
Since any surface will emit radiation outward
in all directions above the surface, the
spherical coordinate system provides a
convenient tool for analysis. The three basic dA2
coordinates shown are R, φ, and θ, θ
dA1 R
representing the radial, azimuthal and zenith
directions.
Δφ
φ
In general dA1 will correspond to the emitting
surface or the source. The surface dA2 will
correspond to the receiving surface or the
target. Note that the area proscribed on the
dA2  [(2R  sin  )  d ]  [ R  d ]
hemisphere, dA2, may be written as:
dA2  R  sin   d  d ]
Recalling the definition of the solid angle, dA = R2·dΩ 132

we find that:
5/26/2017 dΩ = JITR ·sin θ·dθ·dφ
2
Real Surfaces
Thus far we have spoken of ideal surfaces, i.e. those that emit energy according to
the Stefan-Boltzman law: Eb = σ·Tabs4
Real surfaces have emissive powers, E, which are somewhat less than that obtained
theoretically by Boltzman. To account for this reduction, we introduce the
emissivity, ε. E
e
Eb
Emissive power from any real surface is given by: E = ε·σ·Tabs4
Receiving Properties
Targets receive radiation in one of three Reflected Incident
ways; they absorption, reflection or Radiation Radiation,
G
transmission.
Absorptivity, α, the fraction of incident Absorbed
radiation absorbed. Radiation
Reflectivity, ρ, the fraction of incident Transmitted
Radiation 133
radiation reflected.
• Transmissivity,
5/26/2017 τ, the
JIT fraction of incident
radiation transmitted.
We see, from Conservation of Energy, that:
α+ρ+τ =1
In this course, we will deal with only opaque surfaces, τ = 0, so that:
α+ρ=1
Relationship Between Absorptivity,α, and Emissivity, ε
Consider two flat, infinite planes, surface A and surface B, both emitting
radiation toward one another. Surface B is assumed to be an ideal emitter, i.e.
εB = 1.0. Surface A will emit radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzman law
as:

EA = εA·σ·TA4
Surface Surface
and will receive radiation as: A, TA B, TB
GA = αA·σ·TB4
The net heat flow from surface A will be:
q΄΄ = εA·σ·TA4 - αA·σ·TB4

Now suppose that the two surfaces are at exactly the same temperature. The134
heat flow must be zero according
5/26/2017 JIT to the 2nd law. If follows then that: αA = εA
Thermodynamic properties of the material, α and ε may depend on temperature. In
general, this will be the case as radiative properties will depend on wavelength, λ. The
wave length of radiation will, in turn, depend on the temperature of the source of
radiation.

The emissivity, ε, of surface A will depend on the material of which surface A is

composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the temperature of surface A.
The absorptivity, α, of surface A will depend on the material of which surface A is
composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the temperature of surface B.

Black Surfaces
Within the visual band of radiation, any material, which absorbs all visible light,
appears as black. Extending this concept to the much broader thermal band, we speak
of surfaces with α = 1 as also being “black” or “thermally black”. It follows that for
such a surface, ε = 1 and the surface will behave as an ideal emitter. The terms ideal
surface and black surface are used interchangeably.

135

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 Diffuse Surface: Refers to directional
independence of the intensity associated with
emitted,reflected ,or incident radiation.

Grey Surface: A surface for which the spectral

absorptivity and the emissivity are independent of
wavelength over the spectral regions of surface
irradiation and emission.

136

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 Relationship Between Emissive Power and Intensity
By definition of the two terms, emissive power for an ideal surface, Eb, and
intensity for an ideal surface, Ib.

Eb  I b
hemisphere
 cos   d

Replacing the solid angle by its equivalent in spherical angles:

2 
Eb    I b  cos   sin   d  d
2
0 0

Eb  2    I b   cos   sin   d
2
Integrate once, holding Ib constant:
0

Integrate a second time. (Note that sin  2 2
the derivative of sin θ is cos θ·dθ.) Eb  2    I b     Ib
2 137
0
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Eb = π·Ib
 dq
I
cos   dA1  d dq  I  cos   dA1  d dA2

Next we will project the receiving dA2·cos θ2

surface onto the hemisphere
surrounding the source. First find
the projected area of surface dA2,
dA2·cos θ2. (θ2 is the angle between
the normal to surface 2 and the R
position vector, R.) Then find the
solid angle, Ω, which encompasses
this area.

To obtain the entire heat transferred from a finite area, dA1, to a finite area, dA2, we
integrate over both surfaces:
I  cos 1  dA1  cos 2 dA2
5/26/2017 JIT
q12   
A2 A1 R2
138
Total energy emitted from surface 1: qemitted = E1·A1 = π·I1·A1

View Factors-Integral Method

Define the view factor, F1-2, as the fraction of energy emitted from surface 1,
which directly strikes surface 2.
I  cos 1  dA1  cos 2 dA2
F1 2 
q1 2

A2 A1  R 2

qemitted   I  A1

cos 1  cos 2  dA1  dA2

 
1 dr
F12   D
A1 A2 A1  R 2
dAj

Aj θj
Example Consider a diffuse circular
disk of diameter D and area Aj and a R R
L
plane diffuse surface of area Ai << Aj. θi
The surfaces are parallel, and Ai is
located at a distance L from the center dAi 139
dAi
of Aj. Obtain
5/26/2017 an expression
JIT for the
view factor Fij.
 cos 1  cos 2  dA1  dA2
 
1
F12  
A1 A2 A1   R2
cos1  cos 2  dA2
Since dA1 is a differential area F12     R2
 R   2  r  dr
A2
2
L
L2  2  r  dr
F1 2  
A2  R 2 F12  
A2 R4
L2  2    d
Let ρ2  L2 + r2 = R2. Then 2·ρ·dρ = 2·r·dr. F1 2   A2 4
D
2  
 1 2
F12   2  L2    L2   2 2
2
A2  L    0
D 140
2  1 2 2
4 D
F12   L
JIT  
 4  L2  D 2 L2  
 
5/26/2017 2 2
0 4 L D
Enclosures
In order that we might apply conservation of
energy to the radiation process, we must
N

F
account for all energy leaving a surface. We
imagine that the surrounding surfaces act as an i, j 1
enclosure about the heat source which receive j 1
all emitted energy. For an N surfaced enclosure, This relationship is known as
we can then see that: the Conservation Rule”.

Reciprocity Ai  Fi  j  A j  F j i This relationship is

known as “Reciprocity”.
Example: Consider two concentric spheres shown to
the right. All radiation leaving the outside of surface 1
will strike surface 2. Part of the radiant energy leaving
the inside surface of object 2 will strike surface 1, part
will return to surface 2. Find F2,1 . Apply reciprocity. 1 2
2
A1 A1  D1 
A2  F2,1  A1  F1, 2  F2,1   F1, 2    141
A2 A2  D2 
5/26/2017 JIT
Associative Rule
Consider the set of surfaces shown to the right:
Clearly, from conservation of energy, the fraction i
of energy leaving surface i and striking the j
combined surface j+k will equal the fraction of k
energy emitted from i and striking j plus the
fraction leaving surface i and striking k.
This relationship is known
Fi( j  k )  Fi j  Fik as the “Associative Rule”.

ε·Eb ρ·G G
Radiosity
Radiosity, J, is defined as the total energy leaving
a surface per unit area and per unit time.
J ≡ ε·Eb + ρ·G
142

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Net Exchange Between Surfaces
Consider the two surfaces shown.
Radiation will travel from surface i to
surface j and will also travel from j to i. Jj
qi→j = Ji·Ai· Fi→j
Ji
likewise,
qj→i = Jj·Aj· Fj→j

The net heat transfer is then:

qj→i (net) = Ji·Ai· Fi→j - Jj·Aj· Fj→j

From reciprocity we note that F1→2·A1 =

F2→1·A2 so that

qj→i (net) = Ji·Ai· Fi→j - Jj· Ai· Fi→j = Ai· 143

Fi→j·(Ji – Jj)
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Net Energy Leaving a Surface
The net energy leaving a surface will be the difference between the energy
leaving a surface and the energy received by a surface:
q1→ = [ε·Eb – α·G]·A1

Combine this relationship with the definition of Radiosity to eliminate G.

J ≡ ε·Eb + ρ·G  G = [J - ε·Eb]/ρ
q1→ = {ε·Eb – α·[J - ε·Eb]/ρ}·A1
Assume opaque surfaces so that α + ρ = 1  ρ = 1 – α, and substitute for ρ.
q1→ = {ε·Eb – α·[J - ε·Eb]/(1 – α)}·A1
Put the equation over a common denominator:

 1     e  Eb    J    e  Eb   e  Eb    J 
q1    A1     A1
 1   1 

 e  Eb  e  J   e  A1 
assume that α = ε q1    A1     Eb  J 
 1 e  1 e 
144

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Electrical Analogy for Radiation
We may develop an electrical analogy for radiation, similar to that
produced for conduction. The two analogies should not be mixed: they
have different dimensions on the potential differences, resistance and
current flows.

Equivalent Equivalent Potential Difference

Current Resistance

Ohms Law I R ΔV

Net Energy Leaving q1? 1  e  Eb - J

Surface  e  A 

Net Exchange qi? j 1 J1 – J2

Between Surfaces A1  F12 145

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 Insulated surfaces. In steady state heat transfer, a surface cannot
receive net energy if it is insulated. Because the energy cannot be
stored by a surface in steady state, all energy must be re-radiated
back into the enclosure. Insulated surfaces are often termed as re-
radiating surfaces.

 Black surfaces: A black, or ideal surface, will have no

surface resistance:

1  e  1  1  In this case the nodal Radiosity

 e  A   1  A   0 and emissive power will be equal.
   

146

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 Large surfaces: Surfaces having a large surface area
will behave as black surfaces, irrespective of the actual surface
properties:
1  e  1  e 
 e  A    e     0
Consider the case of an object, 1, placed
inside a large enclosure, 2. The system will
consist of two objects, so we proceed to 1/(A1F1→2)
J1 J2
construct a circuit with two radiosity nodes.
Now we ground both Radiosity nodes
through a surface resistance.
1/(A1F1→2)
(1-e1)/(e1A1) J1 J2 (1-e2)/(e2A2)

Eb1 sT14 Eb2 sT24

R1 R12 R2
147

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Since A2 is large, R2 = 0. The view factor, F1→2 = 1
(1-e1)/(e1A1) 1/(A1F1→2)
J1 J2

Eb1 sT14 R1 R12 Eb2 sT24

Sum the series resistances:

RSeries = (1-e1)/(e1A1) + 1/A1 = 1/(e1A1)
Ohm’s law:
i = V/R
or by analogy:
q = Eb/RSeries = e1A1s(T14 – T24)

Returning for a moment to the coal grate furnace, let us assume that we know
(a) the total heat being produced by the coal bed, (b) the temperatures of the148
water walls and (c) the
5/26/2017 JIT temperature of the super heater sections.
 Apply Kirchoff’s law about node 1, for the coal bed:

J 2  J1 J 3  J1
q1  q21  q31  q1   0
R12 R13

Similarly, for node 2:

Eb 2  J 2 J1  J 2 J 3  J 2
q2  q12  q32    0
R2 R12 R23

And for node 3: Eb3  J 3 J1  J 3 J 2  J 3

q3  q13  q23    0
R3 R13 R23
The three equations  1 1 1 1   
    
must be solved  R12 R13 R12 R13   J1    q1 
simultaneously. Since  1

1

1

1 1    J    b 2 
E
 R12 R2 R12 R13 R23   2  R 
they are each linear in      2

 1 1 1 1 1   J 3   Eb 3 
J, matrix methods may    
 R13 R23 R3 R13 R23   149
R3 
be used:
5/26/2017 JIT
 Surface 1: Find the coal bed temperature, given the heat flow:

Eb1  J 1 s  T14  J 1  q  R  J1 
0.25

q1    T1   1 1 
R1 R1  s
Surface 2: Find the water wall heat input, given the water wall temperature:

Eb 2  J 2 s  T24  J 2
q2  
R2 R2

Surface 3: (Similar to surface 2) Find the water wall heat input,

given the water wall temperature:

Eb3  J 3 s  T34  J 3
q3  
R3 R3 150

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 UNIT V

151

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 WHAT ARE HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR?

5/26/2017
• Heat exchangers are practical devices used to
transfer energy from one fluid to another

JIT
• To get fluid streams to the right temperature for the
next process
• reactions often require feeds at high temp.
• To condense vapours
• To evaporate liquids
• To recover heat to use elsewhere
• To reject low-grade heat
• To drive a power cycle 152
 MAIN CATEGORIES OF EXCHANGER
Heat exchangers

5/26/2017
JIT
Recuperators Regenerato
rs

Wall separating streams Direct contact

 Most heat exchangers have two streams, hot and

cold, but some have more than two
153
 RECUPERATORS/REGENERATORS

5/26/2017
 Recuperative:
Has separate flow paths for each fluid

JIT
which flow simultaneously through the
exchanger transferring heat between
the streams
 Regenerative
Has a single flow path which the hot
and cold fluids alternately pass
through.

154
 COMPACTNESS

5/26/2017
 Can be measured by the heat-transfer area per unit

JIT
volume or by channel size
 Conventional exchangers (shell and tube) have
channel size of 10 to 30 mm giving about 100m2/m3
 Plate-type exchangers have typically 5mm channel
size with more than 200m2/m3
 More compact types available

155
 Heat Transfer Considerations:
Overall heat transfer coefficient

 Internal and external thermal resistances in

series
1 1 1
 
UA UA c UA h
1 1 R f,c 1 R f,h
   Rw  
UA ho A c o A c ho A h o A h Rw

 A is wall total surface area on hot or cold

side wall
 R”f is fouling factor (m2K/W) Fin

 o is overall surface efficiency (if finned) 156

5/26/2017 JIT
 Heat Transfer Considerations
(contd…):
Fouling factor
Material deposits on the surfaces of the heat exchanger
tube may add further resistance to heat transfer in addition
to those listed above. Such deposits are termed fouling
and may significantly affect heat exchanger performance.
 Scaling is the most common form of fouling and is
associated with inverse solubility salts. Examples of such
salts are CaCO3, CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaSiO3, Ca(OH)2,
Mg(OH)2, MgSiO3, Na2SO4, LiSO4, and Li2CO3.
 Corrosion fouling is classified as a chemical reaction
which involves the heat exchanger tubes. Many metals,
copper and aluminum being specific examples, form157
adherent oxide coatings which serve to passivity the surface
and prevent
5/26/2017 further
JIT corrosion.
 Heat Transfer Considerations
(contd…):
 Chemical reaction fouling involves chemical reactions in
the process stream which results in deposition of material on
the heat exchanger tubes. When food products are involved
this may be termed scorching but a wide range of organic
materials are subject to similar problems.
 Freezing fouling is said to occur when a portion of the hot
stream is cooled to near the freezing point for one of its
components. This is most notable in refineries where
paraffin frequently solidifies from petroleum products at
various stages in the refining process, obstructing both flow
and heat transfer.
 Biological fouling is common where untreated water is158
used as a coolant stream. Problems range from algae or other
JIT
microbes to barnacles.
5/26/2017
 Heat Exchanger Analysis
Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
method

.
Want a relation Q  UA Tm

Where Tmis some mean T between hot and cold fluid

159

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Heat Exchanger Analysis(contd…)

Counterflow Parallel flow

Note Th,out can be  Tc,out T ' s' cannot cross 160

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 Heat Exchanger Analysis
(contd…)
Energy balance (counterflow) on element
shown
dQ  mh ch dTh   mc cc dTc (1)
m mass flow rate of fluid
c  specific heat
Rate Equation
dQ UdAT  T 
h c ( 2)

 dQ  dQ
Now from (1) dTh  dTc 
mh ch mc cc

161
 1 1 
 d Th  Tc   dQ 
  
c cJIT
5/26/2017  m c mh ch 
 Heat Exchanger Analysis
(contd…)
Subtract dQfrom (2),
d Th  Tc   1 1 
 U   dA
Th  Tc  mc cc mh ch 

Integrate1  2
 Th 2  Tc 2   1 1 
ln    UA  
 Th1  Tc1   mc cc mh ch 

Total heat transfer rate

Q mh ch Th1  Th 2  and Q mc cc Tc1  Tc 2  162

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 Effectiveness-NTU Method

How will existing H. Ex. perform for given

inlet conditions ?
Qactual
Define effectiveness : e  
Q m ax

whereQm axis for an infinitely long H.Ex.

One fluid T  Tm ax  Th ,in  Tc ,in
and since Q mc A TA  mcB TB
 CA TA  C B TB
then only the fluid with lesser of C A , C B
heat capacity rate can have Tm ax 163

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 Effectiveness-NTU
Method(contd…)

Q
  C T and e 
i.e. Q
C m in Th .in  Tc.in 
m ax m in m ax

 eC T  T 
or, Q m in h .in c.in

Want expression for e which does not contain outlet T' s

 UA (LMTD) .........
Substitute back into Q
 - UA  C m in 
1 - exp 1  
 C m in  C m ax 
e
C m in  - UA  C m in 
1 exp 1  
C m ax  C m in  C m ax 
 C min 

 e  e  NTU , 

 C max 
164
UA
and No. of transfer units (size of HEx.) NTU 
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 Charts for each
Configuration

Procedure:
Determine Cmax, Cmin/Cmax
Get UA/Cmin,  e from
chart

Q e Cmin Th.in  Tc.in 165

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 Effectiveness-NTU
Method(contd…)
UA NTU m axC m in
NTU m ax   A
C m in U
• NTUmax can be obtained from figures in textbooks/handbooks
First, however, we must determine which fluid has Cmin

166

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 Heat Exchanger Analysis
(contd…)
c and put
Substitute for m
T1  Th1  Tc1 END 1
T2  Th 2  Tc 2 END 2

  T2  T1 
Q  UA 
 ln T2 / T 
1 

Q UALMTD
LMTD is Log Mean Temperature Difference

• Remember – 1 and 2 are ends, not fluids

• Same formula for parallel flow (but T’s are different) 167

•Counterflow has highest

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LMTD, for given T’s therefore smallest area for Q.
 CONDENSATION AND BOILING

 Until now, we have been considering

convection heat transfer in homogeneous
single-phase (HSP) systems
Boiling and condensation, however, provide
much higher heat transfer rates than those
possible with the HSP systems
168

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 Condensation
 Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is
reduced below its saturation temperature

 Condensation heat transfer

Film condensation
Drop wise condensation

Ts<Tsat

Ts<Tsat Vapour

Drop

 Heat transfer rates in

Film drop wise condensation may be as much
Vapour
as 10 times higher than in film condensation
169
 LAMINAR FILM CONDENSATION ON A
VERTICAL WALL (VW)
y
y
y
x
Tsat x
y

  u 
A g u  
  A
l y  yy
A
l y  y A
T

 (x) Condensate Film

(  v )gAy
l 170

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 LAMINAR FILM CONDENSATION ON A
VERTICAL WALL (CONT..)
1/ 4 1/ 4
 4xk l (Tsat  Tw ) l   h fgg(l   v )k 3

( x )    h(x)  
l

 h fgg(l   v )   4x (Tsat  Tw ) l 
1/ 4
 h fgg (l   v )k 3

h L  0.943
l
Average coeff. 
 L(Tsat  Tw ) l 
where L is the plate length.
Total heat transfer rate : q  h L A(Tsat  Tw )
q h L A(Tsat  Tw )
 
171
Condensation rate : m
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h fg h fg
 EXAMPLE
Laminar film condensation of steam
Saturated steam condenses on the outside of a 5 cm-diameter
vertical tube, 50 cm high. If the saturation temperature of the
steam is 302 K, and cooling water maintains the wall temperature
at 299 K, determine: (i) the average heat transfer coefficient, (ii)
the total condensation rate, and (iii) the film thickness at the
bottom of the tube.
Given: Film condensation of saturated steam
Required: (i) Average heat transfer coefficient, (ii) total
condensation rate, (iii) and film thickness
1. Effect of tube curvature negligible 172
2. Effect5/26/2017
of liquid sub
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cooling negligible
3. Laminar
 EXAMPLE (CONTD...)
y

x
The Average heat trasn sfer coefficent is given by :
Tsat
y
 '
1/ 4
_  h g(  v )k 
3
h  0.943 fg l l
A g

L(Tsat  Tw )v 

l

T

 (x) Condensate Film

Evaluate hfg at the saturation temperature

of 302 K
From Table of water properties :
173
h  2.432 106 J / kg  v  0.03kg / m3
fg 5/26/2017 JIT
EXAMPLE (CONTD...)

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Also, for w ater
k l  0.611 W/mK
 l  996 kg/m3

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 l  0.87  10-6 m 2 /s

 h fh g  l   v k l3 
1/ 4

h  0.943 
 L T sat  Tw  l 
 ( 2.432  10 6 )(9.81)996  0.03(0.611) 3 
1/ 4

 0.943 6   7570 W/m2 K


 ( 0 .5)(3)(0.87  10 ) 


(ii) The total condensation rate is :

Q h AT (7570)(3) (0.05)(0.5)

m    7.33  10 4 kg/s
h fg h fg ( 2.432  10 )
6

174
EXAMPLE (CONTD...)

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(iii) The film thicknessis
1/ 3
 3 l  
     v   l

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 l g 
The mass flow rate per unit width of film  is :
 (7.33  10 4 )
m
   4.67  10 3 kg/ms
D ( )(0.05)

1/ 3
 3(0.87  10-6 )(4.67  10 3 ) 
Hence,      1.08  10 4 m
 (996)(9.81) 

175
 Boiling
 Boiling occurs when the surface temperature Tw
exceeds the saturation temperature Tsat corresponding

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to the liquid pressure

Heat transfer rate : qs  h(Tw  Tsat )  hTe

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where Te  Tw  Tsat (excess temperature)
 Boiling process is characterized by formation of vapor
bubbles, which grow and subsequently detach from
the surface
 Bubble growth and dynamics depend on several
factors such as excess temp., nature of surface,
thermo physical properties of fluid (e.g. surface
tension, liquid density, vapor density, etc.). Hence,
176
heat transfer coefficient also depends on those
factors.
POOL BOILING CURVE

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Pool boiling regimes:
A-B: Pure convection with liquid

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rising to surface for evaporation
B-C: Nucleate boiling with bubbles
condensing in liquid
C-D: Nucleate boiling with bubbles
rising to surface
D: Peak temperature
D-E: Partial nucleate boiling and
unstable film boiling
E: Film boiling is stabilized
E-F: Radiation becomes a
dominant mechanism for heat
177
transfer
 MODES OF POOL BOILING

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
 Free convection boiling Te  5 C

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 Nucleate boiling  
5 C  Te  30 C
 Transition boiling  
30 C  Te  120 C
 Film boiling

Te  120 C

178
 INTRODUCTION

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 Three fundamental transfer processes:
i) Momentum transfer
ii) Heat transfer
iii) Mass transfer

179
 5/26/2017
 Mass transfer may occur in a gas mixture, a liquid
solution or solid.

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 Mass transfer occurs whenever there is a gradient in
the concentration of a species.
 The basic mechanisms are the same whether the
phase is a gas, liquid, or solid.

180
 DEFINITION OF CONCENTRATION

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i) Number of molecules of each species present per unit

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volume (molecules/m3)
ii) Molar concentration of species i = Number of moles of i
per unit volume (kmol/m3)
iii) Mass concentration = Mass of i per unit volume (kg/m3)

181
 DIFFUSION PHENOMENA

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 Fick’s law: linear relation between the rate of

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diffusion of chemical species and the
concentration gradient of that species.
 Thermal diffusion: Diffusion due to a temperature
gradient. Usually negligible unless the
temperature gradient is very large.
 Pressure diffusion: Diffusion due to a pressure
gradient. Usually negligible unless the pressure
gradient is very large.
182
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 Forced diffusion: Diffusion due to external force
field acting on a molecule. Forced diffusion occurs

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when an electrical field is imposed on an electrolyte
( for example, in charging an automobile battery)
 Knudsen diffusion: Diffusion phenomena occur in
porous solids.

183
 Whenever there is concentration difference in a
medium,
nature tends to equalize

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things by forcing a flow
from the high to the low

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concentration region.

 The molecular transport process of mass is

characterized by the general equation:
Before After

Rate of transfer process = driving force

resistance
184
 EXAMPLE OF MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES

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 Consider a tank that is divided into two equal parts by a

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partition.
 Initially, the left half of the tank contains nitrogen N2 gas while
the right half contains O2 at the same temperature and pressure.
 When the partition is removed the N2 molecules will start
diffusing into the air while the O2 molecules diffuse into the N2.
 If we wait long enough, we will have a homogeneous mixture
of N2 and O2 in the tank.

185
 Liquid in open pail of water evaporates into air because

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of the difference in concentration of water vapor at the
water surface and the surrounding air.

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 A drop of blue liquid dye is added to a cup of water. The
dye molecules will diffuse slowly by molecular diffusion
to all parts of the water.

186
 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION EQUATION
 Fick’s Law
dcA
J *
AZ   DAB
dz
is the molar flux of component A in the z
direction in kg mol A/s.m2.
J *A
is the molecular diffusivity of the molecule A
in B in m2/s
is the concentration of A in kg mol/m3.
z isDthe
AB distance of diffusion in m

cA 187
 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
 Molecular diffusion or molecular transport can be defined as the
transfer or movement of individual molecules through a fluid by mean

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of the random, individual movements of the molecules.

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(2) A

B
B B

B B B
B
 If there are
B greater number of A molecules near point (1) than at (2),
B B
then since molecules diffuse randomly in both direction, more A
molecules will diffuse from (1) to (2) than from (2) to (1).
(1) A
 The net diffusion of A is from high to low concentration regions.

188
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 The two modes of mass transfer:
- Molecular diffusion

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- Convective mass transfer

189
 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

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The diffusion of molecules when the whole bulk
fluid is not moving but stationary. Diffusion of

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molecules is due to a concentration gradient.

The general Fick’s Law Equation for binary mixture of A and B

dxA
*
J AZ  cDAB
dz
c = total concentration of A and B [kgmol (A + B)/m3]
xA= mole fraction of A in the mixture of A and B
190
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191
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION IN GASES

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 Equimolar Counterdiffussion in Gases

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192
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194
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 For a binary gas mixture of A and B, the diffusivity
coefficient DAB=DBA

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195
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DIFFUSION OF GASES A AND B
PLUS CONVECTION

196
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197
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198
For equimolar counterdiffussion, NA=-NB ,
then NA=J*A=-NB=-J*B
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200
 201

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