Chapter 4: Research Design

4.1 Meaning of Research Design

A research design is defined as the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a way to achieve research purpose. In other words, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data. Accordingly, the design incorporates a framework of what
the researcher is going to do from writing the basic questions to the final analysis of data. More
specifically, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 What types of data are required?
 Where the required data can be found?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be
studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data; (e) time and cost
breakdowns for the whole project.
4.2 Types of Research Designs
1) Historical Research Method
It is the research method, which makes use or observations based on past events. It applies the
method of reflective thinking to social and economic problems still unsolved by means of
discovery of past trends of events, facts and attitudes. Thus, historical research may be defined
as a system in which present day evens are studied with reference to the events that took place in
the past. It seeks to find explanation of questions of current interest by an intensive study of the
past
Significance of Historical Method
 This method fills a gap of making some researches possible and meaningful, as some
problems would have remained unexplored without it for e.g. Time series data may be
used to assess the progress or the impact of several policies.
 Historical method makes it possible to study the development of a particular idea,
concept, philosophy or theory.

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  Comparative studies in economics, such as growth of GNP, savings, investment, etc.
can't be done without the use of historical data and hence historical method.
 Analysis and interpretation of past data are indispensable to plan for the future in
business and hence historical method.
In general, historical method gives people a sense of continuity and consciousness of unity in
their efforts and achievement Thus, it can be concluded that “no individual. let alone a social
scientist, call wisely ignore the Long arm of the past. "
Sources of Historical Data
 Books, magazines, papers, literature, documents, etc.
 Cultural and analytical historical materials.
 Memories, personal letters, personal observations, diaries, autobiographies, etc.
 Archives, diplomatic agreements, statistical materials, etc.
 Artistic materials, paintings, portraits. Charts, maps, etc.
When, how, and under what circumstances to use these sources depends to great extent on the
discretion of the researcher, the scope and the purpose of the study und the availability of these
sources, it should also be kept in mind that all historical details are not authentic and could not
be fully relied upon.
Historical data are reliable and adequate for research when:
(1) They are presented as component of social process;
(2) Social phenomena depict social process meaningfully; and
(3) Psychological, economic, educational, political, religious, etc. sets of interrelationship
contribute to a unified whole.
Advantages of Historical Research Method
1) It enables to investigate some problems, which may not be investigated by other methods.
(E.g. Time series data for assessing the progress or impact of policies)
2) Historical data, as opposed to laboratory experiments, are not repeatable. Hence historical
method serves as a ready hand method to the researchers whose problems depend on historical
observations.
Limitations of Historical Method
1) Non-matching situations - Because a past situation has been influenced by social economic,
political, and other factors different from the current, compatibility of the past to present is
questionable.
2) Over generalization- the tendency of historical researcher to over generalize this results
would lead to implausible explanation and inaccurate specifications of the research problem.

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3) Subjective interpretations because socio economic variables are complete in nature which
can be interpreted in different ways, this method suffers from subjective interpretations. The loss
of objectivity can lead to inaccuracies in research findings.
Limitations may also arise because:
 Historians can't write history life sizes
 Not all happening in time and space can be known at the time of writing
 Personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
Necessary Conditions for Historical Research
Because historical method tries to solve current problem by an intensive study of the past, a
researcher must have the following essential qualities to be effective.
1) Selection of a topic for research. The researcher must be competent enough to choose
practically feasible topic to the study.
2) Social insight. This helps the researcher to understand cause and effect relations of social
events and to draw proper conclusions.
3) Historical orientations. The researcher needs to understand the facts and events in the
historical perspective.
4) Knowledge of related social sciences - This helps the researcher to analyze data in its proper
perspective.
5) Wide educational background. This helps the researcher to understand the topic in an
interrelated manner.
6) Familiarity with the topic and its objectives
7) Dispassionate study. This helps the researcher not to be misguided by guesswork,
preconceived notions, biases and emotions.
8) Imaginative capacity. This helps the researcher to understand the topic and to draw complete
picture or the study by collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data that are not easily obtained
in detail and in a coherent form.
9) Selection and rejection of material. This enables the researcher to choose relevant data from
scattered materials history provides
10) Analyzing and coordinating capacity - This helps the researcher to coordinate historical
data with the present day situations. ,
11) Knowledge of study field. This helps the researcher to gather data that are not readily
2available from different sources.
12) Knowledge of one’s own Imitations. This makes the researcher receptive to new ideas and

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 knowledge put forth by more intelligent and experienced persons and induces him/her to
probe further into the matter.
Steps involved in historical research method
1) Selection of the problem. This depends on the researcher's caliber, intelligence, skill,
aptitude, interest, and training, Courage, imagination, and deep knowledge to the subject.
Availability of adequate data, time, and other resources are also indispensable. The topic to be
studied must be specific and not general in order to facilitate a deep study. It must be
pragmatic (realistic) and must be capable of presenting an original contribution.
2) Objectives of the study formulation. The objectives should be both general and specific.
3) Formulation of hypothesis - This is an assertion to be investigated,
 It gives definite point to inquiry and establishes direction in which to proceed
 It helps to delimit the field by singling out the pertinent facts on which to concentrate
 It prevents from a blind, search and indiscriminate gathering of data.
4) Preparation for gathering data, at this point the researcher prepares exhaustive bibliography
and sketches an outline and identifies the sources of data and makes note of related facts.
5) Testing of hypothesis. This helps to validate the hypothesis drawn.
6) Evaluation of data. This helps to verify and validate data through criticisms.
7) Organization (synthesis) of data. This calls for a thorough understanding of the meaning,
implication of every piece of evidence, understating of the work related to the theme, critical
thinking, and ability to interpret and arranging data. This helps to draw conclusions by
discarding irrelevant facts. It requires sound thinking, wide reading, greater imagination, and
good training.
8) Interpretation and writing report after the data has been arranged, scrutinized, and analyzed,
the next step is the interpretation and establishment of cause and effect relationships. This gives
understanding of the general facts and provides theoretical generalization, which can serve as a
guide for further research. After various generalizations have been drawn, the report has to be
prepared, containing the procedure adopted and the findings arrived.
2) The case study method
A case study is a deep and intensive study of particular social unit, confined to a very small
number of cases. Case study is. therefore, method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social
unit, be that unit a personal, a family, institution, cultural groups or event an entire community.
The sources of data in case study method are personal documents and life history of the case.
Characteristics of case Study Method

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  It places more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and
their interrelations.
 Although hypothesis is often used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or
rejection more difficult.
 An insight on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and
strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of information. It allows evidence
to be verified and avoids missing data.
Advantages of Case Study Method
 It produces new ideas and fresh suggestions
 It formulates sound hypotheses.
 It helps in exploring new areas of research.
Limitations of Case Study Method
 It develops false sense of confidence which is detrimental to any scientific outlook.
Everything about the subject can't be known although each unit is studied.
 Generalizations about similar cases are impossible.
 It does not provide universal, impersonal and common aspects or phenomena.
 Because of the absence of control on the respondent, and because the data can’t be
verified, the references drawn may not be accurate.
 It is costly, time consuming and wasteful in contain case where the objectives are limited.
 The objective may be lost due to personal relationship between the subject and the
researcher.
 Because it is qualitative in nature the case study method is not itself a scientific method
at all, but merely first step in scientific procedure.
Steps Involved in case study method
1) Selection of cases and identification of situations
2) Collection and recording of data
3) Interpretations of data
4) Report writing
(3) Survey research method
The term survey is composed of two Latin words 'sur' which means "super" "above," "over," or
"beyond” and "vey" which means to "look" or to "see". Thus the word survey means "to look or
to see over or beyond."
Survey method is, thus, the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or

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systematic gathering of data from population by applying personal contact,interviewsand
questionnaireswhen adequate information about a certain problem is not available in records,
files, and other sources. Survey research is defined as an organized attempt to analyzed,
interpret and report the present status of social institution group area.
In such type of study, several data related to the subject(s) understudy are gathered and the
common elements are identified. It is, therefore, used to explore a topic and to give a beginning
familiarity with the topic. It is broad in size rather than study in depth as it takes large area and
tries to come up with the major common characteristics. It, thus, scratches the surface rather than
going to depth of the problem.
Types of Surveys
There are different types of survey study. Some of them are briefly described below.
1) Opinion type of survey
This type of survey study is the study conducted by asking the opinions of different people
known as pillars i.e. (people who vote) and make different type of decisions. E.g. The opinion of
people to choose among negation and war between two countries to resolve conflict
2) Attitudinal survey study
This is the type of survey that gathers data on the attitude of people on certain issue. E.g. The
attitude of students towards quantitative courses, the attitude of elder generation towards the
young generation, the attitude of one ethnic group towards the other ethnic group in Ethiopia.
3) The comparative survey
This the type of survey that compares two or more elements (i.e. people, institutions, companies,
etc.). Comparison must be done if and only if two or more elements (subjects) to be compared
have similarities and or differences. Comparing things that are incomparable is wastage of effort.
E.g. Comparative study between private and government college students with regard to their
performance comparative study between privet banks and state owned banks in customer
handling.
4) The Descriptive Survey method
The descriptive survey method or what is sometimes called the normative survey is employed to
process the data that come to the researcher through observation. The method or research that
simply looks with intense accuracy at the phenomena of the moment and then describes
precisely what the researcher sees is called the descriptive survey. The basic assumption
underlying such an approach is that given phenomena usually follow a common pattern, or
norm.
In employing this method, the researcher does two things: first. he/she observers with close

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scrutiny the population which is bounded by the research parameters; second he/she makes a
careful record of what he/she observes so that when the aggregate record is made, the researcher
can then return to the record to study the observation that have been "described" there. In this
sense, survey research has a common denominator with historical research namely the study of
records.
The point should be clearly emphasized that "looking" or "seeing" is not restricted to the
perception through the physical eye. In research, we have many ways seeing, which have
nothing to do with physical vision. The physician "looks" at the patient's heart through a
stethoscope and by means of an electrocardiogram. The educator, the psychologist, the guidance
and vocational counselor "looks" at the achievement, intelligence, altitudes, beliefs or
personality structure through tests, inventories attitude scales, and other test and evaluation
scales. Hundreds of thousands of survey studies have been conducted in which the "looking" has
been by means of a questionnaires and in interview studies. The "looking" has largely been by
the ear rather than by the eye
Characteristics of the Descriptive Survey
a) It deals with a situation that demands the technique of observation as the principal means of
collecting the data.
b) The population for the study must be carefully chosen, carefully defined, and specifically
delimited in order to set precise parameters for ensuring discreteness to the population.
c) Data in descriptive survey research are particularly susceptible to distortion through the
introduction of bias into the research design. Thus, particular attention should be given to
safeguard the data from the influence of bias.
d) Although the description survey method relics upon observation for the acquisition of the
data, those data must then be organized and presented systematically so that valid and accurate
conclusions may be drawn from them.
Guidelines With Respect To Interpretation of the Data
In the Descriptive survey study
 Be systematic in describing the treatment of the data.
 State clearly the data you need to resolve the sub problem.
 State precisely where the data are located.
 State without equivocation how the data will be secures.
 State fully and unequivocally precisely how you intend to interpret the data.
 Every step in the interpretation of the data should be fully spelled out.
 Be sure the data support your conclusions.

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The Analytical survey Method
In descriptive survey method the data have more of a tendency to be verbal because descriptive
studies deal with inquires questions and interviews - and simple observation information. The
analytical survey study takes data that are essentially quantitative in nature and analyzes these
data by means of appropriate statistical tools. The purpose is to probe those data by means of
statistics so that we may infer certain meanings which lie hidden within the data or, if not that, to
determine the presence of certain potentials and dynamic forces which may be a clue to areas
that warrant further investigation.
In analytical survey, we are concerned primarily with problems of estimation and the testing of
statistically based hypotheses. The methods employed are those techniques that are generally
referred to as belonging to the domain of inferential statistics.
The Essential Nature of Quantitative Data
a) They are measurable. Measurement of data is expressed by means of various scales of value.
In measuring, one develops some form of scale and transfers the observation of the property
indicated into this scale.
We generally recognize four basic scalar categories for classifying analytical- survey data:
i) The nominal scale is the grossest of the differential scales. It merely expresses categorical
classification. It is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to level
them. E,g Assigning number to football players to in order to identify them. The numbers are
just convenient labels for the particular classes of events and they have no quantitative value.
Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It simply describes differences
between things by assigning them to category.
ii) The ordinal scale is the scale that is ordered meaning fully. You can speak the first is the
best, the second is next, and the third is fair. The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of
“greater than” or “less than” without being able to state how much greater or less.
iii) The interval scale for which a unit of measurement has been established. It helps for a unit
of measurement that has been established between two intervals. E,g To scale the different age
group, or different salary of respondents or service year of respondent.
iv) The ratio scale in which they are measured from an absolute or arbitrary designated zero
point. The ratio scale measure multiples of one value over another. E.g. Harar Beer has 4.25%
alcoholic content. The temperature measures 25% Celsius.
b) Data also have two other characteristics: discrete or continues.
i) Discrete data are those which arise from the process of counting. It assumes only certain

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value with no intermediate values. It cannot be between 0 and 1or b/n 1 and 2. The possible
values can be listed and it is relatively simple to work with discrete data set. E.g. The number of
eggs in a dozen, the number of students in a class, etc.
ii) Continuous data arise from the measurement process, which is a part of a continuum. They
assume any numerical value over certain interval. We cannot count the values of continuous
data. It simply assigns a set of all positive numbers or values between 0 and 1 on continuum
basis. E.g. Length, width, time, and age values are all continuous data.
Advantages of Survey Research Method
 Direct and close contact between researcher and the respondents
 Greater objectivity
 Formulation and testing of hypothesis
 Social surveys are based on actual observation
 Universal application
Limitations of Survey Research Method
 It is costly, time consuming, and wasteful in certain cases where objectives are limited.
 If the subject to be surveyed is large or where they are spread over a large geographic
area, it is unsuitable.
 Personal bias may vitiate the result.
 It lacks flexibility.
 It is useful only for current problems and is not suitable for the problem that requires the
study in the historical retrospect.
 If the sample survey is not carefully planned and executed, the inferences drawn may be
inaccurate and misleading in survey studies that involve sample.
Steps of a Social Survey Research Method
1)Selection of a problem: - The topic selected should:
-be practically feasible, manageable, and of practical importance.
-not necessarily be new and beyond the reach of the researcher.
-be interesting to the researcher.
-take into account the availability of facilities, equipment, information and the services of
experts who guide the research.
2) Preliminary or pilot study: - This acquaints the researcher with all the available material and
literature in the field.
3) Formulating general specific ejectives of the study: - The general objectives, usually
expressed in broad terms, define the area and scope of the research Specific objectives is the

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general objectives broken down into measurable objectives.
4) Determining the resources and personal needed: - Estimation of the financial budget and
the staff required dong with their qualifications, facilities the reach work.
5) Sampling: - This is done when complete coverage of the universe is neither possible nor
undesirable.
6) Determining method of date collection: - Depending on the nature of the data -
questionnaires, interviews, schedules and observations - to be used are determined.
7) Training the staff- Because the quality of investigators and interviewers determine the
success of the survey, they should be adequately trained.
8) Organization of the fieldwork: - The data is collected effectively and efficiently the field
work should be organized carefully and sometimes experts have to guide the surveyors.
9) Content analysis: - At this stage, the information collected from the field is scrutinized for
errors, commissions, etc. and is ready for coding and tabulation. After the tabulation and coding
of collected data, a scheme analysis is drawn up and the data may be analyzed by suitable
statistical methods to determine their reliability.
10) Reporting: - A report is written embodying the survey findings and contains a detailed
statement of the different stages of the survey the types of the estimates contained along with
their precisions.
4) The Experimental Research Method
This methodology goes by various names; the experimental method, the cause and effect
method, the pretest posttest control group design and the laboratory method. The basic idea
behind this method is to attempt to account for the influence of a factor or as in the case of
complex designs, of multiple factors conditioning a given situation.
In its simplest form, the experimental method attempts to control the entire research situation.
The experimental research method requires us the understanding of different variables. But what
are variables?
Variables
The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for the property being
studied. In this context, a variable is "a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned."
The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variables properties. For example,
variables referred to as being dichotomous have only two values reflecting the presence or
absence of property. Employer-employee or male-female have two values, generally 0 and 1.
Variables could be discrete or continuous.
Variables that produce data that fit into categories are discrete since only certain values are

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possible. Variables that may take values within a given range are continuous variables.
Income, temperature, age, or test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables
may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Your test score may
range from 0 to 100, your age may be 23.5, and your present income could be Birr 35,000.
Independent and Dependent variables
If the investigator has control over the variable and is able to manipulate it or change it at will,
then we say that variable is an independent variable. If, on the other hand, the investigator has no
control over the variable and it occurs as the result of the influence of the independent variable
then that variable is known as the dependent variable.
Researchers are most interested in relationships among variables.
For example, does a participative leadership style (independent variables) influence satisfaction
or performance (dependent variables) or can a superior's modeling of ethical behavior influence
the behavior of the subordinate?
The following table lists some term that have become synonyms for independent and dependent
variable.

Independent variable Dependent Variable

Presumed cause ------------------------- presumed effect

Predicated from -------------------------- Predicted to
Antecedent ------------------------- Consequent
Manipulated ------------------------- Measured outcome

Extraneous variable: A variable which interfere the relationship between the dependent and an
independent variable is called extraneous or interveningvariable. It is an independent variable
that is not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable in some
way.
Suppose the researcher wants to test the effect of socio-economic background of a student’s
family on learning, the variables such as IQ, age, school and other facilities may act as
intervening variables. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variables) is technically described as an ' experimental error'. A study must always be so
designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent
variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable(s).
Control: minimizing the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). In experimental
researches, the term ' control' is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.
Confounded relationship: when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of

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extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Moderating variables
There is at least one independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in each relationship.
It is normally hypothesized that in some sway the IV "causes" the DV to occur. For simple
relationships, all other variables are considered extraneous and are ignored. Thus, we might be
interested in a study of the effect of the four-day workweek on office productivity and
hypothesize the following:
The introduction of the four-day Workweek (IV) will lead to increased office productivity per
Worker-hour (DV).
In actual study situations, however, such a simple one-to-one relationship needs to be
conditioned or revised to take other variables into account. It often uses another type of
explanatory variable of value here - the moderating variable (MV). A moderating variable is a
second independent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant
contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship. For example one
may hypothesize that:
The Introduction of the four-day work week (IV) will lead to increased office productivity per
worker-hour (DV), especially among younger workers (MV).
Research hypothesis: the research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Often a research hypothesis must contain, at least,
one independent and one dependent variable
Experimental and control groups: in an experimental research when a group is exposed to
usual conditions, it is termed as ' Control group', but when the group is exposed to some novel or
special condition, it is termed an ' experimental group.'
Treatments: the different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ' treatments'. If we want to determine the comparative impact of three
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat through an experiment, the three varieties of
fertilizer will be considered as treatment.
Experiment: the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types’ viz.,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine
the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment

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then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often we undertake comparative experiments
when we talk of designs of experiments.
Underling Concepts
The matter of control is so basic to the experimental method. We frequently refer to this means
for searching for truth as the control group - experimental group design. At the outset, we
assume that the forces and dynamics within both groups are equisetic. We begin, as far as
possible with matched groups. These groups are randomly selected and paired so that each group
will resemble the other in as many characteristics as possible and, certainly, with respect to those
qualities that are critical to the experiment.
Mathematically, Experimental group = control group
And, although we assume that both groups have at the beginning of the experiment identical
characteristics, identical values and identical status, perfect identity is more theoretical than real.
In recognition of the fact, therefore, we employ the phrase matched group or we say that they are
groups matched on the base of x, y and z" The x, y, and z are the qualitative parameters which
provide the basis for matching.
The Characteristics of the Experimental Method
1) The experimental method deals with the phenomenon of cause and effect. Here, we have
two situations and we assess each to establish comparability. We attempt to alter one of these by
introducing into it an extraneous dynamic. We reevaluate each situation after the intervening
attempt at alteration. Whatever change is noticed is presumed to have been cause by the
extraneous variable.
2) Experimental research needs to be planned. This planning is called the designing of the
experiment.
Experimental design refers to the architectonics and planning of the entire experimental
approach to a problem for research. There are two types of experimental designs:
1) Factorial Design- The design in which the researcher is not able to control the independent
variable at will.
2) Functional Design- The design in which the researcher can control the independent variable
at will.
Classification of Experimental Method
According to Cambell and Stanley, experimental designs are divided into the following
classifications
A) Pre-Experimental Designs
i) The one - shot case study

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The one-shot case study is the most primitive method. It is the simplest and naive experimental
design. It may be represented by the following symbolic formula
Paradigm of Design I: x-0
(X - is used when an object is exposed to an experimental variable)
(0 - indicates an observation or measurement of the data)
E.g. - We see a child sitting on the damp earth in mid-July. The next day he has a sore throat and
a cold. We conclude that sitting on the damp earth causes one to catch cold.
X= exposure of child to cold damp earth, 0= observation that child has a cold
Here the fact and the consequence observed were linked together as cause and effect.
ii) The one -group pretest-post-test design.
This is a type of experiment where a single group has:
(1) a pre-experimental evaluation, then
(2) the influence of the variable, and, finally
(3) a post-experimental evaluation. The paradigm for this type of research is:
Paradigm for Design II: 0X ---- 02
E.g. taking coffee increases blood pressure.
0 - Blood pressure before the experimental treatment
X - The experiment (Taking coffee)
O2- Blood pressure after the experimental treatment
If there is change of the blood pressure, it is concluded that the experiment (taking coffee) has
increase the difference.
iii) The static group Comparison
This paradigm provides for two study groups, one of which receives the experimental stimulus
while the other serves as a control
Paradigm for Design III: Group I X - 01
Group II - O2
Here is a design in which two randomly sleeted groups are designated by the dictates of chance,
one to be a control group, and the other to be experimental group. The experimental group is
exposed to variable X; the control group is not. At the close of the experiment, both groups are
evaluated and a comparison is made between the evaluation values of each group to determine
what has been the effect of factor X. In this design, no attempt is made to obtain or examine the
pre-experimental equivalence of the comparison groups.
Its chief weakness is that there is no way to assure that the two groups really are comparable. To
overcome this difficulty, true experiments need to be used.

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B) True Experimental Designs
The true experimental design involves a greater degree of control and refinement and a greater
insurance of both internal and external validity.
With experimental designs, internal validity is the basic minimum without which any experiment
is uninterruptible. The question that the researcher must answer is whether the experimental
treatment did indeed make a difference in the experiment. To what population, settings,
treatment variables, and measurement variables can the effect, as observed in the experiment be
generalized is external validity. Of the two types of validity, internal validity is certainly the
more important so far as the integrity of the study is concerned.
a. The pretest-posttest control group design
Here we have the experimental group carefully chosen through appropriate randomization
procedures and the control group similarly selected. The experimental group is evaluated from
the experimental variable, and reevaluated. The control group is isolated, subjected to the
experimental variable influences and is merely evaluated at the beginning and at the end of the
experiment.
Paradigm for Design IV: R1 [01 - X - O2)
R2 (03----04)}
The bracketing of both groups shows that R1 the randomization process is common to both
groups and the R2 - shows that before separation these two randomized samples were kept
isolated from the influence of the experimental variables X. 01 and 02 are the two evaluations of
the experimental group and 03 and 04 are the evaluations of the control group.
b. The post-test only control group design
In this design, the pretest measurements are omitted
Paradigm for Design V: R1 X----02
R2 04
C) Quest Experimental Design
In a quest – experiment, equivalent experimental and control groups can not be established
through random assignment. A quest experiment is inferior to a true experiment design but it is
usually superior to available non – experimental approaches
a. The non-randomized Control pretest post-test design
This is similar to the first of true experimental pretest posttest design discussed except for the
lack of randomization.
Paradigm for Design VI: 01 --X -- O2
03-------04

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To minimize the differences that might exist between the experimental and the control groups,
the researcher might attempt to match as closely as possible and on as many variables as possible
the two groups before beginning the experiment.
b. The time series experiment
This consists of taking a series of evolution and then introducing a variable or a new dynamic
into the system, after which another series of evaluations is made. If a substantial change results
in the second series of evaluation, we may assume with reasonable experimental logic that cause
of the difference is observational results was because of the factor introduced in to the system.
Paradigm for design VII 01—02—03—04—05—06—07--08
In this design, the effects of extraneous factor are likely to be confounded with those of the
experimental factors and the wrong attribution of the cause for the effect observed may be made

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