The 3D Printing Handbook Technologies, design and applications Ben Redwood Filermon Schaffer Brian Garret GB so 0086Written by Ben Redwood Filemon Schafer & Brian Garret 5D Hubs BV. ‘Amsterdam, The Netherland: Book design by Multitude Photography by Ken Glang (30 Hubs) unless source is stated Infographics by "Tom Debiekl (SD Huhs) Book printed by ‘Coors & Roest Ison '978-90-827485-« 30 Hubs BY. Print First Edition, Third Pint, February 2018 © 30 Hubs BY. 2018 (Our books may be purchoted in bulk for promational, educational lor business use. Please send any sales inguities by e-mail to bbook@3dhubs.com How 3D Hubs can help you make custom parts 3D Hubs isthe world’s largest network of menufacturing services. With production facilities connected in over 140 countries, the SD Hubs tnline plotform helps you find the fastest and most price competitive ‘manufacturing salution near you. In this book we're sharing what we've learned from printing ever 1,000,000 parts. While reading this book you may find the interactive tools below useful. Printability feedback ‘Our file viewer gives you instant printability feedback, advising on the best 30 printing process to use for your design Material index ens, Explore over 500 available 3D printing matericls, comparing wees ‘wurmaround times, pricing and mechanical properties. Instant quotes All ports ate sourced through verified lacol service providers. Simply Upload your files to get started and compare quotes for different ‘materials and finishes Knowledge Bose ons Anin-depth collection of online articles focusing on all aspects of 3D Meilboe ease printing, from how to design snap fit connections to using 5D printing for thermetorming Managed Services ype Looking for 3D printing solutions for your business? Heve our in-house ‘vie manufacturing experts toke care of your project from start to finishCredits This book would not be nearly 2s complete without the dedication and contributions of an incredible amount of industry experts, manufecturers and cbove all our 3D Hubs community from all round the world First and foremost, © huge thank you to the people who gave their time to review and provide feedback on the text in this book: Michael Mlitch-Hou (Engineering.com), Sarah Goehrke (GDprint.com), Bill Artley (Print Form), Alan Nguyen (Space Junk Co), Dr. Joshua M. Pearce (Michigan Tech), Richard Smith (Oxford University), Andreas Bastian (Autodesk), Erik de Bruijn (Ukimaker), Florian van der Horst (Oceanz), Chris Mealoney (rot03000), Tobias Tutfentsammer (ExOne), and Dr. Hisham Alkabie (EGT Aerospace & Defence). For thei expert contributions as authors; thanks to Courtney ‘Armstrong on designing fer SLA/DLP, Perry Cain on layer height fond support for FF, James Low on snap fit connections, Ben Hudson on designing for FF, Alkaios Bournias Varotss fr his clarifications on the differences between desktop and industrial FFF printing, Diederik van der Steen on post processing and desktop vs, Industrial SLA/DLP, Stefan Holdinga on designing for SLS, Chris MeAloney on designing for Material Jetting, Martin Petrak on designing for DMLS/SLM, John Wall on enclosure design, Bill Artley ‘on opplications in automotive, Thomas van de Hout an topology ‘optimization, Joris Peelz for his ever available expertze, Jack Davies for his contribution on reverse engineering & CAD software, Robin Brockétter on surface modeling and George Fisher-Wilson for his 3D printing cose studies. Many thanks also goes tothe following companies who provided us With the world-class cote studies for Part 3 ofthis book: Ulkimaker Volkswagen AutoEuropa ond PEAK Industries for oppications in FFF Formlabs ond EnvisionTee for SLA/DLP, Paul Kehihaussen Design and Rehook for SLS, Mark Thielen & Eindhoven University tend Vitaly Bulgarev & Factor 31 for Material Jetting, ExOne for Binder Jetting, Concept Laser and Thomas van de Hout for theit DMLS/SLM case studies Special thanks must go to the awesome 3D Hubs team for tirelessly proofreading version after version and continuously pointing out improvements along the way. Tom Debicki for creating the design ‘concept of the book, erecting hundreds of versions of illustrations ‘and all the infographics, ond Ken Giang for the world class photography, We couldn't have done it without you. Also special thank you to Bram de Zwart for ereating the space within 3D Hubs to write this book ond for supporting us every step of the way. [And finally, big thenks goes to the design team from Multitude for helping us bring this project from a concept into reality and getting this book to produetion with no compromise on qualityForeword ; How to use this book . Introduction . Part One-3D Printing Technologies & Materials . 01 Overview of 3D Printing » 02 Material Extrusion — FFF » 04 Poder Sed Fusion (Polymers) — SiS v» 05 Material Jetting ~ Material Jetting, 000 e 08 Binder Vetting oF Powder Bea Fusion (Mota: 08 Decision making tools = DMLS/SLI, EM oe Part Two- Designing for 3D Printing for a0 Printing ve 10 Deseription of 30 printed features 11 Designing for FFF ws» 12 Designing for SLA/DLP 18 Dosigning for SLS s 14 Designing for Material Jetting 15 Designing for Binder Jetting se 16 Designing for DMLS/SLM as 17 Design rules sumary table Part Three— Applications of 3D Printing »» 18 Tools for producing 30 designs 2 19 Applications of FFF 24 20 Applications of SLA/DLP at 21 Applications of SLS m= 22 Applications of Material Jetting ws 23 Applications of Binder Jetting a 24 Applications of DULS/SLM 2Foreword It is the summer of 2001 in Cupertino, California, | stare at a lump of foam, some lego-like mechanical elements and an assortment of electrical components scattered across a desk. My task was @ tough one; to create the first prototype of a new product | had been contracted to design for Apple. The project brief was to create a device that could be a modern day Sony Walkman for the MP3 generation. It took hard work, dozens of design iterations and lots of foam but it was complete. The creation that would go on to become the first iPod prototype, and a decade of various future iPod incarnations which ultimately grew up to become, the iPhone. When creating new products you're always looking to make something that's much better, visibly and functionally, than what's available. Whether it’s hardware or software that you're designing, at the core of it is the drive to create something new, disruptive, and emotional. With real innovation comes the need to prototype; if it’s not been done before, your first attempt is probably not going to be the one you run to the market with. Iteration is key. ‘The way in which prototypes are designed, produced and modified has come a long way since creating that first iPod at Apple. Readily available and affordable prototyping via 3D printing is now reality. The speed in which you can generate ideas into physical objects is now faster than it has ever been. We live in a world full of tools and resources that allow us to create and innovate with ease. The next step is to apply these resources as forces of disruption and change. This really hits home the importance of 3D printing ‘and how it can work for anyone involved in designing ‘or manufacturing physical objects. Innovative and complex product design needs prototyping. It takes time but in the end these are the tools that allow you to make those big decisions. Everything we were doing at Apple, back then, wos brand new to the world of technology, which meant we had to continually evolve to find the right path. Part of this evolution set the foundation for others to adopt and improve the technology we developed later on “The Handbook” will help to guide you on your ‘own path as you look to leverage 3D printing and its potential to create your own breakthrough products, that hopefully will change the world. Every designer ‘and engineer should keep it close as it paves your way into new manufacturing technologies that will ‘spur your creativity and unlock your ideas as they become reality. Creation is changing, manufacturing is changing and design is changing, turn the page it's time to stay ahead... Tony Fadell Creator of the iPod ond founder of NestHow to use this book The 5D Printing Handbook is written for designers ‘and engineers to quickly master the key aspects of 3D printing. It is specifically intended to provide practical advice on how to select « 3D printing technology, including decision making tools and design guidelines. The book is in principle not targeted at machine operators, for which more in- depth, machine specific documentation is available. Having a basic understanding of manufacturing technologies will help but is not essential. To make the book actionable for the reader, the content is based upon first-hand experience from. machine operators and industry experts. Unlike other books, this book is not meant to be read from front to back. Instead, several features have been included to help the reader find the information they are looking for. Three Parts This book is spit into 3 distinctive Parts; Part 1~gives @ comprehensive overview the most common > sensors [3D printing technologies including specifications, matericls ‘and post processing. This isthe best place to start for readers Uunfemilicr with 30 printing. Part 2 focuses on actionable design advice for each b areata ‘technology. This section is for readers who ore familiar with 3D printing and want « set of clear design rules to follow, to ensure parts and features ore printed to specification. Part 3- includes an introduction to Computer Aided Design = sts snore (CAD) software ard presents ¢ range of case studies highlighting the strengths of each ofthe 30 printing technologies discussed in Part ond 2. Each Part is clearly separated by a full ed page indicating where the new Port begins. Keywords Highlighted keywords ore stown in the margins of each page. > rerwotos These keywords allow the reader to quickly fick through the book and identity relevant sectins or words of interest. The keywords are reflections of words or terms that the authors have deemed important. For instant navigation, all Keywords are found inthe Index, > ste ot Decision making tools One of the main goals of tis book is to allow the reader to select cn appropriate technology fre given application. To cd inthis, the concluding chapters of Part | and 2 include decision making > see more, te ‘005, allowing the reader to quickly compare the different methods (of 3D printing Chapter 8 comprises of two such tools: a summary table ofall 3 > see mae printing technologies, and a decision making tree for determining the best technology based an a few basierequiernants. Chapter? > ste sor a Consists of a useful summery toble of all the design rules discussed In Part 2 on a per technology basis. > ste nee veIntroduction As an engineer, often the most important consideration when designing parts for production is the method of manufacturing, A design can be produced via a range of manufacturing techniques with each having their own associated strengths ‘and weaknesses. The purpose of this introduction is to identify where 3D printing sits as a method of manufacturing relative to more traditional processes, like CNC, injection molding and casting. This section will outline the most common manufacturing methods and conclude with an ‘overview of the general 3D printing process. A detailed explanation of manufacturing technologies other than of 3D printing is outside the scope of this book. Classification of manufacturing techniques Most manufacturing techniques con be categorized into 3 groups. ‘At the simplest lvel these groups can be defined as: Format manufacturing: best suited for high volume production of the same part, requiring large initial Investment in toting (molde) but then being able to ro0ume produce ports quickly ond ot « very low unit pries ‘additive, being best suited for perts with relatively simple {geometties, produced at low-mid volumes, that ore typically made from functional materials (porticularly metal) + Additive manufacturing: best suited for low volume, ‘complex designs thot formative of subtractive methods ‘ore uneble to produce, or when a unique one-off rapid Ne prototype is required. & P SZ \ iv, \We % i \BFormative (injection molding, casting, stamping and forging) Formative manufacturing typicclly forms material into the desired shope via heat and pressure. The raw materiol can be matted down end extruded under pressure into 0 mld (injection molding/aie casting), melted and then poured into a mold (costing) or pressed 6 plled into the desied shape (stamping/vacuum forming! forging). Formotive techniques produce parts from a large fonge of materials (both metals and plastics). For high volume production ‘of parts, formative manufacturing is often univaled in cast. The main imitation af formative manufacturing isthe need to produce © tool (mold or die) to form the port. Tooling is often expensive ‘ond complicated to produce, increasing leod times and deloying ‘the manufacturing of a pare. This large upfront investment is why formative manufacturing is generally only cost effective at high volumes. The design of formative tooling is also complex with the need for ‘mold features like spurs or runners to gssist inthe formation of ports. Ports that ore produced via formative menufacturing also have design constraints like draft angles and uniform wall thickness foi in the forming process. ‘Subtractive (CNC, turning, drilling) Subtractive manufacturing begins with o block of solid material (blonk), and utiizs cutting tools to remove (machine) moterial to ochiove a final shape. CNC miling, tuning (lathe) and machine operations like driling and cutting are all exomples of subtractive techniques Subtrective manufeciuring i capuble uf producing highly wecurate parts with excellent surface finish. Almost every materials able to be machined in some way. For majority of designe, subtractive rmanufecturing is the most cost effective method of production Subtractive menufacturing is imited by @ numberof factors. Most designs require Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) to plt tol paths ond efficient material removal This adds time and cost to the bverll process Tool access must olza be considered when designing ports for subtractive manufacturing os the eutting tool must be able {0 reach all surfaces to remove materia. ‘While machines like 5-axis CNC eliminate some of these restrictions, complex parts will need tobe re-orientated during the machining process, further increasing cost and lead time. Subtractive ‘manufacturing is also generally considered o wasteful process, due to the large amounts of moteril that is often removed t produce the final part geometry ‘Additive manufacturing (mere commonly known as 3D printing) is ‘the process of additively building up a port one layer at a time. There ‘re a range of 30 printing technologies with each having their own benefits and limitations and each being able to print parts from different materials Ports can be produced in almost any geometry, which is one of the core strengths oF 3D printing (even though there are still ules thot ‘must be followed per technology). Also, 3D printing does not rely on expensive tooling having essentially no stort up casts. The advantage of this isthe rapid verification and development of prototypes ond low-volume production parts, ‘One of the biggest limitations of 30 printing isthe inability to produce parts with material properties equivalent o those made via subtractive or formative techniques, Most 3D printing technologies produce parts that are inherently anisotropic or not fully dense, 5D printing alzo has limitations on repeatability, meaning parts will often have sight variations due to differential cooling of warping during curing Cost comparison Costs often the governing factor behind how a part will be manufactured. Figure 0.2 gives a general insight into how the cost of manufacturing (cost per port) varies based on the emount of parts being produces10 The 3D printing process While there are many tiffrent SD printing technologies, the following Section wil foeus on the general process from design to final port Although each method of 5D printing produces ports in afferent way, there 5 core steps are constont oeoss all technologies 1. Producing a 30 file Producing @ digital model Is the frst step in the 5D printing process, ‘The most common method for producing a digital model (Figure 0.3) is Computer Aided Design (CAD) Reverse engineering can also be Used to generate a digitel model vio 8D scanning. Both CAD modeling tnd reverse engineering ere discussed in Chapter 18 ofthis book. ‘There are several design considerations that must be evaluated ‘when designing for 3D printing. These generally focus on feature {geometry limitations, support material and escape hole requirements, Designing ports for 3D printing is discussed in Part 2 ofthis book, 2.57L creation and file manipulation In order t0 30 print @ port, a CAD model must be converted into @ format that @ 3D printer is able to interpret. This begins by converting the CAD model into a STereolithography (STL) file, also referred to (98 Stendard Triangle Language file. OBJ or SOP are alse acceptable types of 3D printing filetypes but are less common, STL uses, triangles (polygons) to describe the surfaces of an object, essentially simplifying the often complex CAD model. “Most CAD programs ore capable of exporting a model as an STL file. (Once © ST file has been genercted, the fle i imported into a slicer program, which slices the desiga into the layers that will be used to build up the part. The slicer pragram tokes the STL file and converts itinto G-code. G-code is a numerical control programming language Used in CAM to control automated machines like CNC machines and 50 printers, The slicer program olso allows the 3D printer operator to define the 3D printer build parameters by specifying support location, ayer height, and part orientation (Figure 0.4) Slicer programs ere often Proprietary to each brand of 5D printer, clthough there are some Universol slicer programs like Netfabb, SimpliySD and SlieS. ‘AS a designer, it's generally only necessary to provide a 3D printer operator with an STL file. The operator will then set the desired parameters forthe print and produce the G-code file themselves. 2.Printing Each of the 30 printing technologies discussed in thie book additively manufacture parts differently. A detailed explanation on how each 30 printing technology produces perts, os well as the materials, ‘ossociated with each, ae presented in Port | ofthis book, nsnooverion ”"4 swenooverion as 4. Removal of| For same 3D printing technologies, removal of the print is as simple {9% separating the printed part from the build platform (Figure 0.8). For other more industrial 30 printing methods, the removal of ogrint isa highly technical process involving precise extraction of the print Use itis still encased in the build moterial or ottached to the build plate. These methods generally also require strict removal procedures ‘and highly killed machine operators along with safety equipmert and ‘eontrollad environments, 5. Post processing Post processing procedures again very by printer technology. Sorre technologies requires a component to cure under UY betore handling \while thers allow parts to be handled right away. For technologies thot utilize support, ths is also removed at the post processing stage (Figure 0.7). The mast common post processing eptions for each rrethod of 5D printing are discussed throughout Part | 2 seo ie The best way to determine whether a certain method of 3D printing is suitable for an application is to understand the mechanisms behind how the technology produces parts. Part 1 of this book aims to answer this question by introducing the most common methods of 3D printing and how each of them additively manufacture parts.Kia UOT aces one) e Powder Gas Powd cave a any Gi Eta tae VAT al D al ea ae ut Tae [ Lee MaTeL asia] Sac Rad Decisio Oe 3D Printing Technologies and Materials©) Overview of 3D Pt wha Tok wee we = ; Selecting the optimal 3D printing process for © particular design can be difficult. The range of SD printing methods and materials means that often several processes are suitable with each offering variations in properties like dimensional accuracy, surface finish and post processing requirements. This Chapter introduces how 3D printing technologies and materials are categorized.20 1.1 Classification of 3D printing technologies ‘Tre 1SO/ASTM 52900 Storndutd wus created in 2015 to standardize all ‘terminology 08 wel a5 classify each of the diferent methods of 30 printing. A total of seven process cotegories were established. Each Of these and the associated process description ore presented in Tobie 11. Note: With respect tothe technologies discussed inthis book, the less widely available 3D printing methods, lke Direct Energy Deposition or ‘Sheet Lamination, are outside the scope of ths eltion. We elm to ade these technologis in future releases of this book. ater Je ei Grmnly refered te Dp on Oana (0) aru mtriate oy Soesition Not) , 1.2___ 3D Printing Material Groups ike 30 printing technologies, 3D printing materels can olso be separated into categories. The majority of 30 printing materials can be separated into ? groups; polymers ond metals (Figute 1). 1.24 Polymers Polymers, sch ae plastics, come in any diferent forms and ‘ther diversity of properties sees them used for a wide range of ‘opplications. Polymers are found in everything from adhesives ‘to biomedical devices, Today, the polymer industry is larger than, ‘the steel, cluminum and eopper industries combined. Polymers in 3D printing generally come in three different forms: filament, resin and powder (Figure 1.2). Polymers in 3D printing lore generally divided into two cotegories: thermoplastics and ‘thermosets. They differ mainly in their thermal Behavior. ‘Thermoplasties ‘Thermoplasties con be melted and solidified over and over again while {generally retaining their properties. Both tractional injection molding, {as wel as the FFF printing processes, make use of thermoplastics by heating up solid thermoplastic toa malleable stote and injecting of 22 extruding it into © die or onto @ build platform where it then solidifies Commen thermoplastic products ineluide plastic bottles, LEGO bricks tnd food peckaging, Trermorets Unlike thermeplastics, thermosets do not melt. Thermosets ‘typically start es a viscous fluid and are cured to become sold Curing ean occur vie heat, light exposure or by mixing with o catalyst. Once solid, thermosets cannot be melted and instead will ase steuctural integrity when subjected tohigh temperatures ‘The SLA/OLP and Material Jetting processes use photopolymer thermasets thot harden when exposed to a laser or UV light. ‘Common thermoset products include two-part epoxies, bowing balls ‘ond high temperature components, ike the krobs on a stove top, 1.2.2 Metal Uniike polymers, which are used ina verity of forms (solid filaments, powder, resins), natal 30 printing almost exclusively uses powders Metol printing allows for high-quality, functional and load bearing parts to be produced from 0 variety of metallic powders. Portile size distribution, shape and flowabilty (the collective forces acting on individual particles as they flow) are all important properties that ‘govern how appropriate @ metal powder is for 30 printing, 12.3 Other Some 8D printing technolagies make use of cevamics (typically, ‘e polymer filled with ceramle powder) or composites (chopped carbon-filled filaments or metal-nylon powder) Polymers filed with ceramic powder have improved wear resistance, raking ther ideal materials for tooling applications. SLA printing, for example, offers a ceramic powder filled resin used for the production of high detail injection molds. Carbon, aluminum, ‘raphite and gloss are all added to SLS powder increasing strength to-weight performance, wear resistance and state resistance. FFF has mony exotic filaments available, like wood- of metol-filled PLA, resulting in a unique port appearance. get nt Hamer pt nfo pi ands of LA 2Bselnaemire su wate 7 Material extrusion — FFF ie Material extrusion prints using a string of solid thermoplastic material (filament), pushing it through a heated nozzle and melting it in the process. The printer deposits the material on o build platform in a predetermined path, where the filament cools and solidifies to form a solid part.28 2.1 Material extrusion technologies 2.4.1 Fused filament fabrication (FFF) ‘The most common material extrusion technology is Fused Filament Fabrication or FFF (more commonly referred to as Fused Deposition Modeling or FDM,o term trademarked by Strotosys). ‘Aspool of Flament is loaded into the printer and fed through to ‘the extrusion head. Once the printer nozzle hos reached the desired ‘temperature, 0 motor drives the filament through the heoted nozzle ‘meting it.The printer then moves the extrusion head oround, laying down melted material ato precise location, where it cools down, fond solidifies Once a layer i complete, the build platform moves ‘own and the process repeats building up the port layer-by-layer (essentially resembling a very precise hot-glue gun) strgns eson 29 2.2 Printer characteristics 2.2.1 Printer parameters ‘There are many parameters that can be odjusted on most FFF machines to achieve on accurate print. Build speed, extrusion speed ‘ond nozzle temperature control the consistency of the extruded ‘Fioment and are set by the operator (come machines use automatic presets bosed on the type of material that is being printed). ‘Ato fundamental level, nozzle diometer ond layer height define ‘the resolution of an FFF printed port. While all parameters define the rnnratsoueriow dimensioncl accuracy of a part, a smaller nozzle diameter and lower layer height are generally seen as the solutions for parts where a smooth surface and higher level of deteil is requires ‘The avoilable build volume must be considered when printing using FFF. On average, desktop printers usually offer a 200 x 200. 200 mm build cherber. Larger industrial machines can offer build chambers sunt voume {25 large as 1000 x 1000 x 1000mm. For very large parts, breaking @ steno ae stresses that con lead to warping or distortion. A heated bed, as well {95 good bed adhesion, play an important role in anchoring an FFF 10 sonesion port down, iting the Hkalinood of warping or distarion securing30 2.2.3 Layer adhesion Layer adhesion or bonding ison important part of the FFF printing process. As hlament is extrudeg, needs to bond and solidity ‘with the previously printed layers to form a solid, cohesive part. To achieve this, the filament is pressed against the previous layers. ‘The hot extruded material re-heats and fe-melts the previously printed layers, The downward force and the partielre-melting of the Lunderiying material enables the bonding of the new layer with the previously printed layer. This clso means thet FFF floment is ectually deposited in an oval shope rather than a circle (Figure 2.6) Sines the layers are printed as an oval, the joints between ‘each layer are actually small valleys (Figure 27). This creates a tress concentration where a crack con form when subjected 40.9 load and leads to the inherent anisotropic behavior end rougher surface finish of FF printed parts os well os the layered ‘appearance (Figure 2.8). 2 saan eon 5 (> uJ 2.2.4 Support structures FFF parts may require support structures to print successfully sunvon Support is required for any overhanging features that are shallower than 45 degrees relative to the ground plane as itustrated in Figure 29, seem an32 rearome ois oo mtn erin 33 New layers cennot be deposited onto thin air, @ solid scatfoldis required to build upon. When there is no layer below to print on, support is added. This allows features to be printed that would otherwise not be possible, Support meterial sc lew volume, lattice structure thet is removed after printing, ovennanas Although it is possible to print overhangs thot are less than 45 “degrees (due to the inherent stickiness of the molten flarnent), the tengled surface begins to suffer in quality. Ifa quick print for o ft ‘ond form check i needed, the overhang limit ean be extended to tongles lower than 45 degrees. For accurate prints with a smooth surface finish, maintaining the 45 degree ii is severed The downside of supports that it has a detrimental effect on the surface itis in contact with, resulting ina rougher surface finish. Post processing is generally required fo smooth surface is desirable, This is @ factor to consider when orienting the part on the bulld platform. In general, itis best to minimize the amount of contact, Support structures hove with cosmetic surfaces. Dissolvable support Many new FFF printers offer dual extrusion (two print heads) and ‘ore copable of printing mult-materlal pats. Far these printers, the Support structures can be printed in odissolvable material (generally reas nine PVA oF HIPS), as shown in Figure 2.10 Because the support is dissolved in woter or solvent, rather than mechanically removed, the surface ofthe print that was in contact | with the support has @ superior finish. The use of dissolvabie support {generally increases the cost of o build becouse of the price of dissolvable filament and en increase in printing time. 22> itil FFF parts ore generally not printed solid. To seve on material ‘and decrease build time, parts are printed with an interne, low Invi recimiier density structure known as infil (Figure 2.11). Ifill percentage is @ Pate races rameter that can be varied based on the application of a pat. For high strength, parts ean be printed 80% solid. Ifo model is only Used for form and fit testing, the infill percentage con be decreased 20 a8 low 10%, allowing the part to be made faster and at a lower cost. 20% iso common infill percentage for FF printing oe 20-An PY ca prin FA grey somcg sais‘The geometry of the infill also impacts the performance of on FFF Port. Common infill geometries include triangular, rectangular and honeycomb. Some slicer programs allow infil density and geometry to vaty throughout « print. For further information on selecting the optimal infill percentage fora particular design os well as the different geometries that are available, refer to Chapter Tl 2.3. Dimensional accuracy Because FFF produces ports one layer ata time by extruding @ ‘thermoplastic onto @ buld plat, o: diferent parts of the print cool at diferent rates, internal stresses cause each layer ofthe print to distort slighty, leading to warping or shrinkage. Larger parts or thin details are particularly a risk of warping due to large temperature ‘erations. Solutions like printing rafts (@ base loyer printed on the bed for the build to be printed on), heated beds ond filets at shorp edges and corners can help to reduce this from occuring 2.4 Materials FFF printing makes use of thermoplastics in the form of filament fon spools, typically 1.75 min or 3 mm in diometer. FF filaments are some of the lowest cost moterials used in 3 printing ($20 ~ $40 per ‘kg spool) altheugh high performance filaments like PEEK can cost ‘upwards of $503/kg. One feature of FF printing is thot filaments come ina largerange of colors. ‘The generat rule of thumb for thermoplastics is that the better the engineering prepertis, the higher the temperature required to heat 10a malleable state, and therefore, the more difficult the material isto print. Higher printing temperatures increase the likelihood of warping or distortion during the printing process, 0s parts cool at fan increased rate, generating more intense internal stresses. Figure 2.2 ilustrates the most common thermoplastics. The higher « thermoplastic lies in the pyramid, the higher the temperature it fequites to print and the better the engineering properties. 'ABS ond PLA le near the bottom of the pyramid ond are gene considered easy to print with, while thermoplastics like PEEK and PEl offer excelent engineering properties, but are generally printed Using industrial machines that provide greater control over the print “Table 2.2 presents some of the most common FFF thermoplastics ‘and the main exeracteristies associated with each of them, ily 3536 2.5 Post processing ‘The most common FFF post processing methods ore presented Bebetek a. ——e iin Table 2.3. For all methods, it yportant to consider how the sree! evenslnt oe portal ered i post rcarnge ct 2, ~ Sod meonansca prope implemented (e.g, how sanding @ surface will impact the assembly i = otpare ta ght Pesvequredh vom reer ee er ere Eee eitceee semee se pre 219-A henson cng ites am en am 88 map coy ts ctbsta volume restriction, Ye foiat in then thon apple correctly ver a moter of nin conte 7368 2.6 _ Benefits and limitations Low cost materials and machines, as well as the ease of operation make FFF a very cost competitive way of producing custom thermoplastic parts. FFFis often the first SD printing technology that people are exposed to and represents the largest install base of| 3D printers globally. With a large range of materials available, FFF is the mast popular choice for rapid prototyping, as well as some funetionel applications, mostly for non-commercial use ‘The main limitations of FFF center around the anisotropic nature ‘of parts. The layer-by-layer nature of FFF printing results in parts that are fundamentally weaker in one direction. How a part is, cotientated during the printing process has an impact on how strong it willbe in each direction. Its important that a designer Understonds the application of ¢ port and how the build direction willimpoct performance. Infill percentage also has an effect the strength of @ part, Most printers produce parts with 20% infil. Higher levels of infil will result ing stronger part, but wil increase build time and cost ‘The layer-by-layer method of printing also means that FFF parts ‘ore likely to have visible layer lines and often require some form of post-processing if]@ smooth surface finish is desirable. Designing FFF ports for strength is discusted in more detail in Chapter 2.7 _ Industrial vs. desktop FFF FFF technology is used in both low-cost desktop 30 printers, o: well as high-end industrial mochines. Most low-cost desktop FFF printers are technically similor to their high-end industriel counterparts, but their capabilities dite The main difference between industrial and desktop FF is the range and selection of available materials. Industrial machines can 3940 ‘produce parts from the same standard thermoplastics as desktop ‘mochines, however they are alzo able to oecurately print components from more advanced engineering thermoplastics that are dificult to Print with, 2s shown in Figuee 2.12 jet LAL ESN N a 2 waren errsion 4 Industrial FFF printers use a tightly contralled environment, end a ‘ble to automatically adjust printer settings to suit the print material. ‘The controlled erwironment in particular means thet parts ae printed Inan enclosed space with temperature and humidity both regulated, This slows the rate at which parts cool down, limiting the likelihood of ‘warping or distortion. Most industrial machines also use duol extrusion allowing suppert structures to be printed ina dissolvable material Because of the controlled build environment, industrial machines generally produce parts of o greater accuracy with @ high level of Fepectability. The build volumes of industriel machines ere also larger tllowing bigger ports or 6 greater number of parts to be produced ino Single build. For this reason, industrial machines are being utilized for low to medium rited produetion runs. Desktop FFF machines offer «low cost and ropid method of 3D printing. The accuracy desktop machines is generally adequate for ‘most applications, ‘As hardware, materials ond software continuously improve, the ‘gap between industrial and desktop FFF is closing. Aport from the ‘nereosed build chamber offered by industrial machines, modern desktop FFF printers are highly accurate machines offering due! head ‘extrusion (for disolvable support material ot multi-reaterial prints), bringing parts of industrial quality tothe desktop. In addition, desktop 30 printers typically llow mote control ever the print parameters ‘compared te industrial machines, making ther ideal for prototyping 2.8 Common applications FFF serves as a quick, cost effective, prototyping and design verification tool It is also suited for creating functional ports for mainly non-commercial use. Some of the most comnmen applications Of FFF printers are presented throughout ths section, Investment casting patterns The low cost of FFF materials and the geometries the process is able to produce make ita good solution for investment costing patterns Becouse the infill structure printed inside FFF parts isnot solid, it oso cllows for less material t be used, making burnout easier during the costing process (Figure 2.17)42 Electronics housings Electronic housings or enclosutes ore one of the most popular epplcations for FFF printing (Figure 2.18 ond 2.19) FF allows @ designer to create o prototype or final design ina matter of hours ‘ond s much cheaper compared to traditional manufacturing ‘methods. 3D printed enclosures offer an effective method of ‘con‘itming design geometry and several of the materials that can be used for printing enclosures ore suitable for end use applications. Form and fit testing Form and fit designs ore ured to showcase the geometry as wel os provide haptic feedback to the designer. FFF allows for the creation Of curves and organic shapes which would be difficult to produce Using traditional manufacturing techniques, Jig and fxtuene ‘The high level of customization ond complexity that FFF allows for in ‘design coupled with the speed and accuracy at which parts ean be Procuced, moke it suitable for creating grips, jigs ond fixtures.46 2.9 New developments incomparison tothe other technologies discussed inthis book, FFF technology i the most straightforward to implement. There are ‘number ofeutting edge developments in the FFF landscape which ‘ore posed to push the boundories forward, 29.1 Continuous Filament Fabrication ~ Markforged in essence, Continuous Filament Fabrication (CFF) by Markforged it the some as FF technology. Whot differentiates CFF is the addition ofc eacond print head, which reinforces the printed nylon by ‘embedding ¢ continuous strand of carbon fiber, Kevlar or Fiberglass within the layers (Figure 2.20). ‘Thess long, continuous strands carry the load down the entire ‘object, resulting in strong, functional ports leveraging the properties fof composite materials. Engineers con precisely analyze and dictate ‘the density and potterns in which the chosen fiber is embedded in the printed part (Figure 2.2), siete a729.2 Metal FFF-Morkforged Metol X and Dasktop Metal OM Studio Metal FFFis the latest development in the desktop market. The high new technologies emerge, The Metal X machine from Markforged prints a plastic filament impregnated with metal powder. Ater printing, the port is sintered ina furnace, causing the plastic to burn off and the metol powder bond together, resulting in a robust metal part. This process is, referred to.as Atomic Diffusion Additive Manufacturing (ADAM) ond Is similar to the way Binder Jetting produces functional metal parts, os discussed Chapter 6 In competition with the Metal X isthe Desktop Metal DM Studio, Like the Metal X, the DM Studio (Figure 2.23) also deposits green state ports loyer-by-loyer, by heating and extruding specially formulated metal rads. The parts are then olzo sintered with the plastic burning off leaving @ solid metal part. 29.3. Integrated Ckcultry - Voxel6 DK The Voxel8 DK printer deposits conductive metol-filled pastes ond thermoplastic polymer and allows the production of parts with Integrated electronics. This unique method of mult-material printing allows the Voxel8 to produce parts with embedded ductive pathways and circuits or intergrated batteries, i oo52 VAT Polymerization —SLA/DLP polymer resin in a vat that is cured by a light source. ‘The most common forms of Vat Polymerization are SLA (Stereolithography) and DLP (Direct Light Processing). Since beth Vat Polymerization technologies use similar mechanisms to produce parts, for simplicity they will be treated equally when discussing topics like post-processing or benefits and limitations.54 3.1 Vat polymerization technologies 3.11 Stereolithography (SLA) SLAis famous for being the original 3D printing technology. The term Stereolithography itself was coined by Charles W. Hull, who patented severe ‘the technology in 1986 and founded the company 30 Systems to commercialize it. ‘The process uses mirrors, known as galvanometers oF galvos, (one fon the x-axis and one on the y-axis) to ropidly aim a laser beorn ‘cross a vat, the print area, curing and solidifying resin es It goes long. This process breaks down the design, layer by layer, into 0 series of points and lines that are given to the galvos as a set of coordinates. Most SLA machines use @ solid stete laser to cure parts, ramon 55 31.2 _ Direct Light Processing (DLP) DLP follows @ near identical method of producing parts when ‘compared to SLA. The main diferenceis that DLP uses a digital light projector sereen to Hash a single image of each loyer al at ‘once (or multiple flashes for larger parts). Because the projector Is. {2 digitel screen, the image of each layer is composed of square pixels, resulting in layer formed from small rectangular bricks called voxels. DLP can achieve foster print times compared to SLA, as an entire layer is exposed allot once, rather than tracing the cross-sectional ‘rea with a loser point. Light is projected onto the resin using light ‘emitting diode (LED) screens or 0 UV light source (lamp) that is itected to the build surface by a Digit Mieromior Device (DMD), ows ‘ADMD isan array of micro-mirrors that control where light I projected and generate the light pattern on the build surface. 343° Slavs. DLP The fundamental difference between SLA and DLP is the light source each technology uses to cure the resin. SLA printers use @ point laser compared to the voxel approach that DLP printers use. In terms of the rerolution of each method, standard OMDs hove & resolution of 1024 x 780, while standard SLA printers use e laser with 12 150 - 150 micron spot size (this can vary depending on the size of the machine). ‘The downside to SLA using o point laser i that it takes longer to trace the cross section of a part compared to DLP printers which fore capable of exposing the cross section in a single flash (depending on part size). Thi makes DLP faster than SLA when printing an identical port,56 3.2. Printer characteristics 3.21 _ Printer parameters Unlike FFF; most printer parameters on Vat Polymerization machines ‘re fixed and cannot be changed. Typically, the only operator inputs 1are port orientation/support location, layer height and material, and ‘these ore al specified at the slicing stage. Most printers auto-adjust settings based on the type of material that is being used. Layer height and light soures resolution (spot size or projector resolution) govern the surfoce finish and accuracy of @ part. Most Yat Polymerization printers produce parts with a layer height of 25 - 100 microns. For very small, finely detoiled print, it con be possible to swap out DLP projector lenses to use a narrower beam. This allows the bear to print smaller layers ato faster rate and at © higher level of detail 3.22 Bottom-up vs. top-dewn Vat Polymerization machines are able to produce ports in 2 different srientations (bottom-up or top-down asilustrated in Figure 3.4). SLA and DLP printers come in both configurotions with the design depending on the manufacturer. Bottom-up Bottom-up printers have the light source positioned below @ resin vat “with a transparent bottom. Initelly the build platform is positioned 40 that there is only one layer thickness between the bose ofthe vat ‘and platform. The light source (laser, UV lamp or LED screen) cures the thin layer of resin, saliifying it. A special coating stops the resin from sticking tothe base of the vat With the ist layer cured and stuck to the build platform, the printer perfois a separation step seporoting the cured frst layer from the bare ofthe vat end moving up one-layer ‘thickness (as shown in Figure 3.5). Dapending on the machine, this “tage can involve peeling, sliding, rotating or shaking the vat. [After the separation stage, @ new uncured layer of resin fils the gop. Some bottom-up machines utilize a wiper to spread o layer of resin ‘cross the base of the vat to ensure uniform coverage, mix the resin and remove ony debris (cured resin spots). The process is then Fepected with the build platform meving up one layer thiekness ond separating the newly cuted loyer from the base ofthe vet until the partis complete. For @ bottom-up print to be successful, reducing the forces on the newly printed layers during the separation stage is critical. ‘The separation stage creates arecs of high stress olong « potentially razor thin edge, which can lead to port failure and warping when the part can stick to the bottom of the vat rather than the build plate, Bottom-up printers generally have a non-stick coating (often POMS/FEP) opplied to the base of the vat to assist with the separation stoge however, this does need to be replaced regulary to ensure it performs adequately. The wiper also assets in oxygenating the POMS/FEP helping to Improve non-stick performance.a) Ue rae Pe i, | “ 460 ‘Top-down ‘Top-down printe's postion the light source above the build platforrn, ‘The bulld platform begins ot the very top of the resin vat with a thin layer of resin coating it. The light source cures the thin layer of resin, ‘Once the frst loyer has cured, the Build platform moves down ! layer thickness, resin f-coats the previously cured layer and the process is, repeoted (Figure3.8). ’As the build progresses, the build platform continues to lower into the resin vat. Once the build is completed the port wil be completely submerged in rein. The partis then raised out of the resin and ‘removed from the build platform, Like Bottom-up machines, the first layer is often the most critical in o build tis vital that this lyer successfully edheres to the build platform. For top-down printers tis important thot o uniform layer of resin coats the build surface after each downward movement of the build platform. Te achieve this, top-down machines need to ensure that resins have adequate viscosity resulting in printers often having proprietary matericls. Some machines make use of a wiper to spread the layer of uncured resin aver the surface in conjunction with ¢ laser ‘to determine the surface of the resin rlative to the build plate, The platforms must also move slowly into the resin to ensure no ait bubbles ore created, which have a detrimental effect on print quality Build platforms ae typically perforated to reduce the disruptive forces on the platform. var roca st 32.3 Support structures Uke most 3D printing technologies, vat Polymerization parts require support structure The location and amaunt af support depend: heavily on the type of printer being used. For top-down printers, support reqh cond bridges needing mate ments are similar to FF with overhanging feature 3 to hald them up ond allow them to eccurately be printed. For bottom-up printers support is more complicated. Large horizontal surfaces (build leyers) con result in large forces as ‘the pr is seperated from the base of the vat during the peeling stage. If the peeling stage is unable to separate the Sulld from the vat, the print can fail Because ofthis, ports ore printed at an angle ‘and reduction of support is not a frimary concern (as shown in Figure 3.10), For either method of printing, support structures are always printed in the main buld material, 3s there's only one vat, ond, ‘must be manually removed after pinting62 3.3 Dimensional accuracy (One of the biggest problems relating to the accuracy of parts produced via Vat Polymerization is curling with large fat surfaces particularly at risk. Upon exposure tothe printer light souree, each layer shrinks during solidification. When one layer shrinks on top of @ previously solidified (pre-shrunk) layer, stress between the two layers Will arse. The esult is curing. Support Is important to help onchr ‘t-rsk sections of « part to the build plate and mitigate the likelihood fof curling. Part orientation and limiting large fat layers are also, Important factors. Dimensionel discrepancies can also occur because ofthe separation stage used by bottom-up printets. The forces during this stage con ‘couse the soft print to bend. This con accumulate as each layer i, built up. Resins thot have higher flexural properties (less stiff) are at « greater risk of warping and may not be suitable for igh accuracy applications. 3.4 Materials Unlike FFF, Vat Polymerization technologies use thermoset photo- polymers to produce parts. The polymer comes in the form of @ ‘Viscous liquid (resin) form and is cured by a laser. The price of resin can vary significantly depending on the epplication with standard resin costing around $50 per liter and high detail, castable resin, costing upwards of §400 per liter. For SLA/DLP resins, the number of colors available i limited. Photopolymer resins also have a limited shelf life (typically one year, if stored properly) When producing parts using Vat Polymerizction, its critical that ports are cured correctly under UV ight after printing. This will ensure they achieve their optimal properties. Information on the optimal LUV exposure times are provided on rasin datasheets by their ‘respective manufacturers, Table 3.4 presents some of the most commen Vat Polymerization resins ond the main characteristics associated with each af them, 8be ‘euaovoeies ano matenats ony aR aca Smet gaacae" | cgatorttai as ioe unt 3.5 Post-processing Suing rue Glo nh or ‘Vat Polymerization printers are capable of printing fine detailed haar anyiin are typony to prints with feature sizes ax small as 0.3 mm, One of the limitations Of this technology is that most prints require eupport structures to be attached to the model. These supports leave marks on the surface and create uneven surfaces, It is therefore best practice to place the supports on the least visible port of the model Sronery (aeuliy ange tt sorta Vat Polymerization reins alow for a range of finishing options | aten race ov clear anomie 2 with the most common of these deseribed in Table 3.5. With the ‘ery labor setenioe srasee correct post-processing, Vat Polymerization parts can be finished wee +9 a completely smooth surface representative of an injection ‘molded part66 3.6 Benefits and limitations “he main benefits of Vat Polymerization are the smooth surface fnish ‘and the high accuracy ond detail the technology is able to produce ports at. The smooth surface makes SLA one of the best sulted 3D printing technologies for replicating or producing injection molded- Fee prototypes, This also sees SLA regularly adopted for vieual models where « smooth surface is desirable (Rgutines, enclosures, hand held Consumer products ete.) Vet Polymerization is also one of the most dimensionally accurate methods of SD printing meaning iti ideally suited for high detail parts where accurate tolerances and intricate features ore needed (lke the jewelry and dental industries. ‘The biggest limitation of SLA printing is the material properties of the phatopolymers thot the process uses. Photopolymers are brittle and do not have the impact strength or durability of injection molded parts meaning their use for producing functional parts is limited. Ports printed with SLA/DLP alzo typically have o limited fe. They experience aloss of mechanical properties over time and degrade in the presence sunlight, Coctings are applied to extend ther life. These material limitations are the main reason that Vat Polymerization technologies have not been widely adopted for, functional epplications, 3.7__ Industrial vs. desktop Vat Polymerization {As with FFF, the main diference between industrial and desktop Yot Polymerization printers isthe build environment. Industrial machines use a regulated environment for greater control over resin behevior during printing, have @ smaller laser spot size or higher DMD resolution (and are therefore able to produce more accurate ports) and utlize @ large range of engineering materials. ‘One of the strengths of Vat Polymerization technology is scalability \While most desktop Vat Polymerization printers are similar in size, industrial machines vary significantly. SLA in particular hos very few Imitetions when scaled up to large build sizes (other than a slow build time). This has esulted in some of the lorgest SD printers 7 being SLA machines. Most large industrial Vat Polymerization machines are top down configurations (as bottom up separation forces become increare dramatically fr large builds) ond print in huge vate of resin (as illustrated by the sizeof the parti Figure 3.12). ste rasta Industriol machines offer a greater range of engineering ‘application-specific materials thot ore often proprietary to 0 specific printer, They will often have sl ght voritions in properties ‘llowing engineers to select the exact material that is suitable for ‘en application. Desktop printers can produce parts to on accuracy of 100 - 250 ricrons, while industrial machines ore capable of 10 - 30 microns. Higher accuracies generally also lead to a better surface finish The level of accuracy and surface finish desktop machines can produce parts at make them suitable for most applications. For larger parts (fll scale prototypes) or for parss where avery high level of ‘accuracy is required (medical of dentel), of for mid-level production rune (jewelry), industrial Vat Polymerizction machines are best suited. 3.8 Common applications Vat Polymerizotion parts are most suitable for visual applications and prototyping where a smooth surface finish and high accuracy ie detirable. Some of the most eommon opplications of Vat Polymerization ore presented below. Injection mold-like prototypes ‘The smooth surfaces produced by Vat Polymerization often see it cedopted for the production of injection molded prototypes. This cllows designers to quickly print a design to review without needing to invest Inexpensive tooling Jewelry investment casting) Vat Polymerization technologies are regularly used In the production of jewelry vio the investment casting process. The accuracy and intricate details the process is able to produce coupled with the smooth surface ‘of ports make it an ideal technology fer the jewelry industry. Dental applications ‘The dental industry has adopted Vot Polymerization for @ range: cof applications (Figure 3.13). Vat Polymerization is used for the patent production of dental models, surgical guides, appliances, crowns ‘and bridges. The ability to produce parts to @ high level of accuracy ‘ond detal and the number of material availabe (specifically dental ‘and castoble resins) have seen Vat Polymerization become 2 truly disruptive technology within the dental industry. Hearing aids Hearing aide are one of the greatest suecess stories to come from the continued development of Vat Polymerization with over 10,000,000 people now wearing hearing aids produced with Vat Polymerization technologies. The ability ta print the smooth ond organie surfaces (Figuee 3.13) required for a hearing aid ata cost lower thon traditional» see raotve ‘techniques has resulted in epproximotely 97% of al hearing cids now being produced via Vet Polymerization.70 3.9 New developments While Vat Polymerization isthe oldest 3D Printing technoogy, it hos seen limited innovation in the last decade. One of the most anticipated innovations within this ea of 3D printing her been ‘the invention of continuous printing 3.9.1 Continuous Light Processing-Carton Continuous Direct Light Processing (CDLP) produces parts in o similar method to DLP, however, CDLP relies on the continuous ‘motion ofthe build plate in the 2 cirection (upwards). One company ‘that commercially utilizes this SD printing method is Carbon, The compony’s Digital Light Synthesis™ technology, whichis similar to CCDLP, is enabled by a pracess called Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CUP) ‘Corbon’s M-Series printers use a process-specific photopolymer in ‘conjunction with an exygen-permeable window to create "dead zone” of uncured resin atthe bottom of the vot. This resuite in the bottorn af the print never sticking tothe vat ond removes the ned forthe separotion step that most bottom-up printers require. This ‘llows for significantly faster build times as the printer is rot required {© stop and separate the part from the build plate ofter each layer is produced. tt lso means ports are inherently isotropic os there are ne individual layers produced during printing. Carbon printers are ‘exclusively bottom-up mochines. nPowder Bed Fusion (Polymers) —SLs source to induce fusion between powder particles, at a specific location of the build area, to produce a solid part, Mast Powder Bed Fusion technologies ‘employ mechanisms for applying and smoothing powder as a part is constructed, resulting in the final component being encased in powder. This chapter focuses on polymer Powder Bed Fusion applications. Chapter 7 will discuss metal see rnat ins applications for the same technology.4.1 Powder Bed Fusion technologies Al Selective Laser Sintering (SLS} Within the 30 printing industry, using Powder Bed Fusion technology with polymer powder to produce partsis generally referred to 0s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) of just Laser Sintering (LS). ‘The SLS process begins with o bin ofthe polymer powder being heated to 0 temperature just below the melting point of the polymer. ‘Arecoating blade deposits a very thin loyer ofthe powdered reaterial (typically 01 mm) onto o build platform. A CO? loser beam then sorts to on the surface. The laser selectively sinters the powder ond solidifies a cross-section of the port. Lite SLA, the laser is focused to the correct location by pair of gahanometers. When the entire cross section is scanned, the building platform moves down one layer thickness in height. ‘The recoating blade deposits @ new layer of powder on top of the recently scanned layer and the laser starts to sinter the successive see enon complex ducting and piping (Figute 4.8). By removing traditional design constraints, SLS is copable of printing parts that are optimized ‘or application rather than manufacture8788 4.8 New developments HP recently entered the SD printing space with their own hardware, cofter nearly @ decade of research and development. Even though theé technology is technicoly different from SLS, its applications core similar which is why its presented here ‘Secondly, © handful of companies are taking SLS tothe desktop, with Formabs being the most recent entrant with their Fuse LS printer 4.81 MultiJet Fusion-HP The HP Multi Jet Fusion (MIF) printer works in a similar method to ‘other Powder Bed Fusion technologies with one extra step added to the process; a detailing agent. A layer of build powder i Fist applied 10 awork area. A fusing agent is then selectively applied where the particles are to be fused together, similar to how Binder Jetting Works (Chapter 6). The fusing agent improves the energy absorption ftom the heat source. At the some time, 0 localized detailing agent is opplied. The detailing agent reduces fusing ot the boundary of the parts in order to produce features with sharp and smooth edges, Thework area is then exposed to fusing energy (hect) to fure ond solidify the powder particles. The heat source scans the bulld in @ Tinear fashion instead of as a single point. The process is then repeated layer by layer until a complete part has been formed. Compared to traditional SLS printers, the MUF printer i said to bbe 2536 foster due toa large reduction in cooling time after printing tnd the way energy is applied. Future generation of the printer will elso offer the ability to produce ful eolor prints based on ‘the color ofthe binder that s jetted onto the powder (again, much like Binder Jetting), The speed of the printer, combined with the ability to create ‘functional polymer parts with good mechanical properties will see the HP MAF positioned as o competitive solution for low to ‘medium volume production, 4.82 Desktop SLS~Sharebot SnowWhite, Sintratec, Sinterit and ‘the Formlabs Fuse 1 ‘Arange of printers have recently been developed ciming te introduce {© price competitive desktop SLS solution, including; Sharebot SnowWhite, Sintratee SI, Sintert Lisa, and more recently the Formlabs Fuse | (Figute 4.10), What differentiates desktop sized SLS machines is the use of «fiber laser, which is both lower cost and lower power than the CO? lasers sed in machines from manufacturers such a8 EOS and 5D Systeme, While these technologies are potentially very promising, atthe time cof writing its stl too early to properly discuss the industry impact of these printers 39