NSCI111 Handouts
and still rising today.
Unit 3: Anthropogenic Impact to the
Environment
Lesson 10: The Anthropocene
Earth’s history is divided into a hierarchical series of
smaller chunks of time, referred to as the geologic
time scale. These divisions, in descending length of
time, are called eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
Its division is marked by the extinction of many life
forms and the appearance of new ones
Anthropocene Epoch is an unofficial unit of
geologic time, used to describe the most recent
period in Earth’s history when human activity started
to have a significant impact on the planet’s climate
and ecosystems.
The word Anthropocene comes from the Greek
terms for human ('anthropo') and new ('cene'). It was
coined in the 1980s, then popularised in 2000 by
atmospheric chemist Paul J Crutzen and diatom
researcher Eugene F Stoermer.
Evidence of the Anthropocene Human activity
has:
§ Pushed extinction rates of animals and plants far
above the long-term average. The Earth is on course
to see 75% of species become extinct in the next few
centuries if current trends continue.
§ Increased levels of climate-warming CO2 in the
atmosphere at the fastest rate for 66m years, with
fossil-fuel burning pushing levels from 280 parts per
million before the industrial revolution to 400ppm
§ Put too much plastic in our waterways and oceans
that microplastic particles are now virtually
ubiquitous and plastics will likely leave identifiable
fossil records for future generations to discover.
§ Doubled the nitrogen and phosphorous in our soils
in the past century with fertilizer use. This is likely to
be the largest impact on the nitrogen cycle in 2.5bn
years.
§ Left a permanent layer of airborne particulates in
sediment and glacial ice such as black carbon from
fossil fuel burning
Lesson 11: Ecological Footprints
Ecological footprint – the amount of biologically
productive land and water needed to supply the
people in a particular area or country with resources
and to absorb and recycle the wastes and pollution
produced by such resource use. The per capita
ecological footprint is the average ecological
footprint of an individual in given country or area.
Humanity is currently using resources 1.7 times
faster than ecosystems can regenerate i.e., globally
we are using 1.7 planets and we only have one. The
costs of this global ecological excessive spending
become more and more obvious all over the world,
in the form of shrinking forests, species loss,
drought, water scarcity, soil erosion, loss of
biodiversity, and carbon dioxide accumulation in the
atmosphere.
Lesson 12: Anthropogenic Impacts: Pollution
Biologist define pollution as the undesirable change
in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics
of an ecosystem that injures or kills living organisms
and makes part of the ecosystem unfit for the use we
want to make of it.
 Outdoor Air Pollutants
Air Pollution is a condition in which the quality of
air is degraded due to the presence of harmful
substances, particulate matter, and biological
agents. Its sources are classified into point and non
– points sources where point sources are those which
are readily identified and stationary such as factory
smokestack whereas nonpoint sources are not easily
identified as they diffused and may not be constantly
emitting pollutant.
The degree and extent of air pollution in an area
depends on several factors such as source of
pollution, rate of emission, wind and the topography
or location.
Major Kinds of Pollutants
In our country principal air pollutants are identified
and regulated by Republic Act 8749: Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999. Primary pollutants are
released in harmful forms and secondary pollutants
by contrast become hazardous after reactions on the
air.
Sources and Problems of Major Pollutants
Most conventional air pollutants are produced
primarily from burning fossil fuels, especially in coal
powered electric plants, motor vehicles as well as in
processing natural gas and oil. Others, especially
sulfur and metals, are by products of mining and
manufacturing processes. In this section we will
discuss briefly the characteristics and origin of the
major outdoor and indoor air pollutants.
1. SO2 - colorless corrosive gas that damages
both plants and animals. Once in the
atmosphere, it oxidized to SO3, which reacts
with water vapor or dissolves in water
droplets to for H2SO4 a major component of
acid rain. SO2 and sulphate ions cause health
damage while its sulfate particles and
droplets can reduce visibility by as much as
80.
2. NO3 – highly reactive gases formed when
combustion between atmospheric nitrogen
and oxygen. The initial product NO oxidizes
further in the atmosphere to NO2 to form
photochemical smog. It also combines with
water to form HNO3 a major component of
acid rain. Excess nitrogen in water causes
eutrophication and encourage growth of
weedy species that crowd out native plants.
3. CO – colorless, odorless but highly toxic gas
produced mainly by incomplete combustion
of fuel. It inhibits respiration in animals in
animals by binding irreversibly to
hemoglobin. Land clearing fires and cooking
fires are also major sources. About 90% CO
in the air is consumed in photochemical
reactions that produce ozone.
4. Particulate material includes dust, ash, soot,
lint, smoke pollen, spores, aerosols, and
many other suspended materials.
Particulates reduce visibility and leave dirty
deposits on windows etc. They can also
damage lung tissues like asbestos fibers.
5. Volatile Organic Compounds [VOCs] –
benzene, toluene, formaldehyde, vinyl
chloride, phenols, chloroform, and
trichloroethylene. Principal sources are
incompletely burned fuels from vehicles,
power plants, chemical plants, and
petroleum refineries.
6. Lead and other Toxic Elements – toxic
metals like Pb. Hg, As, Ni, Be, and Ca and
halogens [Fl, Cl, Br, I] are toxic when released
to the environment. Lead and mercury are
 widespread neurotoxins that damage the
nervous system.

Indoor Air Pollutants – accumulation or build-

up of chemicals, suspended solid Particulate and
volatile organic compounds inside offices,
buildings, houses, schools, and commercial
establishments that are harmful to health.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution is equally serious for ecosystem

health and for human health. In this section we
will review the most important effects of air
pollution.

Human health
Consequences of breathing dirty air include
increased probability of heart attacks, respiratory
diseases, and lung cancer. The United Nations
estimates that at least 1.3 B people around the
world live in areas where the air is dangerously
polluted.
Land Pollution
Waste is every one’s business. We all produce
unwanted by – products and residues in nearly
everything we do. Consider the following facts:
¢ ½ kilo the average trash generated per person
per day in Metro Manila, according to the ADB.
This translates to 7,000 tons of trash per day.

¢ Php 3.8 billion the annual total spending of

Metro Manila for garbage collection. This
translates to Php1, 500 per ton of garbage or
Php10.5 million per day.

¢ Php 3.61 billion will be saved if recyclables and

biodegradables are segregated at source and do
not end up in dumpsites. This translates to cost
Water Pollution savings of 95%.

It refers to any physical, biological, or chemical There are four broad categories of solid
change in water quality that adversely affects wastes:
living organisms or makes water unsuitable for
¢ Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables,
desired uses. About ¾ of the earth’s surface is
flowers, leaves, fruits.
covered with water.
¢ Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals,
Biological Pollution
bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
Although the types, sources and effects of water containers, batteries, shoe polish.
pollutants are often interrelated, it is convenient
¢ Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics. ¢
to divide them into major categories for
Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with
discussion.
blood and other body fluid.
The following are the factors that affect waste 5. Incineration and resource recovery. Most
generation: common waste treatment involves the
combustion of waste material in the presence
¢ State of the national economy
of oxygen.
¢ Lifestyle of the people
There are options in shrinking of our wastes.
¢ Demographic profile of the household ¢ Size
1. Recycling -The term recycling has two
and type of dwelling
meanings in common usage. Sometimes we
¢ Age say, we are recycling when we are really are
reusing something, such as refillable
¢ Religion
beverage containers.
¢ Extent in which the 3R’s are carried out 2. Composting Rather than bury valuable
organic material, they are turning it into a
¢ Presence of pets and domestic animals
useful product through composting:
¢ Seasonal variations biological degradation or breakdown of
organic matter under aerobic conditions.
¢ Presence of laws and ordinances governing
3. Energy from Waste In developing countries
waste management
85% of the waste is biodegradable materials.
¢ Company buys – back guarantees for used In landfill, much of this matter is
containers and packaging decomposed by microorganisms generating
billions of cubic meters of methane.
1. Open dumps are still the predominant
4. Demanufacturing It is the disassembly and
method of waste disposal especially in most
recycling of obsolete consumer products
developing countries. Third world megacities
such as TV, computers, refrigerators, washing
have enormous garbage problems. In our
machines and air conditioners.
country we have at least 10 huge open
5. Reuse Even better than recycling or
dumps where the most notorious is “Smokey
composting is cleaning and reusing materials
Mountain” because of its constant
in their present form thus saving the cost and
smoldering fires.
energy of remaking them into something
2. Ocean dumping. Every year some 25, 000
else.
metric tons of packaging, including half a
6. Producing Less Waste Generating less
million bottles, cans, plastics containers are
waste is much better then reusing. What are
dump at sea. Beaches even in remote regions
the sources of unnecessary wastes.
are littered with non-degradable flotsam and
jetsam. Lesson 13: Anthropogenic Impact: Land
3. Landfills. Countries around the world Degradation
recognized the health and environmental
Soil is a complex mixture of weathered mineral
hazards of open dumps. They have turned to
materials from rocks, partially decomposed
sanitary land fill a more sanitary and better
organic molecules and a host of living organisms.
managed disposal facility but more
It can be considered an ecosystem itself.
expensive to put up and maintain.
4. Exporting waste. Although industrialized Soil Formation
nations in the world have agreed to stop
It takes about two hundred to a thousand years
shipping hazardous and toxic waste to less
to form and develop a few centimeters of fertile
developed countries, the practice continues.
top soil. Mineral nutrients, air and water content
affect soil fertility.
Stages of Soil Formation Soil formation is the
process by which rocks are broken down into
progressively smaller particles and mixed with
decaying organic material. Bedrock begins to
disintegrate as it is subjected to freezing-
thawing cycles, rain, and other environmental
forces
(I). The rock breaks down into parent material,
which in turn breaks into smaller mineral
particles (II). The organisms in an area contribute
to soil formation by facilitating the disintegration
process as they live and adding organic matter
to the system when they die. As soil continues to
develop, layers called horizons form
(III). The A horizon, nearest the surface, is usually
richer in organic matter, while the lowest layer,
the C horizon, contains more minerals and still
looks much like the parent material. The soil will
eventually reach a point where it can support a
thick cover of vegetation and cycle its resources
effectively
(IV). At this stage, the soil may feature a B
horizon, where leached minerals collect
Soil is formed by…
§ Parent Material: the original “Mom & Pop” soil
transported from elsewhere, usually by wind or
water, at different speeds
§ Climate: the amount, intensity, timing, and kind
of precipitation that breaks down parts of
ecosystem (i.e., rocks, trees) into soil
§ Topography: Slope and Aspect affect the angle
of the land and position toward/away from the
sun that soil will be exposed to
§ Biological: Plants, animals, microscopic
organisms, and humans interact with soil in
different ways § Time: the amount of time it takes
for the four factors (above) to interact with each
other
Soil plays important roles and these include:
• Serving as a foundation
• Emitting and absorbing gases
• Providing habitat
• Interacting with water
• Recycling nutrients
• Supporting human settlement
Soil Characterization
1. Soil profile - is a vertical cross-section of
layers of soil found in each area.
• Each layer is called horizon. Each
horizon has distinct characteristics. It
is described according to its physical
and chemical properties such as
color, texture, and composition. Its
thickness varies from a few
centimeters to a meter or thicker.
• O horizon – topmost layer; made up
of organic materials and other newly
decomposing surface litter; usually
present in areas with many trees and
plant.
• A horizon – also known as top soil.
Since it receives the nutrients from
decaying litter of O horizon, it is
usually made up of humus which
makes it fertile. With the help of plant
roots water is absorbed by humus
thus preventing flood
• B horizon or subsoil layer – materials
from A and O horizons accumulate
here. Thus, it is rich in clay, organic
matter and other mineral
components. It is lighter in color with
reddish brown shades
• C horizon – is usually made up of
massive bedrock of the original
parent material and it does not
undergo much change.
 • R horizon or bedrock - At depths of
48+ feet, deepest soil horizon in the
soil profile, no rocks or boulders, only
a continuous mass of bedrock, colors
are those of the original rock of the
are
2. Soil texture – pertains to how much sand,
clay or silt is present in the soil. These 3 kinds
of soil vary in size: q Sand – particles measure
up to 2 mm q Clay – particles are smaller than
.002 mm q Silt – particles measure between
0.05 to 0.002 mm
3. Soil color – the kind of elements and
minerals which are present in the soil gives
its characteristic color. Light colored is
usually deplete of organic material, reddish
brown is rich in iron and with more white
coloring usually contains calcium carbonate.
4. Soil consistency – the ease or difficulty of
breaking the soil apart gives its consistence.
5. Acidity is affected by the chemical nature of
parent rock material, the kind of water it
absorbs and the natural and man – made
processes which happen in the soil as well as
on it.
Prof. Ernesto Serote who was an author of
Property, Patrimony and Territory, Foundations
of Land Use in Philippines described land as a
natural resource, an economic good, a property
and a territory.
Natural resource – has ecological functions
[habitat for species, medium for growing plants
and trees, source of minerals and nutrient.
Economic good – a product that could be sold
Property – deals with ownership which is also
related to land being an economic good
Territory – power which the government has
over its country, power of ownership extends to
all the areas within the boundary of the country;
includes land and bodies of water air space as
well as the soil, water, and other components
below the surface. It is more than a property of
the country because as a territory it also includes
the people with in it.
Problems Concerning Soil and Land
There are physical, chemical, and social problems
which arise from how we manage soil and land.
Land degradation is temporary or permanent
decline in the productive capacity of the land and
the diminution of the productive potential,
including its major land uses [e.g., rain fed,
arable, irrigation, forests], its farming systems
[small holder subsistence] and its value as an
economic resource.
Anthropogenic Causes of Land Degradation
1. Shifting cultivation or kaingin system
Along steep slopes of mountain, landless
farmers who practice upland farming clear
large areas of the forest by burning to plant
their crops.
2. Timber harvesting or logging Forest trees
are cut down mainly for timber. Some
logging companies ignore government rules
and policies about cutting forest trees.
3. Construction projects Construction of
roads, dams, reservoirs, irrigation and
drainage projects, hydroelectric plants,
resorts, and other related facilities have
contributed much to soil erosion.
4. Mining Mining operations dig out and
loosen rocks in the mountains exposing them
to further erosion.
5. Overgrazing and burning of grassland the
conversion of natural ecosystems to pasture
land does not damage the land initially as
much as crop production, but this change in
usage can lead to high rates of erosion and
loss of topsoil and nutrients.
6. Use of agro chemicals Pesticides and other
chemicals used on crop plants have helped
farmers to increase yields.
Effects of Land Degradation
1. Pollution and clogging of waterways
 2. Increased flooding Natural Causes:
3. Loss of arable land
1. Greenhouse effect
4. Drought and aridity
5. Soil quality reduction 2. Slow tilting of the earth’s axis

Some examples of conservation techniques: 3. Natural calamities

§ Strip farming: the practice in which cultivated Anthropogenic Causes:

crops are sown in alternatives trips to prevent water
movement.
§ Crop rotation: practice in which different crops are
grown in same area following a rotation system
which helps in replenishment of the soil.
§ Ridge and furrow soil formation: soil erosion is
one of the factors responsible for land degradation.
It can be prevented by the formation of ridge and
furrow soil patterns which, during irrigation, which
lessens run off. § Construction of dams: this usually
checks or reduces the velocity of run off so that soil
can support vegetation.
§ Contour farming: this type of farming is usually
practiced across a hill side and is useful in collecting
and diverting the run off to avoid erosion.
§ Leaving the previous year’s crop residue on the
surface to shield the soil from erosion.
1. Respiration
2. Mining activities
3. Burning of fossil fuels
Climate Change
Climate is sometimes mistaken for weather. But
climate is different from weather because it is
measured over a long period of time, whereas
weather can change from day to day, or from year to
year.
Climate change is the long-term alteration of
temperature and typical weather patterns in a place.
Climate change could refer to a particular location or
the planet. Climate change may cause weather
patterns to be less predictable.

§ Avoiding poor tillage methods such as deep

plowing.

Lesson 14: Anthropogenic Impact: Global Warming

Gases in our atmosphere like carbon dioxide,

methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor called
greenhouse gases since they cause greenhouse
effect, allow the heat to get in but they do not let all
the energy to come out much like the gardener’ Lesson 15: Anthropogenic Impact: Biodiversity Loss
greenhouse with its glass roof and wall hence they
are called greenhouse gases. Biodiversity is a term used to describe the
enormous variety of life on Earth. It can be used
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s more specifically to refer to all the species in one
climate system observed since the pre-industrial region or ecosystem. It refers to every living thing,
period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.
activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which
increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in
Earth’s atmosphere.
Biodiversity varies in terms of geographical location, 5. Global climate change
which is said to be high in the tropics but decline to 6. Population growth and over consumption
poles due to amount of sunlight. 7. Illegal wild life trade
8. Species extinction
There are kinds of biodiversity that are essential to
preserve ecological systems and functions. Unit 4: Environmental Sustainability

1. Genetic diversity – a measure of the variety Sustainability is the capacity to endure. The word
of different versions of the same genes within sustainability is derived from the Latin word
individual species. sustinere (tenere to hold; sus, up). More than ten
2. Species diversity - the number of different meanings for sustain, are in the dictionary the main
species within individual communities or ones being to “maintain”, “support”, or “endure.”
ecosystem.
Lesson 17: Philippine Environmental Laws
3. Ecological diversity - the number and
variability of ecosystems in an area including
the number of niches, trophic levels, and
ecological processes that capture energy,
sustain webs, and recycle materials within
this ecosystem.

Biodiversity

Hotspots Biodiversity is not evenly distributed. It is

richer in the tropics and other localized regions.
Several factors affect the diversity of flora and fauna.

How do we benefit from biodiversity?

We benefit from other organisms in many ways,

some of which we do not appreciate until a particular
species or community disappears.

1. Food
2. Drugs and medicines
3. Ecological benefits
4. Aesthetic and cultural benefits

What threatens biodiversity?

Biological diversity is currently decreasing at an

alarming rate and this could result to biodiversity
loss. Loss of biodiversity refers to either the ongoing
extinction of species at a global level or the local
reduction or loss of species in each habitat.

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

2. Over – exploitation for commercialization
Good luck!!!
3. Invasive species
4. Pollution