MODULE 1

Forensic Chemistry

 the science that deals with the study and application of chemical principles in the
solution of a problem that arises in connection with the administration of justice.

 Deals with the application of chemistry in the identification of evidence, its physical
and chemical properties.

Forensic Toxicology

 Deals with the examination of human internal organs food samples and water and
gastric contents for the purpose of detecting the presence of poisonous substance,
its dosage, effects, and treatment.

Practice of Forensic Chemistry

1. Collection or reception of the specimen.

 the proper collection, preservation and transportation of specimens are essential in

the investigation of a crime. Hence, whenever possible, the chemist should
personally collect all the specimens necessary for examination.

Factors that must be considered when collecting specimen for examination;

1.1. Sufficiency of samples

 As much as possible, the investigator should collect sufficient amount of specimen fr

examination. This will make the chemist confident that in case of doubtful result, he
or she can still have enough samples to repeat or to proceed to the succeeding
examination.

1.2. Standard comparison

 When the evidence in question is located in or added with the foreign substances, a
sample of such foreign substance must be submitted for analysis. For instances, if
blood is found on linoleum, a sample of the unstained linoleum must be submitted
together with the stained portion. In cases of adulteration or unfair trade
competition, a genuine sample must be submitted for comparison. In the
examination of hair, textile fiber, soil, etc., standard samples must be submitted for
comparison.

1.3. Maintenance of Individuality

 Each piece of evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate sample.

There must be no mixing or intermingling of specimen/s collected from different
locations, as well as those of standard specimens/s.

1.4. Labelling and Sealing

 It is well-settled ruled that evidence will have no value in court in spite of the good
report of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified by reason of improper
labelling. Hence, each sample must be labelled properly. Small fragments should be
enclosed in proper specimen boxes/container and the boxes should be sealed. The
label should include information concerning the nature and source of the sample,

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 date and time o collection, case number,, if any, and name of the person collecting
the sample.

2. Actual Examination of the Specimen

2.1. The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write
down in the laboratory logbook/record book a complete description of the external
appearance including the manner in which it is secured and the particulars of the
sealing. If possible take a photograph of the specimen including the inner wrappings
and take note of its descriptions. A detailed description of the appearance of the
contents of the package should be noted and recorded. All wrappers should be kept and
preserved since questions concerning them may be raised in court during trial.

2.2. The second step in the examination is to measure or weights the object and all
measurements and weights should be entered in the laboratory logbook/record book.
The specimen should then be placed in the proper container or wrapper and must be
kept in the proper evidence room.

2.3. The third step in the laboratory examination which consists of the chemical,
physical and confirmatory tests.

3. Communication of the results of the examination

 the result of the examination conducted should be communicated with the

requesting party in the form of written report which must include an enumeration of
facts on the specimen received for examination which detailed description of the
packaging, sealing and labelling, date of receipt and from whom it was received the
purpose of the examination, the finding and conclusion.

4. Court Appearance

 The report of the Forensic Chemist is usually supplemented by testimonial evidence

in later date if the case is brought to court of the fiscals’ office. Since the testimonial
evidence may be given weeks, months or even a years after the examination and
the written report have been made, it is not only permissible but indispensable that
the chemist should refresh his memory by referring to his laboratory record book
before presenting himself in court.

Role of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Investigation

 A Forensic Chemist, as a man of science, performs laboratory examinations in

physical evidence submitted to crime laboratory in order to expedite the
investigation of a crime by the investigating party. He/she has the following
responsibilities.

 Conducts qualitative an quantitative determination of abuses drugs as well as

volatile substance.

 Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients.

 Conducts examination of parrafin cast and firearms to determine the presence

of gunpowder nitrate.

 Conducts gunpowder examination on clothing on possible gunshot range.

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  Conducts chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric
contents, blood, water, food sample and other substances.

 Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade competition.

 Conducts blood alcohol determination.

 Examine urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of abused drugs.

 Conducts researches related to cases being examine.

 Testifies and give expert opinion in court.

 Gives lecture on Forensic Chemistry and Chemico-toxicology to variuos

schools, universities, police training centers and investigating units.

 Respond to queries of all investigating units and render expert opinion on

matters related to application of chemical principles for the purpose of assisting
investigators to develop investigative leads.

Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

1. Go Slowly

2. Be Thorough

3. Take Notes

4. Consult Others

5. Use Imagination

6. Avoid Complicated Theories

Drugs

 A chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological, behavioral and/or

psychological change in a person taking it.

Medical Drugs

 A substance which when taken into the human body cures illness and/or relieves
signs/symptoms of disease.

Dangerous Drugs

 A substance affecting the central nervous system which when taken into the human
body brings about physical, emotional or behavioral changes in a person taking it.

Drug Abuse

 Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, physiological,, legal, economic,
or social damage to the user or to people affected by the user’s behavior.

Classification of Drugs:

1. According to origin

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 Natural Drugs - active ingredients,, secondary metabolic products of plants and
other living system that may be isolated by extraction.

 Raw Opium

 Marijuana

 Coca Bush

 Synthetic drugs - artificially produced substances, synthesized in the laboratory for

the illicit market, which are almost wholly manufactured from chemical compounds
in illicit laboratories.

 Methamphetamine

 Barbiturates

2. According to Legal Classification

 RA 9165

 PD 1619

 RA 6425

3. According to International Classification

 Narcotics Substances

 Psychotropic Substances

 Designer Drugs

4. According Pharmacological Classification

 Depressants - More commonly referred to as “downers,” depressants create

feelings of relaxation and tiredness. While many serve legitimate purposes in the
fight against mental illness and sleep deprivation, they are very commonly abused
because they may also create feelings of euphoria. Depressants are not only some
of the most highly addictive drugs, but they are also some of the most highly
dangerous and likely to cause overdose. Examples of depressants include:

 Alcohol

 Opiates

 Barbiturates

 Stimulants - Also known as “uppers,” the primary use of stimulants is to increase

energy, concentration, and wakefulness. Stimulants are said to provide a “rush.” In
the short term, stimulants are believed to increase productivity and performance,
while producing an excited high of pleasure. In the long term, stimulants are
incredibly addictive and have a very high potential for abuse. Examples of
stimulants include:

 Adderall

 Cocaine

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  Meth

 Hallucinogens - Hallucinogens, sometimes referred to as dissociatives, alter the

user’s perception of reality, often resulting in auditory and visual hallucinations, a
process known as “tripping.” Although hallucinogens are generally less addictive
than other drug classifications, their immediate impacts are generally more severe
and dangerous. Examples of hallucinogens include:

 LSD

 Psilocybin Mushrooms

 PCP

 Inhalants - Inhalants are a vast range of chemicals that are ingested primarily by
breathing them in, or huffing. Most inhalants are commonly used materials that are
in no way designed to be ingested by humans. While there is incredibly variety
between inhalants, most produce feelings of a high. Inhalants are less studied than
most other drugs. While they tend to be less addictive than many other substances,
the use of inhalants is incredibly dangerous and causes many serious health
effects. Examples of commonly abused inhalants include:

 Paint thinner

 Nail polish remover

 Gasoline

What are considered Dangerous Drugs?

 According to RA 6425 dangerous drugs are classified into three main categories

A. Prohibited Drugs

B. Regulated Drugs

C. Volatile Substances

Drug Dependence

 means the state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a dangerous drug,

arising in a person following administration or use of that drug on a periodic or
continuous basis.

Characteristics of Drug Dependence

1. Physical Dependence - the body’s physical system changes until the body needs that
particular drug in order to function.

2. Mental or Psychological Dependence - a need of drug in order to feel good, to get by

or feel mental.

3. Idiosyncrasy or side effect.

Use

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 Refers to the act of injecting,, intravenously or inter muscularly, or of consuming,
either by chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking, or otherwise
introducing into the physiological system of the body, any of the dangerous drugs.

Sell

 Means the act of giving a dangerous drug, whether for money or any material
consideration.

Forms of Dangerous Drugs

 Tablets

 Capsules

 Liquid

 Powder

 Brick or Decks of Marijuana

 Crushed Leaves

 Uprooted Plants

Two Phases in the Examination of the Alleged Confiscated Dangerous Drugs

1. Screening test/ Preliminary test (Color Test)

 Includes a series of color tests producing characteristic color fr each family or

group of drugs. This is done by adding specific reagent to unknown sample in a
spot plate.

Color Reaction:

Cannabis: Duquenois-levin = violet

Fast Blue B salt = purple red

Cocaine: Cobalt Thiocyanate Test or CT Test = blue

Scott Test or Modified CT Test: Reagent 1=blue

Reagent 2=pink

Reagent 3=blue

Wagner Test = Brown (specific test for cocaine)

Diazepam: Zimmerman Test = reddish purple or pink (some benzodiazepine

derivative do not give color with this test)

Hydrochloric Acid = yellow

Vitali-Morin Test = yellow

Opium: Marquis = violet

Ferric Sulfate = brownish purple

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 Mecke = blue to green

Nitric Acid = orange to red to yellow

Morphine: Marquis = violet to reddish purple

Codeine: Mecke = blue to green

Nitric Acid = orange to yellow

Heroine: Mecke = blue to green

Nitric Acid = yellow to green

Dille-Koppanyi Test = reddish purple (barbiturates)

Methamphetamine Hydrochloride: Simon Test = blue

Marquis Test = orange to brown

Ecstacy: Simon Test = blue

Mathaqualone and Phencyclidine: CT Test = blue

Lysergide or LSD: Ehrlich = violet

Mescaline: Marquis Test = orange

Lieberman = black

Note: it must be noted that positive result of these tests are not conclusive, as there are
substances that may give same positive color reaction/s upon addition of the specific
reagents. Hence, confirmatory tests must be performed by the Forensic
Chemist/Chemical officer on case to established the presence and identification of
dangerous drug. It must also be noted that only those specimens that yielded
presumptive positive results are subject to confirmatory test in order to confirm if the
positive result of the screening test is really positive.

2. Confirmatory Test

 The method employed to confirm the results of the screening/preliminary test. This
test involve the application of an analytical procedure to identify the presence of a
specific drug or metabolites. This is independent of the screening test and which
uses techniques and chemical principles different from that of the initial test in order
to ensure reliability and accuracy.

 Chromatography - the process of separating mixture and comparing the

migration of each component with standard.

 Gas Chromatography

 Thin Layer Chromatography

 High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

 Spectroscopy - a confirmatory method whereby light used to identify the

sample specimen.

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  Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) - used for the identification
of pure organic substances. Identifies organic substances particularly
dangerous drugs and explosive ingredients based on their characteristic
functional groups.

 Ultraviolet-visible Spectroscopy - used for screening of dangerous drugs in

urine specimen.

MODULE 2

Gunshot Residue

 It comes from the powder component of bullet, elements from cartridge cases and
gun barrel where the bullet passes. When this components are burned, certain
products of combustion are formed which includes partially burned and unburned
particles. These particles are deposited on the target as definite pattern depending
upon the distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target at the time of
discharge.

 It may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who discharged the gun on the
entrance bullet hole of garment or wound of the victim, on the target materials on
the scene.

Components of gunshot residue.

1. Primer or lead residue

2. Gunpowder residue

3. Elemental component from cartridge cases residue

Types of Powder used in the ammunition of small firearms.

1. Black Powder

2. Smokeless Powder

Paraffin Test

 To determine whether a person has discharge a firearm, the Paraffin-Diphenylamine

test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder
residue. When a warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the alleged
shooter, it will cause the pores of the skin to open and exude the particles of

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 gunpowder residue. These particles of gunpowder residue are being extracted by
the paraffin cast and will appear as blue specks, when diphenylamine reagent is
added on the cast. It must be noted that the specks are generally located on the
area of the thumb and forefingers.

Paraffin Wax

 A white, translucent, tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of solid

hydrocarbons of high molecular weight. It is insoluble in water and acids and soluble
in benzene, ligroin, warm alcohol, chloroform, tupentine, carbon disulfide and olive
oil.

Gunpowder Residue Test in Firearms

 The diphenylamine reagent is also applied to cotton swabbing of the barrel and
chambers of the gun to determine if the firearm was discharged. A deep blue color
resulting from the reaction of nitrates with reagent indicates presence of gunpowder
residue.

Distance Determination

 The method of determining the distance between the firearm and the target. This is
usually based on the distance of the gun powder patterns or the spread of the shot
pattern.

Entrance and Exit Holes;

 Entrance hole contains residue and it is slightly burned.

 The diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole.

 The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance hole is inward.

Other Entrance Hole Characteristics:

A. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated hole.

B. Contact fires have uneven margins but all entrance holes typically have even
margins.

C. Grazing bullet hole

The distance of the muzzle of the gun to the target is classified into three;

1. Direct Contact

2. 2 inches to 36 inches away

3. 36 inches away or more

Test for Gunshot Residue

 Nitrite

 Lead Residue Chemical Examination

Characteristics of Gunshot Wound

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 Direct/contact Wounds

 Wounds Inflicted at a Distance From 2-36 inches

 Smudging

 Tattooing

 Wounds Inflicted at a Distance of more than 36 inches

 Powder tattooing is seldom present

 Nitrates found will not be sufficient for gunshot residue

Bullet Comparison

 A type of examination using a microscope which is commonly used in comparison of

an empty shell containing characteristic marks from groves of the gun barrel and
firing pin of specific firearm used.

Firearm Examination

Methods used to determine the probable time the firearm has been discharged:

A. Lucas Test

 A characteristics smell that decrease in intensity with lapse of time is present

immediately after firing but even after several weeks some slight smell remains.

B. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide)

 This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder which is

present in the gaseous state. This compound can be detected by means of lead
acetate paper test.

 If the breech of the gun is kept closed, the persist between 2-3 hours.

 Sulfide - the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace
remains for a longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.

C. Odor of the Barrel (rusting)

 As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if such firearms
has not been discharged. But if the firearm has been discharged, iron salts are
formed and can be detected inside the barrel. These iron salts are soon
oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The formation of rust is affected by
the humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the result this factor must
always be considered.

D. Presence of Nitrates (by cotton swabbing method)

 Nitrates diminish after a lapse of time. Nitrates can be detected by swabbing a

portion of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with Diphenylamine solution
(DPA).

E. Dermal Nitrates Test

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  The test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on the
hands of the alleged shooter.

Module 3

Physical Identification of Evidence

What is Physical Evidence?

 Includes any physical thing that may be found at the crime scene or found at
another location, yet, having a direct connection or relationship with the scene, the
suspect or the victim.

Kinds of Physical Evidence

1. Corpus Delicti

 Objects or substances which are an essential part of the body of the crime.

2. Associative Evidence

 Kinds of evidence which link the suspect to the crime scene or offense.
Fingerprints and shoe impression are good examples of associative evidence.

3. Trace Evidence

 Articles which assist the investigator in locating the suspect. One of the most
common types of physical evidence that an investigator or a crime scene
specialist encounters is trace evidence.

Significance/Importance of Physical Identification

1. Establishes investigative leads

2. Resolve ownership issue

3. Strengthens filed cases in court

4. Proves that a crime has been committed, or establish key elements of the crime.

5. Links a suspect to the victim or the crime scene.

6. Establishes the identity of persons associated with a crime.

7. Exonerate innocent

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8. Corroborate victim’s testimony

9. Induces a suspect to make admissions or even confession

10. Negative evidence can help provide proof

11. Physical evidence can be more reliable the eyewitness

12.

What are the Types of Physical Examination?

1. Macro-Etching

 The application of chemical solution on the metal surface where the serial number is
normally located.

Purpose of Macro-Etching Examination

A. To determine whether or not the serial number of motor vehicles or firearms are
tampered.

B. To restore the original serial number of an article in question

2. Bullet Trajectory

 The path of flight it follows being fired to reaching its target.

3. Hairs and Fibers

 Hair - the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of
the palm of the hand and sole of the foot.

 Structural Parts of the Hair

 Inner Aspect

 Cuticle - outermost part which is scale-like in appearance

 Cortex - the innermost portion that contains the pigment

 Medulla - the central canal of the hair

 Outer Aspect

 Tip - the distal end portion of the hair

 Shaft - portion of the hair above the surface of the skull

 Root - portion that is embedded in the skin

 Fibers - the smallest single unit forming the basis of the textile yarn. It is very
important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer between a suspect and a victim
during the commission of a crime.

4. Tool Marks

 Impressions or marks that are produced by a tool or instrument on a receptive

surface. When the tool or instrument makes contact with the surface with sufficient

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 force to create and indentation,, the pattern of the tool is permanently reproduced
onto that surface.

5. Casting and Molding

 Shoe Print

 Shoes create impressions at the crime scene called shoe prints which can be
informative to the forensic investigator.

 Patents shoeprints - clearly visible and form tracking through a substances

like paint or dirt and leaving some behind each time a step is taken.

 Plastic shoeprint - occurs when a shoe sinks a soft substance like snow or
mud.

 Latent shoeprint - those that are not visible to the naked eye and often occur
on a hard surface like glass or concrete.

 Tire Impression

 Made of semi-hard rubber and are characterized by class and individual

characteristics. Class characteristics include the size and general patterns.
Individual characteristics include regular wear and tear as well as accidental
cuts or hole. These characteristics may be reproduced in the tracks left by the
tire, depending on the surface and the circumstances under which the track
occurred.

6. Soil Analysis

 Soil on a suspect’s shoe or splattered inside a car fender can provide forensic
scientist which information about the travels of suspects and victims. Soil recovered
from shoes, clothes, and automobiles can be analyzed in order to determine is a
suspect was or was not in a particular placed. This is done by carefully comparing
the color, particle size and shape, mineralogical composition, and biological
components of a soil sample obtained from a suspect to those of soil from a known
location.

7. Glass Fractures

 Glass bends in response to any force that exerted on any one of its surface when
the limit of its elasticity is reached, the glass fractures. Fractured window glass
reveal information that can be related to the force and direction of impact, which is
useful in reconstructing events at a crime-scene investigation.

 Factors to be determined in glass fracture

 Point of impact

 Direction of impact or force

 Age of fracture

 Cause of fracture

 Types of Glass Fracture

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  Radial Fractures - primary fractures resembles the spokes of a wheel
where the radiating rod originates at a common point.

 Concentric Fractures - secondary fracture having the appearance of

circles around the point of impact connecting one radiating crack to the
other, thus forming triangular pieces of glass.

 Conchoidal Fracture - a characteristics of glass is that when it breaks,, the

fracture edges appear shell-like in form - that is having elevations or
depressions in the shape of a shell.

 Significance of determining the types of glass fractures

 Point of impact

 Direction of impact

 Entrance and Exit holes

 Causes of Fracture

 Due to natural means

 Due to mechanical means

 Factors to be determined in glass fracture

 Point of impact

 Position of the shooter

 Perpendicular shot

 Angle from left to right

 Angle from right to left

 Age of fracture

 Fresh fracture

 Old fracture

8. Ultraviolet Examination

 The application of ultraviolet light in the material to be investigated.

 The purpose of ultraviolet examination id to determine the presence of ultraviolet

fluorescent powder on dusted money and to determine the presence of ultraviolet
fluorescent powder on the hands of the suspect.

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Module 4

Explosives

 Any substances that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or

combustion.

 It is any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure,
friction or shock, undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition.

Classification of Explosives

1. According to the velocity of reaction involved

a) Low explosives - these are low burning and used mainly as propellants like
black and smokeless powder. The rate of decomposition is a relatively slow
process and the wave produced is less than the speed of sound. These are
used for launching rockets, projectiles from guns and missiles system.

b) Primary and initiating explosive - this kind is extremely sensitive to detonation

by heat shock, friction and impact. It detonates without burning, like lead azide
and mercury fulminate. This is used primarily to start an explosion.

c) High explosives - these explosives have very fast or high detonating rate like
dynamite, TNT, and Cyclonite.

2. According to their chemical structure

a) Organic explosive - nitro-containing organic compound

b) Inorganic explosive - salt-containing compound

3. According to their application or design

a) Military Explosive

b) Industrial Explosives

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Module 5

Forensic Serology and Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Serology

 This term is used to describe a broad scope of laboratory tests which used specific
antigen and scrum antibody reactions.

Blood

 Refers to a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic

substances.

 Two components of blood

 Plasma - 55% of blood content - fluid portion of blood composed of water

 Suspended Solid Cells - 45% of blood content

 Red blood cell (erythrocytes)

 White boold cell (leucocyte)

 Platelets

Blood Characterization

1. Spot test

2. Benzidine test

3. Kastle-Meyer test

4. Luminol test

5. Takayama test

6. Teichman test

Tests to determine whether the blood is from man or animal

1. Precipitin test

2. Gel diffusion

3. Electrophoresis

Blood Clothing

 When a protein in blood called fibrin is trapped and enmeshes red blood cells, blood
clothing occurs. Removing clotted blood yields a yellowish liquid called serum. This

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 yellow liquid contains certain protein known as antibodies. The serum that contains
antibodies is called antiserum.

Module 6

Toxicology

 A scientific study of poisons, their nature, properties, effects and detection and the
treatment in case of poisoning.

Importance of Toxicology

1. To verify if it is a case of poisoning

2. To be able to treat as the occasion demands

3. To forward justice

Poison

 A substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism causes

death or injury.

 A substance capable of producing adverse effects on an individual under

appropriate conditions. Adverse refers to the injury and an appropriate condition
means the dosage of the substances that is sufficient to cause this adverse effect.

Types of poisoning

1. Acute Poisoning - one in which there is prompt and marked disturbances of

function or death within a shorter period of time.

2. Chronic Poisoning - which there is gradual deterioration of functions of tissue and

may or may not result in death.

Three Major Case Load Areas

1. Police cases

2. Postmortem cases

3. Drug abuse cases

Methods of examination

1. Isolation

2. Identification

Causes of Death in Poisoning

1. Cardiac failure

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2. Respiratory failure

3. General devitalizing

4. Shock to the nervous system

Module 7

Liquor Test

What is the purpose of this test?

The purpose of this test is to determine whether or not a person is intoxicated

with liquor. This test is being conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol
present in the blood sample taken from the person suspected to have been intoxicated
with alcohol.

Laboratory Examination

Quantitative examination is conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol

present in the blood.

Significance of determining whether a person is intoxicated with alcohol.

Intoxication as an alternative circumstances must be taken into consideration as

aggravating or mitigating according to the nature and effects of the crime and the other
conditions attending its commission.

The intoxication of the offender shall be taken into consideration as a mitigating

circumstance when the offender has committed a felony in a state of intoxication, if the
same is not habitual or subsequent to the plan to commit said felony; but when the
intoxication is habitual or intentional, it shall be considered as an aggravating
circumstances.

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