Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10582-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Fracture mechanics behaviors of fissured rock under dynamic loading:

a review
Fei Zhao1 · Zhenming Shi1 · Songbo Yu1

Received: 23 September 2021 / Accepted: 16 April 2022 / Published online: 18 November 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Internal fissures in rocks are an important factor that complicate the mechanical response of rock under external loading.
With the development of numerous geotechnical projects involving dynamics, research on the dynamic response charac-
teristics of fissured rock under dynamic loading has been a trending issue in recent years. The purpose of this paper is to
summarize the research of numerical and experimental methods on the influence of dynamic loading on the properties of
fissured rock samples. From the perspective of rock dynamics, damage mechanics, and fracture mechanics, the influence of
fissure characteristics on the mechanical properties and failure modes of rock under dynamic loading are further analyzed.
By analyzing the fracture propagation mechanism of different fissured rock samples under dynamic loading, the relationship
between the strength and failure characteristics of different fissured rock samples is explored. This investigation is of great
significance to further study the mechanical characteristics and failure law of complex fissured rock under dynamic loadings.

Keywords Fissured rock sample · Fracture mechanisms · Dynamic loading · Damage mechanics · Failure mode

Abbreviations v Impact rate (m/s)

Ф × h Diameter and height of rock sample (mm) m Drop hammer mass (kg)
l × w × t Length, width, and thickness of rock sample Ft1 Tensile fracture I
(mm) Ft2 Tensile fracture II
2a × d Length and width of fissure (mm) Fs Shear fracture
s Shape of fissure (F = fissure, H = hole) Fm Mixed fracture (including Fts and Fst)
n Number of fissures Fts Tensile-shear fracture/mixed mode fracture
α Inclination angle of fissure (°) mainly composed of tensile fracture
αmin Minimum inclination angle of fissure (°) Fst Shear-tensile fracture/mixed mode fracture
αt Threshold inclination angle of fissure (°) mainly composed of shear fracture
β Inclination angle of rock bridge (°) SHPB Split Hopkinson pressure bar test
ND Normalized strength index DWT Drop-weight test
ND-min Minimum normalized strength index DHS Dynamic hydraulic servo test
σc-α Compressive strength of rock sample with fis- PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate
sure of angle α (MPa) RFPA Rock failure process analysis method
σc-min Compressive strength of rock sample with fis- DDA Discontinuous deformation analysis method
sure of minimum angle αmin (MPa) PFC Particle flow code
𝜀̇ Strain rate ­(s−1) FDEM Finite-element/discrete-element coupling analy-
f Frequency (Hz) sis methods
p Pressure (MPa)
pr Penetration rate
Introduction
* Zhenming Shi
shi_tongji@tongji.edu.cn In recent years, various complex rock mechanics prob-
lems, especially geotechnical stability problems under
1
School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, dynamic loadings or static–dynamic loadings, have received
Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China

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increasing attention (Jafari et al. 2004; Bagde and Petro
2005; Liu et al. 2015a). The instability of many large struc-
tural projects, such as mining engineering, tunnel engineer-
ing, and slope engineering, is closely related to dynamic
loadings, including earthquake, explosions, and rock bursts
(Ravi-Chandar and Knauss 1984; Li et al. 2003a and b;
Zhang et al. 2014; Zhao et al. 2019a; Huang et al. 2020;
Liu et al. 2020; Li et al. 2022). As a heterogeneous mate-
rial, rocks contain a large number of natural joints and fis-
sures, which are important factors controlling the mechani-
cal properties of rocks (Wang et al. 2003; Potyondy and
Cundall 2004; Zhu and Tang 2006; Li and Ma 2009; Zhang
and Zhao 2014; Li et al. 2018). Dynamic loadings acting on
a rock body can cause internal stress redistribution. When
the dynamic load reaches the strength limit of the rock, the
energy is released instantaneously (Wang et al. 2011; Li
et al. 2019a, 2020a). The mechanical properties of the rock
deteriorate rapidly, leading to fracture around natural fis-
sures, which in turn triggers instability in slopes, tunnels,
and other engineering projects (Cho et al. 2007; Zhu et al.
2015; Hatzor et al. 2015; Weng et al. 2018; Wang et al.
2018; Wang and Tian 2018). To study the effects of earth-
quakes and explosions on the mechanical properties of fis-
sured rocks, many researchers have investigated the strength
characteristics and failure modes of different fissured rock
samples using experimental and numerical methods (Chiang
1990; Kazerani and Zhao 2011; Yang et al. 2012; Kutin et al.
2013; Deng et al. 2014; Li et al. 2015; Shirzadegan et al.
2016; Chen et al. 2019; Lu et al. 2019; Yao and Xia 2019;
Xiao et al. 2020).
However, despite the extensive work done by many
researchers, the findings have been mixed. For example, the
relationship between fissure inclination and rock strength is
unclear (Li et al. 2001a and b; Zhang 2007; Li et al. 2009;
Zhang et al. 2009a; Zhang et al. 2009c; Zhang et al. 2016;
Zhang 2017; Xiao et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a, b). Li et al.
(2001a and b) studied the dynamic response characteristics
of rock with three fissures by dynamic hydraulic servo tests
(DHS). It was found that the overall strength of rock with
three fissures increased first at 0–30°, decreased at 30–45°,
and then increased at 45–90°. Zhang (2007), Zhang et al.
(2009a) and Zhang et al. (2016) used the split Hopkinson
pressure bar test (SHPB) to find that the strength of fis-
sured rock samples showed a decreasing–increasing trend
with the inclination angle of fissure, and 30° or 45° is the
threshold angle of strength change under dynamic loading.
Li (2015), Zhang (2017), Li et al. (2020a, b), and Xiao et al.
(2020) found that the strength of rock samples increased or
decreased monotonically with the angle of fissure using the
rock failure process analysis method (RFPA), drop-weight
test (DWT), and SHPB tests. In addition, the failure char-
acteristics of fissured rock samples under dynamic load-
ing are also different (Zhang et al. 2006a, b; Zhu and Tang
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526
2006; Lei et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2009a and 2009b; Yang
et al. 2012; Zhang 2017; Xiao et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a,
b; Song and Yue 2021). For example, Zhang et al. (2006a
and b), Zhang et al. (2009a), and Zhang (2017) found that
the dynamic energy was released rapidly, so that the fissures
were connected directly, which had obviously different frac-
ture propagation rules than those of static loading. However,
Zhu and Tang (2006) considered that the inclination angle
of fissures has little effect on the ultimate failure mode of
rock samples under the condition of a certain peak stress. In
addition, there are many studies on the relationship between
the fracture toughness and damage degree of fissured rock
samples under dynamic loading (Li et al. 2003b, 2018; Park
and Jeon 2006; Park et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2009b; Wang
and Xie 2010; Liu et al. 2015b; Liu and Su 2016; Lu et al.
2019; Yao and Xia 2019). For example, Zhang et al. (2009b)
and Wang and Xie (2010) considered that the fissure size has
no effect on the dynamic fracture toughness of rock under
dynamic loading, while the static fracture toughness value
decreased obviously with increasing fissure length.
In summary, the current state of research indicates that
there are relatively few comparative studies of the strength
change patterns and damage modes of different fissured
rocks by previous authors. In particular, the damage pat-
terns and damage mechanisms of fissured rock samples
under dynamic loading need further explanation and refine-
ment. Therefore, this paper aims to summarize the studies
on the effect of dynamic loadings on the mechanical proper-
ties of fissured rocks. It also quantifies the mechanical dam-
age degree to fissured rocks by normalizing the mechanical
parameters. The fracture propagation mechanism of different
fissured rock samples under dynamic loading is analyzed.
From the perspectives of rock dynamics, damage mechan-
ics, and fracture mechanics, the relationship between the
strength, fracture propagation, and failure characteristics of
rock samples with different fissures under dynamic loading
is explored. This investigation has important guiding sig-
nificance for further study of the mechanical characteristics
and failure patterns of complex fissured rock samples under
dynamic loading in the future.
Literature review
Previous studies on rock samples containing fissures
This paper summarizes the previous experimental and
numerical studies on the mechanical properties of fissured
rock samples, as shown in Tables 1 and 2. The experimen-
tal methods used include the SHPB test, DWT, and DHS
test. Numerical simulation methods include finite-element
methods (RFPA, ABAQUS), discrete-element methods
(PFC, DDA), finite-difference methods (AUTODYN), and
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526 Page 3 of 16 526

Table 1  Previous experimental studies on fissured rock samples

Research methods Similar materials Pre-existing fissure characteristics References
Material types Size (mm) Shape/s Number/n Size/2a × d (mm) Angle/α (°)

SHPB Cement mortar 37 × 71 F 1 – 0–90 Zhang (2007)

Cement mortar – F – – 0–90 Zhang et al. (2009a)
Marble 40 × 32 F, H 1 20 × 1 0 Zhang et al. (2009b)
Marble 42–155 F, H 1 25–41 0 Wang and Xie (2010)
Gypsum 152 × 76 × 32 F 1, 2 5 × 0.6 30–60 Zou et al. (2012)
Cement mortar 29.2 × 11, 22, 32.3 F 1–3 1–5 0–90 Deng et al. (2014)
Marble 60 × 30 × 20 F 1 5×1 0–90 Zou and Wong (2014)
Gypsum 152 × 76 × 32 F 1 5 × 0.625 0–90 Zou et al. (2016)
Cement mortar 73 × 37 F – – 0–90 Zhang et al. (2016)
Cement mortar 50 × 50 F 1 10 0–90 Wang et al. (2016)
Marble 60 × 60 × 30 F 1 10–20 0–90 Li et al. (2017a)
Granite 100 × 35 × 35 H 1 10 – Weng et al. (2018)
Sandstone 75 × 30 F, H 1 8 × 0.2 0 Li et al. (2018)
Marble 60 × 60 × 30 F 1, 2 10 0–90 Li et al. (2019b)
Marble 160 × 50 F 1 73–93.6 0 Lu et al. (2019)
Granite 50 × 50 F 1 24 × 1 45 Li et al. (2020b)
Granite 45 × 45 × 20 F 1 10 0–90 Xiao et al. (2020)
Sandstone 50 × 50 F 1 10 0–90 Wang et al. (2020)
DWT Cement mortar 150 × 150 × 150 F 0–3 50–100 0–90 Deng (2016)
Cement mortar 150 × 150 × 150 F 1–3 50, 30 0–90 Zhang (2017)
Sandstone 150 × 70 × 70 F 0–3 40 × 1 0–90 Wang (2018)
Sandstone 100 × 50 F 1 20 × 2 45 Chen et al. (2019)
Sandstone, 350 × 300 × 30 F 1 50 × 1 90 Zhou et al. (2020)
PMMA
DHS Cement mortar 50.8 × 57.2 F 1 9.5 0–72 Jia et al. (1996)
Cement mortar 100 × 100 × 200 F 3 10 × 1 0–90 Li et al. (2001a)
Gypsum 100 × 100 × 200 F 3 10 × 1 0–90 Li et al. (2001b)
Gypsum 120 × 60 × 25 F 2 12 × 0.1 45, 75 Zhang et al. (2006a)
Gypsum 120 × 60 × 25 F 3 12 × 0.1 45, 75 Zhang et al. (2006b)
Granite 50 × 100 F 1 15 15–75 Huang et al. 2014
Cement mortar 200 × 100 × 100 F 1, 2 15 × 0.4 45, 75 Feng et al. (2019)

Table 2  Previous numerical studies on fissured rock samples

Research methods Pre-existing fissure characteristics References
Size (mm) Shape/s Number/n Size/2a × d (mm) Angle/α (°)

RFPA 150 F 1 45 0–72 Zhu and Tang (2006)

50 × 100 F 1–5 – 0–90 Li (2015)
60 × 80 F 2 15 15–75 Zhong (2016)
AUTODYN 145 × 80 × 30 F 1 10 90 Wang et al. (2016)
325 × 200 × 30 F 1 10 × 1 90 Dong et al. (2018)
325 × 200 × 15 F 1, 2 25 45, 90 Zhou et al. (2019a)
DDA – F – – – Hatzor et al. (2015)
PFC 50 × 100 F 1 15 15–75 Huang and Cen (2013)
150 × 150 F 1–3 50, 30 0–90 Zhang (2017)
FDEM 50 H 1 0–30 – Li et al. (2018)
ABAQUS 350 × 300 × 30 F 1 50 × 1 90 Zhou et al. (2019b)

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finite-element/discrete-element coupling analysis methods
(FDEM). The common research objects are brittle materials,
including marble, sandstone, granite, and rock-like materials
(cement mortar, organic glass, and gypsum), whose shapes
are cylinders (Ф × h) and cubes (l × w × t) (see Fig. 1). The
shape (s) of the pre-existing fissure is rectangular fissure (F)
and circular hole (H). The number (n) of fissures is generally
in the range of 0–5. The size (2a × d) of the fissure is gener-
ally in the range of 0–30 mm for length (2a) and 0–2 mm for
width (d), and the inclination angle (α) of the fissure ranges
from 0 to 90°.
Research methods
In this paper, the compressive strength data of fissured rock
samples under dynamic loading are normalized and requan-
tified by Eq. (1). The variation law of the mechanical proper-
ties of fissured rock is obtained. In addition, combined with
the previous classification of fracture types of fissured rock
samples. The fracture propagation mechanism of fissured
rock samples is further explained. The relationship between
the strength and fracture propagation law and failure char-
acteristics of fissured rock samples with different inclination
angles is explored
ND = 𝜎c−𝛼 ∕𝜎c−min , (1)
where ND is the normalized compressive strength index of
fissured rock samples; σc–α is the compressive strength of
rock samples with a fissure inclination angle α; and σc-min
is the compressive strength under the minimum inclination
angle αmin in previous studies.
Fig. 1  Schematic diagram of
fissured rock samples
(a) Short cylindrical sample
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526
Results and analysis
Mechanics damage of fissured rock samples
By summarizing the previous research results on the
mechanical properties of fissured rock samples under
dynamic loading, it is found that the inclination angles of
fissures in most studies are 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90°.
The relationship between the normalized strength param-
eters and the fissure angle of fissured rock samples is shown
in Fig. 2, from which four different trends in the range of
0–90° can be obtained.
As shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b), the normalized strength
values show a continuous trend with the inclination angle
of the fissure, including a monotonic increasing or decreas-
ing trend. For example, according to the study results of
Zou and Wong (2014), Zhong (2016), Li et al. (2017a, b),
Wang et al. (2020), and Xiao et al. (2020), the strength
increased with the fissure angle. When the fissure angle is
90°, the average normalized strength is about 1.4 times of
that at 0° (see green curve of Fig. 2(e)). Whereas, accord-
ing to the study results of Deng et al. (2016), Zhang (2017),
Wang (2018), and Li et al. (2019b), the strength decreased
with the fissure angle. When the fissure angle is 90°, the
average normalized strength is about 76% of that at 0°
(see red curve of Fig. 2(e)). As shown in Fig. 2(c) and
pink curve of Fig. 2(e), the normalized strength value first
decreases, then increases, and finally flattens or decreases
with the inclination angle, and 30° is the threshold angle.
In the range of 0–30°, the strength decreases continu-
ously, and the average reduction rate is 40%. In the range
of 30–60°, the strength increases continuously, and the
(b) Long cylindrical sample (c) Cubic sample
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526 Page 5 of 16 526

Fig. 2  Four trends of rock 2.1

Zou and Wong (2014): marble Zhong (2016): rock-like material
1.2
Deng (2016): mortar, m=5 kg Zhang (2017): mortar, m=5 kg

dynamic strength with fissure Li et al. (2017a): marble Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=9.7 m/s Wang (2018): sandstone, m=5 kg
Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=30°
Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=1
Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=45°

Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Normalized dynamic strength index ND
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=10.6 m/s Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=10%

angle
Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=60°
Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=30% Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=50% 1.1
Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=70%
1.8 ND=1.0

1.0

1.5 0.9

0.8

1.2
ND=1.0 0.7

0.9 0.6
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Inclination angle of fissure α (°) Inclination angle of fissure α (°)

(a) Monotonic increasing trend (b) Monotonic decreasing trend

1.6 2.4
Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=0.2 Hz Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=2 Hz
Jia et al. (1996): mortar Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.2 MPa
Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=21 Hz Deng et al. (2014), mortar, p=0.2-0.5MPa
Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.4 MPa Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.6 MPa
Wang et al. (2016): mortar, m=5 kg

Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Zou et al. (2016): gypsum
Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.2 MPa Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.4 MPa
Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=25% Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=50%
Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.6 MPa 2.0
1.4 Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=75% Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=100%
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=11.4 m/s Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=12.2 m/s
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=12.8 m/s

1.2 1.6
ND=1.0

1.0 1.2 ND=1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.4

Turning point Turning point

0.4 0.0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Inclination angle of fissure α (°) Inclination angle of fissure α (°)

(c) Decreasing–increasing trend (αt=30°) (d) Decreasing–increasing trend (αt=45°)

1.6
Monotonic increasing trend (ND=ND-min → α=0°)
Monotonic decreasing trend (ND=ND-min → α=90°)
Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Decreasing-increasing trend (ND=ND-min → αt=30°)

1.4 Decreasing-increasing trend (ND=ND-min → αt=45°)

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

α=0° αt=30° αt=45° α=90°

0.4
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Inclination angle of fissure α (°)
(e) Four variation trends of average strength values

average increase is approximately 1.9 times that of 30°. and 45° is the threshold angle. In the range of 0–45°, the
In the range of 60–90°, the strength has a slight increas- strength decreases continuously, and the strength value of
ing trend, and the growth rate is only 1.1 times that of 45° is reduced to 77% at 0°. In the range of 45–90°, the
60° (Zhang et al. 2009a). Fourth, Fig. 2(d) and blue curve value increases continuously, and the strength value of 90°
of Fig. 2(e) show that the normalized strength value first is approximately 1.5 times that of 45° (Zhang et al. 2016
decreases and then increases with the inclination angle, and Wang et al. 2020).

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Fracture failure characteristics Through experimental and numerical simulations, the

Rock samples with single fissure
By reviewing the results of previous experimental and
numerical studies on the relationship between the failure
characteristics and inclination angles of fissured rock sam-
ples under dynamic loading, it is found that the fracture
propagation of rock samples with a single fissure under
dynamic loading is significantly different from that under
static loading (Li et al. 2001a, 2001b; Zhang et al. 2006a,
b; Zhang 2017; Xiao et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a, b; Wang
et al. 2020). As shown in Fig. 3, there are several com-
mon types of rock samples containing a single fissure in
previous studies of the dynamic response of fissured rock
samples.
fracture propagation law and failure characteristics of fis-
sured rock samples under different dynamic loadings were
studied (Zhang 2017; Wang et al. 2020; Xiao et al. 2020; Li
et al. 2020a, b).
Taking the single-fissured rock samples in Fig. 3 as exam-
ples, it is found that under dynamic loading, the fractures
of the fissured rock sample are mainly divided into three
types: tensile fracture, shear fracture, and tensile–shear frac-
ture. When the inclination angle of the pre-existing fissure
is 0°, the direction of the dynamic loading is perpendicular
to the fissure, and it is subjected to pressure in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the fissure. When it is pulled along
the direction of the fissure, the tensile stress concentration
appears at both ends of the fissure, and the tensile fractures
in Fig. 4(a) will be generated. As the inclination angle of

Fig. 3  Schematic diagram of

common rock samples contain-
ing a single fissure (horizontal
dynamic loadings)

(a) α=0° (b) 0°<α<90° (c) α=90°

Fs
Ft Ft Ft1
Ft1

σD σD σD σD σD
Ft
Ft2
Ft2
Ft
σD
Ft Ft FFt1t1 Fs

(a) α=0° (b) α=45° (c) α=90°

(d) α=0° (e) α=45° (f) α=90°

Fig. 4  Schematic diagram of the failure fracture of fissured rock samples under dynamic loading [legends (d)–(f) from Wang et al. (2020)]

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the pre-existing fissure is 45°, the dynamic loading can be
divided into shear stress along the fissure and compressive
stress perpendicular to the fissure, which eventually leads to
shear fracture and tensile fracture at both ends of the fissure.
Three kinds of fractures will occur in fissured rock samples,
including tensile fractures F­ t1 and F
­ t2 and shear fracture F
­ s,
as shown in Fig. 4(b). When the inclination angle of the
pre-existing fissure is 90°, the direction of dynamic load-
ing is parallel to the fissure, and the compressive stress is
concentrated at both ends of the fissure. At this time, tensile
fracture occurs along both ends of the fissure, as shown in
Fig. 4(c). The above analysis provides a good explanation
for the previous studies, as shown in Fig. 4(d)–(f).
Rock samples with double fissures
Many simulations have been performed for the study of rock
samples with double fissures, including parallel fissures and
nonparallel fissures (Zhang et al. 2006a and 2006b; Zhong
2016; Zhang 2017). The mechanical properties of rock sam-
ples with double fissures under dynamic loading are mainly
affected by the characteristics of fissures (size, inclination
angle) and the characteristics of rock bridges (length, incli-
nation angle). To better study the influence of rock bridges
on fracture characteristics, taking parallel double fissures
as an example in this paper, previous studies on the fracture
propagation law and failure mechanism of rock samples with
double fissures under dynamic loading were analyzed. As
shown in Fig. 5, there are several common types of dou-
ble fissures for fissured rock samples in previous studies,
including α = 45°/β = 0°, α = 45°/β = 45°, α = 45°/β = 90°,
α = 45°/β = 135°, and α = 45°/β = 180°.
According to Zhang et al. (2006a), Zhong (2016), and
Zhang (2017), the fracture propagation law of rock sam-
ples with double fissures under different dynamic loadings
is studied by experimental and numerical simulations. As
shown in Fig. 6, there are several possible fracture types
of rock samples with parallel double fissures for different
inclination angles of rock bridges under dynamic loading.
In Fig. 6(a)–(c), when the inclination angle of fissure α
is 45°, the inclination angles β of the rock bridge are 0, 45,
and 90°. According to the single fissure, there may be three
kinds of fractures at the outer ends of fissures: tensile frac-
tures ­Ft1 and ­Ft2 and shear fractures ­Fs. When the inclination
angle of rock bridge β is 0°, the mixed fracture F ­ m of copla-
nar shear fracture and wing fracture will appear in the rock
bridge between the two fissures (see Fig. 6(a)). When the
inclination angle β of the rock bridge is 45°, the rock bridge

Fig. 5  Schematic diagram of

common rock samples contain-
ing double fissures (vertical
dynamic loadings) Pre-existing
Pre-existing
Pre-existing fissure
fissure
fissure α
α α
48°

β
48°

48°
β β
48°

90°

α α α
48°

48°

48°
Pre-existing Pre-existing
Pre-existing
fissure fissure
fissure

(a) α=45°/β=0° (b) α=45°/β=45° (c) α=45°/β=90°

Pre-existing Pre-existing
fissure fissure
α
α
48°

48°

β
β
139°

α
α
48°
48°

Pre-existing Pre-existing
fissure fissure

(d) α=45°/β=135° (e) α=45°/β=180°

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526 Page 8 of 16 Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526

Fig. 6  Schematic diagram of σD σD σD

failure fracture of fissured rock
samples under dynamic loading

Ft2 Fs Ft2 Fs Ft2 Fs

Ft1 Fm Ft1 Ft1

Fm Fm
Fm Fs Ft1 Ft1
Ft1 Ft2

Fs Ft2 Fs
Fs Ft2 Ft2

σD σD σD

(a) α=45°/β=0° (b) α=45°/β=45° (c) α=45°/β=90°

σD σD

Ft2 Fs
Ft2 Fs

Ft2 Fm Fm
Fm Fm

Fs Ft2 Fs Ft2

σD σD
(d) α=45°/β=135° (e) α=45°/β=180°

inclination angle is the same as the fissure inclination angle,
and they are on the same plane. A dominant failure surface is
formed, where a coplanar shear fracture F ­ s will be generated
(see Fig. 6(b)). When the rock bridge inclination angle β of
the fracture is 90°, the rock bridge between the two fissures
will produce a tensile fracture or a tensile–shear fracture. As
the loading rate is lower, there may also be a mixed fracture
­Fm formed at the lower tip of the upper fissure and the upper
tip of the lower fissure. However, under a high loading rate,
the main failure surface is more likely to be formed in the
axial stress direction, which will directly produce tensile
fracture ­Ft2 (see Fig. 6(c)).
In Fig. 6(d) and (e), when the inclination angle of fis-
sure α is 45°, the inclination angles β of the rock bridge
are 135° and 180°, respectively. According to the single fis-
sure, there may be two kinds of fractures at the outer ends
of fissures: tensile fracture ­Ft2 and shear fracture ­Fs. When
the inclination angle β of the rock bridge of the fissure is
135°, the stress of the rock bridge between the two fissures
will be changed. The two fissures will converge through a
mixed tensile–shear fracture or a tensile fracture, includ-
ing the mixed fracture ­Fm formed by the upper tip of the
upper fissure and the lower tip of the lower fissure, the mixed
fracture ­Fm formed by the lower tip of the upper fissure and
the lower tip of the lower fissure, and the tensile fracture F
­t
formed by the lower tip of the upper fissure and the upper
tip of the lower fissure. When the inclination angle β of the
rock bridge of the fissure is 180°, the two fissures converge

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526
through a tensile–shear fracture, including the mixed frac-
ture ­Fm formed by the upper tip of the upper fissure and
the lower tip of the lower fissure and the mixed fracture ­Fm
formed by the lower tip of the upper fissure and the lower
tip of the lower fissure.
Discussion
Some researchers believe that the load applied to the rock in
a static test is not completely stationary. In this sense, there
is no fundamental difference between static and dynamic
loading but only a different range of strain rates, as shown
in Fig. 7 (Lindholm 1971; Nemat-Nasser 2000; Li et al.
2017b). However, the results of the dynamic and static tests
are very different, especially in the mechanical strength and
fracture expansion patterns. First, the mechanical response
of the rock under the two loadings is reflected in the dif-
ference in strength. Numerous studies have shown that the
strength of rock under dynamic loading is higher than that
under static loading. This is because when the loading rate is
small, the plastic deformation in the rock can be fully devel-
oped, and the reaction has low strength. In contrast, under
dynamic loading, if plastic deformation does not develop, a
higher strength is indicated. Especially under impact loading
during blasting or rock bursting, the strength of rock samples
is obviously improved (Kumar 1968; Takahashi et al. 1998;
Fig. 7  Classification of strain rate-related experimental techniques and rock mechanical problems (Lindholm 1971; Nemat-Nasser 2000; Li et al.
2017b)
Page 9 of 16 526
Zhang et al. 2000; Chocron et al. 2006; Qi et al. 2009; Zhu
2011; Luo et al. 2018; Cui et al. 2021).
Second, the mechanical response of the rock under the
two loads is also reflected in the difference in the fracture
expansion pattern. Under static/dynamic loadings, there is a
large difference in the propagation law of the internal fissures
for rock samples containing single fissures and multiple fis-
sures. Single-fissured rock samples fracture and expand
along the fracture direction under static loading. However,
when subjected to dynamic loading, the rock will be broken
in a short time, and the energy is more concentrated to dissi-
pate in the direction perpendicular to the fissure, which will
tend to produce fractures that expand rapidly along the nor-
mal direction of the fissure [see Fig. 8(a)–(b) (Zhang 2017;
Xiao et al. 2020)]. The increase in the angle between the
failure fracture and the prefabricated fissure under dynamic
loading proves this point (Wang et al. 2020). When a mul-
tifissured rock sample is damaged under dynamic loading,
the propagation and penetration of the fractures at the end
of the prefabricated fissures have an obvious inertia effect.
The coplanar shear fracture propagation of the rock sample
causes the direct penetration of two fissures (as shown in
Fig. 8(c)–(f), Zhang et al. 2006a and b). Compared with the
length of fracture under static loading, the shortening of the
total length of endogenous coplanar fracture under dynamic
loading proves this point (Zhang et al. 2006a).
In addition, it is also found that with the increase in the
dynamic loading rate, the strength change law of the fissured
13
526 Page 10 of 16
Fig. 8  Fracture propagation law of fissured rock samples under static and dynamic loading (Zhang et al. 2006a and b; Zhang 2017)
rock samples with the inclination angle is obviously differ-
ent. For example, in the study of Wang et al. (2020), when
the loading rate is 9.7 and 10.6 m/s, the strength increases
monotonically with an inclination angle of 0–90°; when the
loading rate is 11.4, 12.2, and 12.8 m/s, the strength shows a
decreasing-increasing trend, and 45° is the threshold angle.
This experimental result further shows that the increase in
the loading rate makes the fracture mode of the fissured rock
samples transform from tensile fracture to shear fracture.
There may be a threshold angle in the range of 30–60°,
and the fissured rock samples are more likely to produce
shear fracture under a higher loading rate. It can be inferred
that this is one of the reasons why fissured rock samples
are prone to tensile fracture mode I under static loading,
while the types of fractures that occur under earthquakes
are mostly shear fracture mode II (Zhang et al. 2006a; Wang
et al. 2020). Therefore, based on previous research results,
it can be considered that dynamic loading can cause shear
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526
fracture of fissured rock samples. This finding provides a
strong basis for studying the instability mechanism of rocky
slopes and determining the location of instability under seis-
mic action (Melin 1986; Zhang et al. 1999 and 2000; Zhang
et al. 2006a).
In summary, when fissured rock samples with different
inclination angles fail under dynamic loading, there is a
strong correlation between the law of strength changes and
the failure modes. It is speculated that there may be two
reasons for different failure modes of fissured rock samples
with the same inclination angle. On the one hand, in differ-
ent experimental methods, the different loading rates used
cause different failure fractures in fissured rock samples
with different inclination angles, such as shear fractures
­(Fs), tensile fractures ­(Ft), shear–tensile fractures ­(Fm/Fst),
and tensile–shear fractures ­(Fm/Fts), which leads to a variety
of changes in strength (Zhang et al. 2006a, 2009a; Zhang
2007; Wang et al. 2020). On the other hand, failure may be
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526 Page 11 of 16 526

Fig. 9  Monotonic increasing Monotonic increasing trend: (ND=ND-min → α=0°)
trend of fissured rock samples Zou and Wong (2014): marble
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=9.7 m/s
with inclination angles
Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=30%
The polynomial fitting curve The mean strength curve
Zhong (2016): rock-like material Li et al. (2017a): marble
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=10.6 m/s Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=10%
Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=50% Xiao et al. (2020): granite, pr=70%

2.0
Distribution area I Distribution area III Distribution area V

Normalized dynamic strength index ND

1.6

ND=1.25×10-6α2+4.54×10-3α+0.98

1.2

Ft Ft Ft
0.8

Ft
Ft Ft
α=0° 0°<α<90° α=90°

Distribution area II Distribution area IV Distribution area VI

0.4
0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Inclination angle of fissure α (°)

Fig. 10  Monotonic decreasing Monotonic decreasing trend: (ND=ND-min → α=90°) The polynomial fitting curve The mean strength curve
trend of fissured rock samples Deng (2016): mortar, m=5 kg Zhang (2017): mortar, m=5 kg Wang (2018): sandstone, m=5 kg
with inclination angles Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=1 Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=30° Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=45°
Li et al. (2019b): marble, n=2, β=60°
1.4
Distribution area I Distribution area III Distribution area V
Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Ft Fm FF s
s

1.2
Fs
Ft Fm Fs
α=0° 0°<α<90° α=90°

1.0

ND=5.09×10-6α2-3.22×10-3α+1.00
0.8

Distribution area II Distribution area IV Distribution area VI

0.6
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Inclination angle of fissure α (°)

caused by the difference in the penetration rate or size of (Zhang et al. 2009b, 2016; Li et al. 2015). Therefore, the
pre-existing fissures to produce different failure fractures, fundamental reason is that the failure modes of fissured rock
which in turn causes a great difference in dynamic strength samples are different, which finally causes different dynamic

13
526 Page 12 of 16 Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526

strengths (Zhao et al. 2019b, 2021). Figures 9 and 10 show In the range of 0°–αt, the failure mode of the fissured rock
the polynomial fitting curves and mean strength curves with samples changed from tensile failure mode → mixed failure
fissure angle are derived from the previous strength data, mode → shear failure mode. In the range of αt–90°, the fail-
which are in good agreement. The correlation of several ure mode of the fissured rock samples changed from shear
trends with the failure fracture pattern of the rock samples failure mode → mixed failure mode → tensile failure mode
was further analyzed in comparison. For the strength vari- (Kazerani and Zhao 2011; Zhao et al. 2021).
ation law of a monotonically increasing trend (see green
curves of Fig. 9), the data points of previous studies are
mainly distributed in areas I, III and V. This is because the Conclusion
fissured rock samples were destroyed by tensile fracture in
the range of 0–90°. The larger the angle is, the more energy In this paper, previous experimental and numerical stud-
is needed in the direction of the impact loading. For the ies on the mechanical properties of fissured rocks under
strength variation law of a monotonically decreasing trend dynamic loading are summarized. The compressive strength
(see red curves of Fig. 10), the data points from previous data are normalized to requantify the mechanical variation
studies are mainly distributed in areas II, IV, and VI. This is patterns of fissured rock samples. The fracture extension
because the fissured rock samples were destroyed by shear mechanism of fissured rock samples is further revealed by
fractures in the range of 0–90°. The greater the inclination comparing different damage characteristics under static and
angle is, the more likely the fissured rock sample is to cause dynamic loads. The results verify the damage patterns of
shear failure along the fissure under impact loading. At last, fissured rock slopes under seismic action. The main conclu-
for the strength variation law of the decreasing–increas- sions are as follows.
ing trend (see brown curves of Fig. 11), these data points (1) Due to the different loading rates and the differ-
of previous studies are mainly distributed in areas II, IV, ent characteristics of prefabricated fissures, the dynamic
V, and VI. This is because there may be a threshold angle strengths show four trends with the inclination angles,
αt in the range of 30–60° for the change of failure mode. including monotonically increasing trend, monotonically

Fig. 11  Decreasing–increasing Decreasing-increasing trend: (ND=ND-min → 30°≤αt≤60°)
trend of fissured rock samples Jia et al. (1996): mortar
Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.6 MPa
with inclination angles Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.6 MPa
Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=21 Hz
Wang et al. (2016): mortar, m=5 kg
Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=75%
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=12.2 m/s
The polynomial fitting curve
Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.2 MPa
Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.2 MPa
Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=0.2 Hz
Deng et al. (2014), mortar, p=0.2-0.5 MPa
Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=25%
Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=100%
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=12.8 m/s
The mean strength curve
Zhang (2007): mortar, p=0.4 MPa
Zhang et al. (2009a): mortar, p=0.4 MPa
Li et al. (2001a): gypsum, f=2 Hz
Zou et al. (2016): gypsum
Zhang et al. (2016): mortar, pr=50%
Wang et al. (2020): sandstone, v=11.4 m/s

2.0
Distribution area I Distribution area III Distribution area V

Ft Fm Fs Fm Ft
Normalized dynamic strength index ND

Ft Fm Fs Fm Ft
1.5 α=0° 0°<α<αt α=αt αt<α<90° α=90°

Threshold angle αt:

ranging from 30°䡚㻢㻜㼻
1.0

ND=1.31×10-4α2-9.19×10-3α+0.97
0.5

Distribution area II Distribution area IV Distribution area VI

0.0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Inclination angle of fissure α (°)

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2022) 81:526
decreasing trend, decreasing–increasing trend (αt = 30°),
and decreasing–increasing trend (αt = 45°). For the latter
two trends, it can be inferred that there exists a threshold
angle αt for strength variation in the range of 30–60°.
(2) The failure mode of fissured rock samples caused by
dynamic loading is different from that under static loading.
For single-fissured rock samples, under dynamic loading,
failure fractures tend to occur along the normal direction
of the prefabricated fissures. However, the dynamic load-
ing effect is more conducive to direct penetration between
the internal fractures of the rock samples with multiple
fissures. When the loading rate is relatively low, tensile
failure between the fissures is more likely to occur, while
as the loading rate increases, the tensile fractures may be
transformed into tensile–shear fractures or shear fractures.
(3) In the connection between the failure mode and
mechanical strength of the fissured rock samples, the
action mechanism of dynamic loading is similar to that
of static loading. As the fissured rock sample at a certain
inclination angle α produces tensile fractures along the
fissure, the mechanical strengths will be greater than those
at 0°. However, when the fissured rock sample with incli-
nation angle α produces shear fractures or mixed fractures
(tensile–shear fractures, shear–tensile fractures) along the
fissure, the mechanical strengths will be smaller than those
at 0°.
Expectation
Through the review of the abovementioned literature, it
is found that the strength and damage modes of fissured
rocks with the variation law of fissure inclination angle
have been mainly studied by previous studies. However,
some important experimental parameters and data have not
been fully provided, including fissure characteristics and
rock materials. This leads to the inability of this paper to
provide a more in-depth and comprehensive analysis of the
response characteristics of fissured rock under dynamic
loading. Therefore, future work will focus more on these
research points, including the influence degree of rock-like
material properties, the degree of influence of fissure char-
acteristics (i.e., openness, density, shape, distribution, and
combination of fissures) (Li et al. 2019a), and the change
patterns of multi-mechanical indices (i.e., dynamic tensile
strength, dynamic shear strength, and dynamic bending
strength) (Han et al. 2022).
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the National
Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No.
2019YFC1509700). We also want to thank the technicians who helped
and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.
Page 13 of 16 526
Funding The work of Zhenming Shi was supported by the National
Key Research and Development Program of China, under Grant
2019YFC1509700.
Declarations
Conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
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