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DMS 1-5 Merged
DMS 1-5 Merged
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Module I:
❑ Proposition,
❑ Propositional Calculus-
Propositional Variables and
❑ Compound propositions,
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1.5 OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to
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Proposition
These two values “True” and “False” is denoted by “T” and “F”
respectively. Sometimes it is also denoted by 1 and 0.
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Proposition…
Proposition (Example) Truth value
4. 3+4=8 F
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Type of Proposition:
Proposition
Simple Compound
Logical connectives:
Given a atomic propositions (denoted by 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟..).
To form the compound propositions, the following logical
connectives are used.
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Propositional calculus:
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Propositional calculus(WFF)
Well formed formula(WFF) [A Syntax for Compound Proposition]
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Summary
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Discrete structures
Lecture Notes
Module-2 Lecture-1
Relations
Amity School of Engineering & Technology (CSE)
Objectives
After Completing this Module-II, you will be able to:
Relation
Introduction
Relation
Introduction
Formally, we define a relation in terms of these “ordered pairs”.
Relations, as noted above, will be defined in terms of ordered pairs (a, b)
of elements, where a is designated as the first element and b as the
second element.
Relation
Some definitions required to define relation
Relation
RELATION
Let A and B are two nonempty sets. A binary relation or, simply, relation
from A to B is a subset of A X B i.e.
R is a relation from A to B R (AB)
Note: Relation is derived from Cross-Product.
Example1
Let A = {1, 2,3} and B= {a, b, c}
Then AB={(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(3,a),(3,b),(3,c)}
R1={(1,a),(1,c)}
R2={(1,a),(2,a),(2,c)}
R3={(3,c)} ,……..
𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∅ All these are examples of relations from A to B.
Relation
Note:
If set A has n elements and B has m elements, how many relations are
there on the set AB.
Hence If set A has n elements and B has m elements, then there are
2mn relations on it.
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Relation
Domain and Range of a Relation
If R (AB) is a relation from AB, then
❖ Domain(R)={a: (a,b)R} and
❖ Range(R)={b: (a,b)R}.
The domain of a relation R is the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs which belong to R, and the range of R is the set of second
elements.
Example
Let A = {1, 2,3} and B= {a, b, c}
Then AB={(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(3,a),(3,b),(3,c)}
R={(1,a),(2,a),(2,c)}
❖ Domain(R)={1,2}
❖ Range(R)={a,c}.
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Relation
Some Examples
Example1: Let A={1,2,3,4}. Define a relation R on A by writing (x,y)R if
x < y. Then
R = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}.
Example2:
Let A={1,2,3}. Define a relation R on A as
R={(a,b): a is divisible by b. We have R = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(2,2),(3,3)}.
Example3:
Let A be the power set of the set {1,2} in other words, A = {,{1},{2},{1,2}}
is the set of subsets of the set {1,2}. Write a relation on A, where
(P,Q)R, if PQ.
In this case we have:
R = {(,{1}), (,{2}), (,{1,2}), ({1},{1,2}), ({2},{1,2})}.
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Module II:
❑ Types of Relation
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Types of Relations
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Types of Relations
Let A be a given non-empty set then a relation RAA is called a
binary relation on A.
Binary relations that satisfy certain special properties can be very
useful in solving computation problems. So let’s discuss some of
these properties:
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Types of relations (with properties)
Reflexive ∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, (𝒂, 𝒂) ∈ 𝑹 Every vertex has a
self loop
Irreflexive If 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, (a,a)∉R No vertex having
self loop
Symmetric If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 ⇒ (b, a) ∈ 𝑅 If a to b is an
arrow then there
must be an
return arrow from
b to a
Asymmetric If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 ⇒ (b, a) ∉ 𝑅 No return arrow
No self loop also and no self loop
Types of Relation
Reflexive
A relation R on a set A is reflexive if for every aA, aRa. that is, a relation
R in a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself
i.e. aRa is true for every aA.
Example:
Example1: Let A be the set of all straight lines in a plane. The relation R
“x is parallel to y” is reflexive since every straight line is parallel to itself.
Example2: Let A be the set of numbers and relation R in A is defined by
“x is equal to y” is reflexive” since each number is equal to itself.
Example3: Let A={1,2,3} and the relation R in A is defined by
R={(1,1),(2,2),(2,3)} is not reflexive because (3,3) does not belongs to R.
The given relation R will be reflexive, if every ordered pair (a,a)R for all
aA.
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Types of Relation
Example:
Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
R4 = Ø, the empty relation
R5 = A X A, the universal relation
Determine which of the relations are reflexive.
≤
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Types of Relation..
Irreflexive Relations
Example:
Example1: Let A= {1,2,3} and let R= {(1, 1),(3,2)}.
Here R is not reflexive since (2,2) or (3,3)R. Also R is not irreflexive,
since (1, 1)R.
Example2: Let A={a,b,c}be a non empty set. Let R={(a,b),(b,c),(c,a)}
Here R is irreflexive since (a,a) )R for every aA. Also note that there is
no loop at any node.
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Types of Relation
Example:
Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
R4 = Ø, the empty relation
R5 = A X A, the universal relation
Determine which of the relations are Irreflexive?
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Types of Relation
Symmetric Relation
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Types of Relation
Example:
Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
R4 = Ø, the empty relation
R5 = A X A, the universal relation
Determine which of the relations are Symmetric.
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Types of Relation
Asymmetric Relation
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Types of Relation
Anti-Symmetric Relation
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Types of Relation
Transitive Relation
Example
Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
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Problems:
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Problems:
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2 −𝑛
Total number of Irreflexive Relations= 2𝑛
Total number of symmetric Relations= 2𝑛(𝑛+1)/2
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Composition of Relations
Let A, B and C is sets, and let R1 be a relation from A to B and R2 be a
relation from B to C.
That is, R1 (AB) and R2 (BC).
Then the composite of R1 and R2 is a relation from A to C, denoted by
R1R2 and defined by
R1R2={(a,c): there exists bB such that (a,b)R1 and (b,c)R2}
The relation R1R2 is called the composition of R1 and R2.
Suppose R is a relation on a set A, that is R (AA). Then RR, the
composition of R with itself is always defined. RR is sometimes denoted by
R2.
Similarly, R3= RRR, and so on.
Thus Rn is defined for all positive n.
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Composition of Relations
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Composition of Relations
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Composition of Relations
Theorem 2.1: (Show that the composition of relations is Associative).
Let A, B, C and D be sets. Suppose
R is a relation from A to B,
S is a relation from B to C, and
T is a relation from C to D. Then (RS)T = R(ST)
Solution:
L.H.S.: Suppose (a,d) (RS)T (a,c)RS and (c,d)T
Since (a,c)RS (a,b)R and (b,c)S
Now (ST) (b,d)ST
Since (a,b)R and (b,d)ST (a,d) R(ST). Hence proved.
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Q.1:
Let R = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 2)}and S = {(4, 2), (2, 5), (3, 1), (1, 3)}.
Compute RS, SR, R(SR), (RS)R, RRR.
Solution:
a) RS = {(1,5), (3, 2), (2, 5)}
SR = {(4, 2), (3, 2), (1, 4)}. Clearly RS≠ SR
b) R(SR)= {(3, 2)}.
(RS)R = {(3, 2)}. Clearly R(SR)= (RS)R.
c) RRR= {(1, 2), (2, 2)}
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Closure of relations
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Closure of relations
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Closure of relations
Note: To construct Transitive closure t(R), if R contains the pairs
(a,b) and (b,c) then t(R) must contains the pair (a,b), for all a,b,cA.
Finding t(R) can take a lot of time when A has a large number of
elements. There exist an efficient way for computing t(R), known as
warshall’s algorithm (which may be discussed latter).
Example 1
Consider the following relation R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}:
R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 3)}.
Then r( R ) = R DA =R {(2, 2),(4, 4)}={(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 3),(2,2),(4,4)}
and s( R) = R R-1= R{(4, 2), (3, 4)}= {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 3),(4,2),(3,4)
t(R)= RR2R3R4={…..}
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Closure of relations
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Summary
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Module II:
❑ Digraph Representation of
Relation
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OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to
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Example
The less than relation R on the set of integers A ={1,2,3,4} is
the set {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}
and it can be represented by the following digraph:
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Example
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Summary
➢ A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if there is a self loop
at each node in directed graph of a relation.
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Module I:
❑ Equivalence and Partial Order
Relation
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OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to
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Equivalence Relation
A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if
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Equivalence Relation
Let a Relation R is defined on a set 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , then find which of the
following relations are Equivalence relation.
1) R1=∅
2) R2={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c)}
3) R3={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c), (b,a)}
4) R4={(a,a),(a,c),(b,a),(c,a)}
5) R5={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c), (a,b),(a,c),(b,a),(c,a)}
6) R6=AxA
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1) R1=∅
2) R2={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
3) R3={(1,1),(1,3),(2,1),(3,1)}
4) R4={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1), (2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)}
5) R5=AxA
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The set over which a partial order is defined is called a partially ordered
set (or POSET). It is denoted by (A,R) where A is a given set and R is a
relation which satisfy the above three conditions.
Example: The relation ≤ (less than or equal to) on the set R of real
numbers is a partial order relation.
Since the relation () is:
1. Reflexive i.e. aa, aR
2. Anti-symmetric i.e. a b and b aa=b, a,bR
3. Transitive i.e ab and bc, ac a,b,cR
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Hasse Diagram
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Greatest and Least element is also known as First (Maximum) and Last
(minimum) element.
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Note: UB, LB, LUB and GLB are defined on a subset of Given POSET.
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Example
Q. Draw the Hasse diagram of poset ({3,5,9,15,24,45},/). Then find the following:
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Check your Progress-1
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Module#3
Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra as Lattice:
A lattice is said to be a BA if it is both Distributed and complemented
lattice.
Note: In distributed lattice every element has at most one complement
(means either not exist or only one complement).
And In complemented lattice every element has at least one complement.
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Boolean Algebra
Let B is a nonempty set with
➢ Two binary operator (+) and (*)
➢ One unary operator ‘ (complement), and
➢ Two distinct element 0 and 1, then Boolean algebra can be represented
as a 6 tuple 𝑩, +,∗, ’, 𝟎, 𝟏 , where 0 is a least element and 1 is called a
greatest element.
➢ If the set B satisfy the following properties, then B is called
Boolean algebra:
1.Closure property: 4. Complement law
∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩 𝒂 + 𝒂’ = 𝟏
𝒂∗𝒃∈ 𝑩 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂’ = 𝟎
2. Associative Law: 5. Commutative Law
𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 a+b=b+a
𝒂∗ 𝒃∗𝒄 = 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗c a∗b=b∗a
3. Identity Law: Distributive law:
𝒂+𝟎=𝒂 a + (b ∗ c) = (a + b) ∗ (a + c)
𝒂∗𝟏=𝒂 (a ∗ (b + c) = (a ∗ b) + (a ∗ c)
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Point to be remember
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Boolean Algebra
▪ Boolean algebra is the theoretical foundation for digital system.
▪ Boolean algebra can have only two values, 0 and 1. The Boolean
0 and 1 do not represent actual numbers, instead a state of a
voltage which is known as the logic level.
▪ Boolean algebra is used as a tool for the analysis and design of
logic circuit.
▪ Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for
working with the set {0,1}.
▪ In Boolean algebra, 3 operations are mostly used:
➢ Boolean Complementation (‘)
➢ Boolean Sum (+) and
➢ Boolean Product (.)
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Boolean Algebra
• Both sets and propositions satisfy similar laws, These laws are
used to define an abstract mathematical structure called a
Boolean algebra, which is named after the mathematician
George Boole (1815–1864).
• Let B be a nonempty set with two binary operations + and ∗, a
unary operation ‘ , and two distinct elements 0 and 1. Then B is
called a Boolean algebra if the following axioms hold where a, b,
c are any elements in B:
• We will sometimes designate a Boolean algebra by 6 tuples as
(B,+, ∗,’ ,0, 1), which satisfy the following Properties:
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Boolean Algebra
(B,+, ∗,’ ,0, 1) is a BA, if the following axioms hold where a, b, c are any elements in B.
Boolean Algebra
Example1: Let B = {0, 1}, the set of bits (binary digits), with the binary
operations of + and ∗ and the unary operation defined by Fig.1. Then B is a
Boolean algebra. (Note simply changes the bit, i.e., 1= 0 and 0= 1.).
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Boolean Algebra- Example
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Example3:
Let 𝐷70 = {1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 35, 70}, the divisors of 70. Define +, ∗,
and on 𝐷70 by a + b = lcm(a, b), a ∗ b = gcd(a, b), a’=70/a
Show that 𝐷70 is a Boolean algebra with 1 as a ‘zero element’ and
70 as a Unit (Greatest) element.
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Example3:
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Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra
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Boolean Algebra
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Note Point
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Properties of Boolean Algebra
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Theorem6:
0’=1 and 1’=0
Proof: 0’=(a.a’)’=a’+(a’)’=a’+a=1
And
1’=(a+a’)’=a’.(a’)’=a’.a=0
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In fig2,
Atom: 𝑐
Anti-atom: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔
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Example2:
Consider 𝐷110 . Draw its Hasse diagram and find atoms and anti-
atom.
Atom: 2,5,11
Anti-atom: 10,22,55
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Example3:
Consider 𝐷210 . Draw its Hasse diagram and find atoms and anti-atom.
𝐷210 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10,14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105, 210}
Atom: 2,3,5,7
Anti-atom: 30,42,70,105
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Subalgebra:
A Boolean subalgebra, or more simply, a subalgebra, of a Boolean
algebra (B, ≼) is a subset A (i.e 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵), that contains the Greatest (1)
and Least elements (0) of B , and with any elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 , it contains
𝑎 ∨ 𝑏, 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 and 𝑎′ as well.
Note: 1) A itself be a BA, and contains 0 and 1 element
Let's consider a subset with
▪ 2 element:
{c,a}, {c,b}….., {c,d}; only {c,d} is a Boolean SA.
▪ 3 element (i.e. odd number of element)
{c,a,d},{c,b,d},{a,d,b},{a,c,b}; odd number of
Element in a subset never will be a Boolean SA in any case, because it itself not
a BA that is one extra element (say in {c,a,d}, a is not having any compliment),
so need not to check 2nd condition, least and greatest element in subset A.
▪ 4 element: {a,b,c,d} is a Boolean subalgebra.
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Subalgebra:
❑ Any subset A (of B) having odd number of elements, will not be a BSA.
Because there will be at least one element for which complement is not
exist.
❑Any set having even number of elements may or may not be a BSA.
Example: Find all the Boolean subalgebra of D30.
{1,30}
{ _, _, _ } not a BSA (odd number of element)
{1, _, _, 30} implies {1, 2,15, 30}
{1, 5, 6, 30}
{1, 3, 10, 30}
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Subalgebra:
Example: Find all the Boolean subalgebra of D30, which are not a Boolean
subalgebra of having at least 4 element.
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Subalgebra
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Subalgebra
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Boolean Subalgebra
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Contents:
❑ Basic Concepts of Graph
❑Different types of Graph
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Objectives
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Graphs…
Graph is a non-linear Data Structure. Example:
It is a collection of nodes(vertices)
and edges(arcs) that relate nodes to
each other in the graph.
Generally, A Graph is represented as
G = (V, E)
Where,
V is the set of vertices(nodes or
points) and
E is the set of edges(links or arcs). This graph G can be defined as
G= ( V , E )
where, V= {A,B,C,D,E} and
E= {(A,B),(A,C)(A,D),(B,D), (C,D),
(B,E),(E,D)}.
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Graph…
❖ Vertex: An individual data element of a graph is called as
vertex. Vertex is also known as node.
❖ Edge: An edge is a connecting link between two vertices.
Graph Terminology
Adjacent Nodes: Any two nodes which are connected by an
edge are said to be adjacent nodes.
Adjacent edges- Any two edges which are having one common
vertex
Loop or Self Loop: An edge that starts and end at the same
vertex
Parallel Edges- If more than one edge exists between the nodes
then the edges are called the parallel ledges.
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Types of Graphs
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Types of Graphs
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Types of Graphs
Null Graph: A graph with no edges is
called a Null Graph.
E(G)=φ
Trivial Graph: A graph with only one vertex.
It’s a smallest possible graph. V(G)≠ φ
Types of Graphs
Multi Graph: A graph having
no self loops but having
parallel edges.
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Types of Graphs
Types of Graphs
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Types of Graphs
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Types of Graphs
Regular Graph: It is a graph
where each vertex has the
same degree. If degree of each
vertex is K, Then it is called a K-
regular graph
Note: Every complete graph is regular bit vice-versa is not valid
X Y
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Types of Graphs
X Y
Note: V(G)=V(X) U V(Y) and no edge exit between
any two vertices in X or in Y
Types of Graphs
Cyclic Graph: A graph with at
least one cycle is called as
cyclic graph.
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Graph Terminology
Degree:( for undirected graph): Total number of edges connected to a
vertex.
There are two types of vertices i.e the vertices with degree even and
vertices with degree odd.
Note: In-Degree and Out-degree is possible in case of Directed Graphs 17
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Types of Graphs
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Solution:
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Practice Question
• Maximum degree of a graph >= Sum of degree of individual vertices
2E >= deg(V1) + deg(V2) + ... + deg(Vn)
2 * 35 >= 3 + 3 + ... + 3 ...(I),
70 >= 3n
23.33 >= n or 23 >= n
So the largest number of vertices are 23, with the given constraints
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Havel–Hakami algorithm
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Havel–Hakami algorithm
Given a degree sequence (in decreasing order)
𝑆 = (𝑑1, 𝑑2, 𝑑3, … … . 𝑑 𝑛 ) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 𝑑𝑖+1 [ Note that total n degrees are given]
Steps:
• If any 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 𝑛 then Fail. [No degree should be ≥ no. of given vertices]
• If there is an ODD numbers of odd degrees (or sum of all degrees is ODD) then
Fail
• If any 𝑑𝑖 < 0 then fail.
• If all 𝑑𝑖 = 0 [or only even no of 1’s and any no of 0’s) then report success. [This
a condition after applying algorithm]
STEP1: Reorder S in non decreasing order. Pick the vertex with highest degree
(say 𝑑1) . Lets call this value (𝑑1) = 𝐤.
STEP2: Remove 𝑑1 from S.
STEP3: Subtract 1 from the next 𝒌 elements from remaining sequence. That is
(×, 𝒅𝟐 − 𝟏, 𝒅𝟑 − 𝟏, … … . . , 𝒅𝒌+𝟏 −𝟏, 𝒅𝒌+𝟐 , … . . , 𝒅𝒏 )
STEP4: Repeat 1 to 3 until the stopping condition is met (i.e. If all 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎 [or only
even no of 1’s and any no of 0’s)
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Havel–Hakami algorithm
Question: Check whether a simple graph exits or not for the following degree sequences:
1) 3,2,1,0,0
2) 6,5,4,3,3,1
3) 3,2,1,5,0 that is
5,3,2,1,0
Solution:
1) k=3,
x,1,0,-1,0 [-ve values not possible] fail.
2) k=6, No enough degree exist to subtract (-1), Fail.
3) Number of odd degree is not EVEN, so Fail.
Havel–Hakami algorithm
Question: Check whether a simple graph exits or not for the following degree sequences:
1) 7,6,5,4,4,3,2,1
2) 6,6,6,6,3,3,2,2
3) 7,6,6,4,4,3,2,2
4) 8,7,7,6,4,2,1,1
Solution:
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Example
Example: Check whether a simple graph exits for the given
degree sequence or not
7,6,5,4,4,3,2,1
Solution: Check:
No degrees is greater than no of vertices (n=8),
Sum of all degree=EVEN,
Number of ODD degree= EVEN, So we can proceed to apply algorithm.
7 6 5 4 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 3 2 1 0
3 2 2 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
6,6,6,6,3,3,2,2
Solution: Check:
No degrees is greater than no of vertices (n=8),
Sum of all degree=EVEN,
Number of ODD degree= EVEN, So we can proceed to apply algorithm.
6 6 6 6 3 3 2 2
5 5 5 2 2 1 2
Rearran
ged 5 5 5 2 2 2 1
4 4 1 1 1 1
3 0 0 0 1
Rearran
ged 3 1 0 0 0
0 -1 -1 0
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Graph Terminology
Walk: It is a sequence of alternating vertices and edges such that
edges and vertices can appear any number of times
Closed walk: When a walk begins and ends at the same vertex , then
it is called a closed walk.
Open Walk: When a walk does not begins and ends at the same
vertex , then it is called an open walk.
Cycle: A closed path which begins and ends at the same vertex (all vertices
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Example:
.
Walk: 1a6b7d2,1a6b7e3h4g5f7b6
open walk: 1c2d7f5f7
closed walk:1c2d7f5f7b6a1
Trail: 7f5g4h3e7b6
Circuit: Closed trail: 7f5g4h3e7, 1a6b7f5g4r3e7d2c1
Path: 1a6b7f5g4
Closed path=Cycle: 1a6b7d2c1
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a) a2b5d8e
b) a2b6e8d5b4c
c) a1a3c7e
d) a3c4b2a
e) a3c7e6b4c
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Graph Terminology
A walk in a graph G is a finite sequence 𝑊 = {𝑣0 , 𝑒1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑒2 , … . . , 𝑒𝑘 , 𝑣𝑘 }
where 𝑣0 , 𝑣1 , … . . 𝑣𝑘 are vertices of G and 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑘 are edges joining the
vertices 𝑣𝑖−1 and 𝑣𝑖 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 (Note that all the 𝑣𝑖𝘍𝑠 or 𝑒𝑖𝘍𝑠 may not be
distinct. There may be repetition.)
Note: In a walk, the vertices as well as edges can be repeated.
The number of edges contained in a walk, i.e. k, is called the length of the
walk W, and is denoted by 𝑙(𝑊).
Example: Consider the graph on 5 vertices and 7 edges given in Fig.2.
Find x1-x5 walks of length 8 and length 4, respectively
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Graph Terminology
Example: Consider the graph on 5 vertices and 7 edges given in Fig.2.
Find x1-x5 walks of length 8 and length 4, respectively
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Example
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The Degree sequence of the graph G: 4,2,2,2,2,2,1 and for the graph
H is: 3,3,2,2,2,2,1,1. Hence not a Isomorphic graph.
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Graph colouring
Vertex colouring:
Note: We generally use the names of the colors, red, green and blue (if
using less number of colors up to 5 or 6). Suppose we need, say, 20
colors, can we still use the names to refer to the colors? Obviously NO.
So, In the diagrams, we will denote the colours as 1, 2,…. and so on.
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Note: Consider the complete graph Kn with n vertices. Since every vertex is adjacent to every
other vertex, Kn requires n colors in any coloring. Thus χ(Kn) = n.
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Graph colouring
Q.1 Find the chromatic number of complete bipartite graph
𝐾𝑚,𝑛
Solution: 𝜒 𝐺 = 2
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Vertex colouring
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Vertex colouring
𝜒 𝐺 = 4 and
𝜒 𝐺 =3
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vertex colouring
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Vertex colouring
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Vertex colouring
Q. Find the color classes in the two different colorings of the graph given in
Fig.8
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Bipartite graph
• A graph G is said to be bipartite if its vertices V can be partitioned into two
subsets M and N such that each edge of G connects a vertex of M to a
vertex of N. By a complete bipartite graph, we mean that each vertex of
• M is connected to each vertex of N; this graph is denoted by 𝑲𝒎, 𝒏 where m
is the number of vertices in M and n is the number of vertices in N, and,
for standardization, we will assume m ≤ n. Figure 8-16 shows the graphs
K2,3, K3,3, and K2,4, Clearly the graph Km,n has (m.n) edges.
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Planar Graph
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Planar Graph
Maps, Regions: A particular planar representation of a finite planar multigraph is
called a map. We say that the map is connected if the underlying multigraph is
connected. A given map divides the plane into various regions. For
example, the map in Fig. with six vertices and nine edges divides the plane into five
regions. Observe that four of the regions are bounded, but the fifth region,
outside the diagram, is unbounded.
Observe that the border of each region of a map consists of edges. Sometimes
the edges will form a cycle, but sometimes not. For example, in Fig. 8-22 the
borders of all the regions are cycles except for r3. However, if
we do move counterclockwise around r3 starting, say, at the vertex C, then we
obtain the closed path (C,D,E, F,E,C)
where the edge {E,F} occurs twice. By the degree of a region r, written deg(r), we
mean the length of the cycle or closed walk which borders r. We note that each
edge either borders two regions or is contained in a region
and will occur twice in any walk along the border of the region.
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Planar Graph
Maps, Regions:
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Here, this planar graph splits the plane into 4 regions- R1, R2, R3 and R4 where-
• Degree (R1) = 3
• Degree (R2) = 3
• Degree (R3) = 3
• Degree (R4) = 5
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If G be a connected planar graph with ‘e’ edges and ‘v’ vertices. Let ‘r’ be the
number of regions in Planar representation of G, Then
r=e-v+2.
Example:
Number of edges = 7
Number of vertices= 5
Number of regions= 7-5+2
=4
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A graph G with ‘e’ number of edges and ‘v’ number of vertices is given.
Then G i planar if
1) A circuit of length 3 is possible in a graph, then
e≤ 3v-6
2) A circuit of length 3 is not possible, then,
e≤ 2n-4
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Practice Question
Q1. If there are 20 vertices, each of degree 3, then into how many regions does
a representation of this planar Graph splits the plane.
Q2. A connected graph G with 25 vertices are 60 edges is given. Find the
number of regions for the graph.
Q3. Check whether the given graphs are planar or not.
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Planar Graph
Example2:
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Planar Graph
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Planar Graph
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Planar Graph
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Planar Graph
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Planar Graph
Theorem3 (Kuratowski):
To understand the statement, let us first consider Fig. 24 below.
Planar Graph
Theorem3 (Kuratowski):
In 1930, K. Kuratowski, a Polish mathematician, proved a necessary and
sufficient condition for a graph to be planar.
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Now, let us consider some examples of Eulerian graphs. The simplest class
of example is a cycle, for example, C6 in Fig. 5(a). We can get another
example by adding a cycle of length 3 to the graph in Fig. 5(a) at v1 (see Fig.
5(b)).
This is also Eulerian because we can start at the vertex v1, traverse the
inner triangle, come back to v1 and traverse the outer cycle. We get yet
another Eulerian graph by incorporating a cycle of length 6 at v1 to Fig.5 (a)
(see Fig. 5(c)).
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Euler graph
Euler Circuit: A closed trail which visits each and every
edge of the graph exactly once.
Euler graph: A connected graph G which contains an Euler
circuit is called an Euler graph.
Example:
An Euler cycle exits i.e.
BAFBCEFGCDEGB
Therefore, the given graph is an
Euler Graph.
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Example:
deg(A)=deg(D)=2
deg(B)=deg(C)=deg(F)=
deg(G)=deg(E)=4
All the nodes are having even
degree. Therefore the given
graph is Euler’s graph
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Example:
An Open Euler circuit exits i.e.
BADBCD
Therefore, the given graph is a Semi-
Euler Graph.
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Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian Circuit: A simple circuit which traverse each
and every vertex of the graph exactly once except the
starting/ending vertex..
Hamiltonian graph: A connected graph G which contains a
Hamiltonian circuit is called a Hamiltonian graph.
Example:
An Hamiltonian cycle exits i.e.
ABCEDA
Therefore, the given graph is an
Hamiltonian Graph.
Note: Every complete graph and cycle graph are Hamiltonian graphs.
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Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian Path: If a path exist which traverse each and
every vertex of the graph exactly once but does not return to
the starting vertex is called a Hamiltonian path.
Example:
A path which traverse each and every
Vertex once exits
Therefore, the path ABCDE is
Hamiltonian path
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Dirac’s Theorem: If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n ≥ 3 If deg(v) ≥ {n}/{2} for each
vertex v, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph.
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Tree
Rooted Tree
• A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the
root and every edge is directed away from the root.
• Different choice of root produce different root tree.
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Weighted Tree
Properties of Tree
Properties of Tree
Binary Tree
A tree in which each node contains at most two children
is called as Binary tree. One is known as the left child
and the other is known as the right child.
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Important Properties of Spanning tree
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Example1:
Apply Kruskal’s Algorithm on the given graph to fond Minimum Cost Spanning tree
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Example1:
Apply Kruskal’s Algorithm on the given graph to fond Minimum Cost Spanning tree
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Prim’s Algorithm
Step 1: Select any vertex as the starting
Step 3: Select the shortest edge connected to any vertex already connected
Prim’s Algorithm
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Kruskal’s Algorithm
Kruskal’s Algorithm
Example:
Kruskal’s Algorithm
Prim’s Algorithm
Example:
Prim’s Algorithm
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Practice Questions:
Find minimum Spanning tree for the following using Kruskal’s and Prim’s Algorithm
1. 2.
3. 44.
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Check your progress-1
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End of Module#4
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Contents:
❑Algebraic structure with one binary
operation,
❑semi groups, monoid and groups,
❑isomorphism, homomorphism, cyclic
group.
2
Module V:
❑ Definition of Algebraic Structures,
❑ SemiGroup
❑ Monoid
❑ Group
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Objectives
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Binary operations
We can also say that the set G is closed with respect to the operation.
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Algebraic Structure
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Closure property
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Practice Questions
Find which of the following are Algebraic Structures.
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Practice Questions
Find which of the following are Algebraic Structures.
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GROUP:
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Practice Questions
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Semigroup
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Practice Questions
Find which of the following are SemiGroups.
1. (N,+)--Y Y 11. (R,*)---Y Y
2. (N,-)---NO 12. (R,/) -----N
3. (N,*)---Y Y 13. (EVEN,+)-----Y Y
4. (N,/)---NO 14. (EVEN,*)-----Y Y
5. (Z,+)---Y Y 15. (ODD,+)-----N
6. (Z,-)----Y N 16. (ODD,*)-------Y Y
7. (Z,*)----Y Y 17. (RE,.)------Y y
8. (Z,/)-----NO 18. (RE,+)------Y y
9. (R,+)----Y Y 19. (M,+)-----Y Y
10. (R,-)----Y N 20. (M,*)-------Y Y (Remember
Matrix chain mault.
(associative
property satisfied)
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Monoid
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Find which of the following are Monoids.
1. (N,+)--Y Y Y 11. (R,*)---Y Y Y
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Group
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1. (N,+)--Y Y Y N N 11. (R,*)---Y Y Y Y N
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Commutative Property
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (N, *) where N is a natural number and
a*b=ab
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
c. Monoid but not a Group
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (Z, *) where Z is a set of all integers and
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = max(𝑎, 𝑏)
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
c. Monoid but not a Group
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (Z, *) where Z is a set of all integers and
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = m𝑖𝑛(𝑎, 𝑏)
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
c. Monoid but not a Group
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q2. Let Q+ = set of positive rational number and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏3
if (Q+ , *) is an abelian group, which of the following is not true?
a) e=3
b) a-1= 9/a
c) (23)−1 = 6
d) 3-1= 3
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Finite Group
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Practice Questions
Q1. Check whether fourth root of unity i.e ({1,-1, i, -i}, *) is a group or
not. (Note that 𝑖 = −1 and 𝑖 2 = −1 )
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Addition Modulo (+ 𝑚 ) and Multiplicative Modulo (× 𝑚)
Example:
Table for ({0,1,2,3}, +4) and ({1,2,3,4}, ×5)
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Practice Questions
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Practice Questions
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Check your Progress
Q. Which of the following are groups?
1. ({0,1,2,3,4}, ×5)
2. ({0,1,2,3,4}, +5)
3. ({1,2,3}, ×5)
4. ({1,2,3}, +5)
5. ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, ×6)
6. ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, +6)
7. ({1,2,3,4,5}, ×6)
8. ({1,2,3,4,5}, +6)
9. ({0,2,4}, +6)
10. ({0,2,4}, ×6)
11. ({1,3,5,7}, +8)
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Order of an element of a Group
If (G,*) be a finite group. Then order can defined for every a € G and
denoted by O(a) as
O(a)=n
Where n is the least positive integer which satisfy the equation an=e,
and e is the identity element.
Order of an identity element is 1.
Let (G,*) be a finite group.
a € G,
a2= a*a, here * is the operator defined for the group
and 2 is the number of times the operand is going to appear in the
equation to derive the identity.
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Example
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Cyclic Group
Generator (or Generating) element: In a Group (G,*), an element ‘a’ is called a
generator, if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 can be generated (or represented) using powers of a.
Cyclic Group:
A Group (G,*) is said to be cyclic group, if it contains at least one generator element.
Note: A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element. Every
element of a cyclic group is a power of some specific element which is called a
generator.
A cyclic group can be generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every other element of
the group can be written as a power of the generator ‘g’.
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Cyclic Group
Example: The set of numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under multiplication operation
is a cyclic group.
• Here i and –i can generate all the element of the set
• As i1 = I, i2 =-1 , i3 =-i, i4 =1
Hence the set is cyclic group.
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Homomorphism
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Homomorphism
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Practice Question
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
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Isomorphism
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Practice Question
Q1.
Q2.
Q3. Let be R the group of all real numbers with operation addition, and let R+ be
the group of all positive real numbers with operation multiplication. The
function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = ex .Show that the function f is
Isomorphism
Q4. Let be R the group of all real numbers with operation addition, and let R+ be
the group of all positive real numbers with operation multiplication. The
function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = 2x .Show that the function f is
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Binary operations-examples
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Binary operations-examples
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Binary operations-examples
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Order of a Group:
The number of distinct elements in a group is called the order of the
group denoted by O(G).
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Hence G is a
group under
multiplication
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Example4:
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Subgroup:
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Semigroup:
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End of Module-5
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