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 Introduction to
Health Physics

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FM.indd 2 30-03-2017 12:21:57

 Introduction to
Health Physics Fifth Edition

Thomas E. Johnson, PhD

Professor
Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado

New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto

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 To Sylvia Cember
and to the memory of
Dr. Elda E. Anderson
and
Dr. Thomas Parran
To my wife, Melissa
and to the memory of
Dr. Herman Cember

“And whatever you do, in word or in deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks
to God the Father through him.”

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 This page intentionally left blank

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 Contents
Preface/xi
1. INTRODUCTION/1
2. REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES/3
Mechanics/3
Relativistic Effects Review/7
Electricity/12
Energy Transfer/26
Quantum Theory/43
Summary/50
Problems/52
Suggested Readings/56
3. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE/57
Atomic Structure/57
The Nucleus/70
Summary/77
Problems/77
Suggested Readings/79
4. RADIATION SOURCES/81
Radioactivity/81
Transformation Mechanisms/81
Transformation Kinetics/95
Activity/101
Naturally Occurring Radiation/107
Serial Transformation/117
Summary/133
Problems/135
Suggested Readings/139
vii

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 viii Chapter 2
Contents

5. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER/141

Beta Particles (Beta Rays)/141
Alpha Particles/159
Gamma Rays/165
Neutrons/181
Summary/196
Problems/197
Suggested Readings/203
6. RADIATION DOSIMETRY/205
Units/205
External Exposure/207
Internally Deposited Radionuclides/236
External Exposure: Neutrons/270
Summary/275
Problems/276
Suggested Readings/281
7. BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SAFETY/285
Dose–Response Characteristics/286
The Physiological Basis for Internal Dosimetry/291
Radiation Effects: Deterministic/312
Radiation Effects: Stochastic/321
Radiation-Weighted Dose Units: The Sievert and The Rem/337
Summary/338
Problems/339
Suggested Readings/340
8. RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES/345
Organizations That Set Standards/345
Philosophy of Radiation Safety/350
ICRP Basic Radiation Safety Criteria/354
United States Nuclear Regulatory Program/423
Ecological Radiation Safety/437
Summary/440
Problems/440
Suggested Readings/442
9. HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION/447
Radiation Detectors/447
Particle-Counting Instruments/448
Dose-Measuring Instruments//467
Neutron Measurements/485

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 contents  ix
Review of Physical Principles 

Calibration/498
Counting Statistics/506
Summary/528
Problems/528
Suggested Readings/533
10. EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/535
Basic Principles/535
Optimization/597
Summary/600
Problems/601
Suggested Readings/604
11. INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/607
Internal Radiation/607
Principles of Control/608
Surface Contamination Limits/616
Waste Management/617
Assessment of Hazard/643
Optimization/652
Summary/655
Problems/656
Suggested Readings/659
12. CRITICALITY/663
Criticality Hazard/663
Nuclear Fission/663
Criticality/669
Nuclear Reactor/675
Criticality Control/679
Summary/686
Problems/686
Suggested Readings/688
13. EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEASURES/691
Medical Surveillance/691
Estimation of Internally Deposited Radioactivity/692
Individual Monitoring/706
Radiation and Contamination Surveys/706
Air Sampling/711
Continuous Environmental Monitoring/733
Combined Exposures/733
Source Control/735

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 x C

ontents
Summary/736
Problems/736
Suggested Readings/743
14. NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY/747
Units/748
UV Light/749
Lasers/754
Radiofrequency Radiation and Microwaves/785
Principles of Radiation Safety/817
Summary/820
Problems/821
Suggested Readings/826
Answers to Problems/829
Appendix A Values of Some Useful Constants/835
Appendix B Table of the Elements/837
Appendix C The Reference Person Overall Specifications/841
Appendix D Specific Absorbed Fraction of Photon Energy/851
Appendix E Total Mass Attenuation Coefficient, μ/ρ, cm2/g/887
Appendix F Mass Energy Absorption Coefficient, μa/ρ, cm2/g/895
Appendix G Mass Stopping Power in Units of cm2/g for Monoenergetic Electrons/903
Index/909

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 Preface
The practice of radiation safety is a continually evolving activity. Many of the changes in the
practice of ionizing and nonionizing radiation safety, in calculation methodology, and in the
methods for demonstrating compliance with the safety standards that have occurred since
the publication of the previous edition of Introduction to Health Physics are incorporated in
the fifth edition.
Since their inception in 1928, the Recommendations of the International Commission
on Radiological Protection have formed the scientific basis for ionizing radiation safety
­standards issued by regulatory authorities throughout the world. Generally, earlier recom-
mendations were successively more restrictive than the previous ones. The 2008 and 2015
recommendations, however, are essentially the same as the previous recommendations
made in 1990. The main difference is that the 2008 and 2015 recommendations are made
on the basis of the increased knowledge acquired since 1990 and for the first time, environ-
mental protection is explicitly addressed. This is not surprising, since no harmful radiation
effects have been observed among the population of radiation workers whose doses had
been within the previous standards. The new recommendations continued to stress that all
unnecessary exposure be avoided and that all exposures should be kept as low as reasonably
achievable, economic, and social factors being taken into account. A reasonable question,
therefore, that is raised by the ICRP recommendations is “How safe is safe?” This question
lies in the field that Dr. Alvin Weinberg, the late director of the Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory, called transscience. Transscientific questions have a scientific basis, but they cannot
be answered by science alone. Safety is a subjective concept that can be interpreted only
within the context of its application. Policy decisions regarding matters of health and safety
should be made in the context of public health. In the practice of public health, we find that
numerous diseases and threats to health are always present in every community. The cost
of controlling these threats to health is borne by the community. Since the community has
limited resources, it must set priorities regarding which of the many real or perceived health
threats to control. One of the techniques for quantifying the likelihood of the expression of a
potential risk is called quantitative risk assessment. In the area of radiation safety, this usually
deals with two main risks: (1) failure of a large technological system, such as a nuclear power
plant, and (2) the long-term effects of low-level radiation. The results of quantitative risk
assessment are often perceived as the determination of a real threat to life or limb, no mat-
ter how small the calculated chance of occurrence. However, quantitative risk assessment is

xi

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 xii preface

a calculation that almost always assumes the most pessimistic, and in many cases entirely
unrealistic, values for parameters whose magnitudes include several different uncertainties.
In addition to statistical uncertainties, for example, we must choose among several different
equally reasonable models to which to apply the statistical data. One of the purposes of this
edition is to provide the technical background needed to understand the calculation and
use of quantitative risk assessment for radiation hazards in order to help us allocate our
limited resources.
Although it has been a number of years since the ICRP recommended that health physics
quantities be expressed in the meter–kilogram–second (MKS) units of the SI system rather
than the traditional units based on the centimeter–gram–second (cgs) system, the change to
the SI units has not yet been universally implemented in the United States. For example, the
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission continues to use the traditional system of units in its
regulations. For this reason, this edition continues to use both systems, with one or the other
equivalent quantity given in parentheses.
I also owe a debt of gratitude to Herman Cember, for allowing me to be a part of this
book. I wish to thank Alex Brandl, Sanaz Hariri Tabrizi, Yuanlin Peng, and the many per-
sons, too numerous to mention by name, for their helpful suggestions.
Thomas E. Johnson

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 1 Introduction

Health physics, radiation protection, radiological health, radiation safety, and radiological
engineering are synonymous terms for the area of public health and environmental health
engineering that deals with the safe use of ionizing and nonionizing radiation in order to
prevent harmful effects of radiation to individuals, to population groups, and to the bio-
sphere. The health physicist is responsible for safety aspects in the design of processes,
equipment, and facilities utilizing radiation sources and for the safe disposal of radioactive
waste so that radiation exposure to personnel is minimized and is at all times within accept-
able limits; he or she must keep personnel and the environment under constant surveillance
in order to ascertain that these designs are indeed effective. If control measures are found to
be ineffective or if they break down, the health physicist must be able to evaluate the degree
of hazard and make recommendations regarding remedial action.
Public policy vis-à-vis radiation safety is based on political, economic, moral, and ethical
considerations as well as on scientific and engineering principles. This textbook deals only
with the scientific and engineering bases for the practice of health physics.
The scientific and engineering aspects of health physics are concerned mainly with
(1) the physical measurements of different types of radiation and radioactive materials,
(2) the establishment of quantitative relationships between radiation exposure and biologi-
cal damage, (3) the movement of radioactivity through the environment, and (4) the design
of radiologically safe equipment, processes, and environments. Clearly, health physics is a
professional field that cuts across the basic physical, life, and earth sciences as well as such
applied areas as toxicology, industrial hygiene, medicine, public health, and engineering.
The professional health physicist, therefore, in order to perform effectively, must have an
appreciation of the complex interrelationships between humans and the physical, chemical,
biological, and even social components of the environment. He or she must be competent
in the wide spectrum of disciplines that bridge the fields between industrial operations and
technology on one hand and health science, including epidemiology, on the other. In addi-
tion to these general prerequisites, the health physicist must be technically competent in the
subject matter unique to health physics.

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 2 Chapter 1

The main purpose of this book is to lay the groundwork for attaining technical com-
petency in health physics. Radiation safety standards undergo continuing change as new
knowledge is gained and as the public’s perception of radiation’s benefits and risks evolve.
Radiation safety nomenclature too changes in order to accommodate changing standards.
Because of the nature of the subject matter and the topics covered, however, it is hoped
that the book will be a useful source of information to workers in environmental health as
well as to those who will use radiation as a tool. For the latter group, it is also hoped that
this book will impart an appreciation for radiation safety as well as an understanding of the
philosophy of environmental health.

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 2 Review of Physical
Principles

MECHANICS
Units and Dimensions
Health physics is a science and hence is a systematic organization of knowledge about the
interaction between radiation and organic and inorganic matter. The Health Physics Society
defines health physics as “The science concerned with the recognition, evaluation, and con-
trol of health hazards to permit the safe use and application of ionizing radiation.” Quite
clearly, the organization of health physics must be quantitative as well as qualitative since the
control of radiation hazards implies knowledge of the dose–response relationship between
radiation exposure and the biological effects of radiation.
Quantitative relationships are based on measurements, which, in reality, are comparisons
of the attribute under investigation to a standard. A measurement includes two components:
a number and a unit. In measuring the height of a person the result is given, for example,
as 70 inches (in.) if the Imperial system of units is used or as 177.8 centimeters (cm) if the
metric system is used. The units inches in the first case and centimeters in the second case tell
us what the criterion for comparison is, and the number tells us how many of these units are
included in the quantity being measured. Although 70 in. means exactly the same thing as
177.8 cm, it is clear that without an understanding of the units the information contained in
the number above would be meaningless. In the United States, the imperial system of units
(now U.S. customary units) is used chiefly in engineering, while the metric system is widely
used in science.
The International Vocabulary of Metrology defines a quantity as “property of a phenom-
enon, body or substance where the property has a magnitude that can be expressed as a
number and a reference.” The magnitude of the physical quantity is a numerical value, and
the reference or standard will be the measurement unit, measurement procedure, or refer-
ence material. In the imperial system of units, these quantities are measured in feet, slugs
(a slug is that quantity of mass that is accelerated at a rate of one foot per second per second
by a force of one pound; a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 pounds), and seconds, respectively,

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 4 Chapter 2

while the metric system is divided into two subsystems: the mks, in which the three quan-
tities are specified in meters, kilograms, and seconds, and the cgs, in which centimeters,
grams, and seconds are used to designate length, mass, and time.
By international agreement, the metric system has been replaced by the Système
International, the International System of Units, or simply the SI system. Although many
familiar metric units are employed in SI, it should be emphasized that SI is a new sys-
tem and must not be thought of as a new form of the metric system. The International
System of Quantities (ISQ, ISO/IEC 80000) has a set of seven base quantities from which
all other quantities in the SI system are derived. All the other units such as force, energy,
power, and so on are derived from the basic units of length (meter), mass (kilogram), time
(second), electric current (ampere), thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin or Celsius),
amount of substance (mole), and luminous intensity (candela). Measurement units are real
scalar quantities that can be expressed in base units or derived units. Every measurement
has an uncertainty associated with it, although it may or may not be given in all situations.
Chapter 9 will discuss uncertainty, which for simplicity will be omitted in most calculations.
The basic unit for length, the meter, is also used for determining parameters such as dis-
placement. Displacement is the change in position from one point, x1, to another, x2:

∆x = x2 - x1. (2.1)

Displacement (∆x) over a time interval (∆t) expresses the average velocity (vavg ) in units of
meters per second:

x2 - x1 ∆x 
= = vavg .
t 2 - t1 ∆t

where velocity is a vector with magnitude (speed) and direction. Speed is simply the total
distance covered in a time interval, and the instantaneous speed (or velocity) is given by

 ∆x dx
v = lim = .
∆t →0 ∆t dt
The rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration, and utilizes units of meters per
second per second (m·s−2):
 
 ∆v dv
aavg = ; and a =
∆t dt

 dv 
d dx  2
d x
a= =   = .
dt dt  dt  dt 2

Deceleration will produce negative values for acceleration.

The derived unit of force, the newton (N), is defined as follows:

One newton is the unbalanced force that will accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a
rate of one meter per second per second.

Expressed mathematically, the result is Newton’s Second Law:

Force = mass × acceleration,

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 Review of Physical Principles 5

that is,
 
Fnet = ma , (2.2)

where the net force on a body is the vector sum of all forces on that body.
The units associated with force in newtons are
 m /s
F = kg ⋅ .
s
Since dimensions may be treated algebraically in the same way as numbers, the ­dimension
for acceleration is written as m/s2. The units for force in units of newton (N), therefore, are

kg ⋅ m
N= .
s2
The unit of force in the cgs system is called the dyne (1 dyne = 10−5 N). A dyne is defined
as the force required to accelerate one gram at a rate of one centimeter per second squared.
Although all health physics measurements are readily expressed in SI units, the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission continues to use the traditional cgs units in its regulatory activities
and cgs units will occasionally be utilized to illustrate various concepts throughout the text.

Work and Energy

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Since all work requires the expenditure of energy,
the two terms are expressed in the same units and consequently
 have the same dimensions.
Work W is done, or energy expended, when a force F is exerted through some distance x:
 
W = ∫ F ⋅ dx. (2.3)

In the SI system, the joule (J) (named after the British scientist who measured the mechan-
ical equivalent of heat energy) is the unit of work and energy and is defined as follows:

One joule of work is done when a force of one Newton is exerted through a distance
of one meter. Since work is defined as the product of a force and a distance, the
units for work and energy are as follows:

kg ⋅ m kg ⋅ m 2
Joule = newton ⋅ meter = 2
⋅m = .
s s2

The unit of work or energy in the cgs system is called the erg and is defined as follows:

One erg of work is done when a force of one dyne is exerted through a distance of
one centimeter. The joule is a much greater amount of energy than an erg.

1 joule = 107 ergs.

Although the erg is very much smaller than a joule, it nevertheless is very much greater
than the energies encountered in the submicroscopic world of the atom. When working on
the atomic scale, a more practical unit called the electron volt (eV) is used.

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 6 Chapter 2

The electron volt is a unit of energy and is defined as follows:

l eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J = 1.6 × 10−12 erg.

When work is done on a body, the energy expended in doing the work is added to the
energy of the body. The energy expended when work (W) is done to accelerate a body
appears as kinetic energy in the moving body.
       
W = ∫ F ⋅ dx = ∫ F ⋅ v ⋅ dt = ∫ v ⋅ d p = ∫ v ⋅ d (m ⋅ v ) (2.4)

Assuming that the mass, m, is constant,

  1   1 1
W = m∫ v ⋅ d (v ) = m∫ d (v ⋅ v ) = m∫ dv 2 = mv 2 . (2.5)
2 2 2
Kinetic energy (Ek) is defined as the energy possessed by a moving body as a result of its
motion, or the work done accelerating an object.

W = ΔEk = Ek,f − Ek,i(2.6)

When the body is initially at rest, Ek,i = 0, and bodies of constant mass m, moving “slowly”
with a velocity v less than about 3 × 107 m/s, the kinetic energy, Ek, is given by
1
Ek = Ek,f = W = mv 2 . (2.7)
2
Potential energy is defined as energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position in
a force field. In the case where work was done in lifting a body, the mass possesses more
potential energy at the higher elevation than it did before it was lifted. Work was done, in
this case, against the force of gravity and the total increase in potential energy of the mass is
equal to its weight, which is the force with which the mass is attracted to the Earth, multi-
plied by the height through which the mass was raised.
For example, if a mass is lifted from one elevation to another, the energy that was
expended during the performance of the work is converted to potential energy (Ep):
 
∆Ep = -W = ∫ F ⋅ dx. (2.8)

The total energy of the body is equal to the sum of its potential energy and its kinetic
energy:

Et = Ep + Ek,(2.9)

assuming no external forces act on the system, and there are no internal forces (such as fric-
tion). The total energy, E, of a system can only change by the amount of energy transferred
to or from the system.

W = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal  (2.10)

For an isolated system,

ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal = 0. (2.11)

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 Review of Physical Principles 7

When the speed of a moving body increases beyond about 3 × 107 m/s, we observe inter-
esting changes in their behavior—changes that were explained by Albert Einstein.

RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS REVIEW

According to the system of classical mechanics that was developed by Newton and the other
great thinkers of the Renaissance period, mass is an immutable property of matter; it can
be changed in size, shape, or state but it can neither be created nor be destroyed. Although
this law of conservation of mass seems to be true for the world that we can perceive with
our senses, it is in fact only a special case for conditions of large masses and slow speeds. In
the submicroscopic world of the atom, where masses are measured on the order of 10−27 kg,
where distances are measured on the order of 10−10 m, and where velocities are measured in
terms of the velocity of light, classical mechanics is not applicable. Albert Einstein’s special
theory of relativity provides us with an explanation for these circumstances.
There are three main postulates of Einstein’s special theory of relativity:
1. The velocity of light in a vacuum is constant at 299,792,458 m/s (for practical purposes,
a value of 3.00 × 108 is used) relative to every observer in any reference frame.
2. He also postulated that the speed of light is an upper limit of speed that a material body
can asymptotically approach, but never can attain. Photons travel at the speed of light in
a vacuum and in all inertial reference frames, as they have no mass.
3. The physics are the same for observers within the all inertial reference frames. Classi-
cal mechanics, optics, and other physics basics remain the same for all observers within
any inertial reference frame. Making measurements from different frames of reference
requires us to consider relativity.
Although the laws of physics are the same for all observers in inertial reference frames,
measured values may not be the same for all observers. For example, time intervals as mea-
sured in two reference frames will depend on both space and time separation. For example,
the observer of a person moving at a velocity close to the speed of light will measure a time
“dilation.” The time interval, t′, observed in the moving frame (from the point of view of the
stationary observer) will be longer than the time interval observed by that observer in his/
her resting frame (t). The time dilation, t′, can be calculated using the following equations:
1
∆t ′ = ∆t . (2.12a)
v2
1- 2
c
When the following are substituted:
v2
β 2 = 2 , (2.13)
c
1 1
γ= 2
= , (2.14)
v 1- β 2
1-
c2
we obtain the following equation:
Δt′ = γΔt.(2.12b)

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 8 Chapter 2

EXAMPLE 2-1(a)

If the mean life (t) of a muon is 2.2 × 10-6 seconds, with a velocity of 99.88% of the speed of
light, what would the mean life (t′) appear to be from a person in the rest frame?

Solution
Substituting values into Eqs. (2.14) and (2.12b),

Δt′ = γ Δt,
1 1
γ= = = 20.42,
v  1-(0.9988)2
1- 
c 

Δt′ = 20.42 × (2.2 × 10-6 s) = 4.49 × 10-5 s.

Not only can time dilation be observed between two reference frames, but also the length
of a path in the resting frame (rest length L) will be longer than length measured in the mov-
ing frame (L′) along the direction of movement. This follows directly from time dilation.
For the classical case, the length L traveled can be found by
L = v ⋅ Δt.(2.15a)
To find the length traveled in the moving frame, L′, the previous reasoning on time dila-
tion has to be reversed. The “observer” now appears in the moving frame, but the proper
length (L) is measured in the stationary frame which now moves (in the opposite direction)
with respect to that observer. The stationary observer measures both the proper time and
the proper length, such that the moving observer consequently has to experience a prop-
erly contracted time interval. Effectively, the indices between the two reference frames have
switched, such that now Eq. (2.12b) changes, and is rewritten as
Δt = γ Δt′.(2.12c)
The length traveled in the moving frame then becomes
L′ = v ⋅ Δt′.(2.15b)

Solving the above equation for Δt′ and substituting in Eq. (2.12c) for the moving frame
of ­reference:
∆t L
L ′ = v ⋅ ∆t ′ = v = , (2.15c)
γ γ
L = γ ⋅ L′, (2.15d)

where γ > 1, L > L′, as the distance traveled must be longer in the rest frame.

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 Review of Physical Principles 9

EXAMPLE 2-1(b)

Find the distance that the muon in Example 2.1(a) travels in the rest frame, L. Note that
the muon experiences the mean life in its rest frame (which in this example is the moving
frame). The indices on t and t′ are reversed.

Solution
From Example 2.1(a)
γ = 20.42,
Δt′ = 2.2 × 10-6 s (mean life that the muon experiences).
Combining Eqs. (2.15b) and (2.15d),
L′ = ν ⋅ Δt′,
L = γ ⋅ L′ = γ · v ∙ Δt′,
 m
L = 20.42 ⋅ 0.9988 ⋅ 3 ×108  ⋅ 2.2 ×10-6 s,
 s
L = 1.35 × 104 m.
The distance we would “expect” the muon to travel with nonrelativistic effects would be
20.42 times less than what we actually observe.

Velocity transformation follows, where u is the rest frame velocity, u′ is the velocity in the
primed reference frame, and the primed reference frame is moving at velocity v with respect
to the rest frame:
u′ + v
u= . (2.16)
 v
1 + u′ 2 
 c 
Relativistic momentum can thus be found by
 
p = γmv , (2.17)
and acceleration (note that acceleration decreases with increasing velocity) by
3/2
F  u2 
a= 1-  . (2.18)
m  c 2 
The equivalence of mass and energy is one of the most important consequences of Einstein’s
special theory of relativity. According to Einstein, the relationship between mass and energy is
E = mc2,(2.19)
where E is the total energy of a piece of matter whose mass is m and c is the velocity of light
in vacuum. Note that mc2 is independent of velocity and is frequently referred to as “rest

CH02.indd 9 03-04-2017 07:46:06

 10 Chapter 2

energy.” Equations (2.20a) and (2.20b) are expressions for kinetic energy and must be used
whenever the moving body experiences observable relativistic effects, less the “rest energy”
when relativistic effects are considered:
Ek = γmc2 − mc2,
Ek = mc2(γ – 1), (2.20a)
 
1
Ek = mc 2  1 / 2 - 1.
 (2.20b)
 (1- β )
2


The relativistic expression for kinetic energy given by Eq. (2.20b) is rigorously true for
particles moving at all velocities, whereas the nonrelativistic expression for kinetic energy,
Eq. (2.7), is applicable only to cases where the velocity of the moving particle is much less
than the velocity of light. It can be shown that the relativistic expression reduces to the
nonrelativistic expression for low velocities by expanding the expression (1 − β2)−1/2 in
Eq. (2.19b) according to the binomial theorem and then dropping higher terms that become
insignificant when v << c. According to the binomial theorem,
n n(n -1)an-2b2
(a + b) = an + nan-1b + + .  (2.21)
2!
The expansion of (1 − β2)−1/2 according to Eq. (2.21) is accomplished by letting a = 1,
b = −β2, and n = −1/2.

2 -1/ 2 1 3
(1- β ) = 1 + β 2 + β 4 + 
2 8
(2.22)

Since β = v/c, then, if v << c, terms from β4 and higher will be insignificantly small and
may therefore be dropped. Then, after substituting the first two terms from Eq. (2.22) into
Eq. (2.20b), we have
 1 v2  1
Ek = m0c 2 1 + 2 -1 = m0v 2 ,
 2 c  2
which is the nonrelativistic case. Equation (2.7) is applicable when v << c.

EXAMPLE 2-2

(a) What is the kinetic energy of an electron that travels at 99% of the velocity of light?

Solution

 
 1 
Ek = m0 c 2  - 1
 1 - β 2 1/2 
( ) 
 

2  
m  1  = 4.99 ×10-13 J.
= 9.11×10 -31
kg 3 ×108  - 1
 s   2
1/ 2

 1 - (0.99)  
 

CH02.indd 10 03-04-2017 07:46:10

 Review of Physical Principles 11

(b) How much additional energy is required to increase the velocity of this electron to
99.9% of the velocity of light, an increase in velocity of only 0.9%?

Solution
The kinetic energy of an electron whose velocity is 99.9% of the speed of light is
 

2  
m  1
Ek = 9.11×10 -31
kg 3 ×108  -1 = 17.52 ×10-13 J.
 s   2
1/ 2

 1 - (0.999)  
 
The additional work necessary to increase the kinetic energy of the electron from 99% to
99.9% of the velocity of light is

∆W = (17.52 - 4.99)×10-13 J
= 12.53 ×10-13 J.

In Example 2.2, it has been shown that at a very high velocity (β = 0.99) a kinetic energy
increase of 253% resulted in a velocity increase of the moving body by only 0.9%. In non-
relativistic cases, the increase in velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the
work done on the moving body or, in other words, to the kinetic energy of the body. In
the relativistic case, the velocity increase due to additional energy is smaller than in the
nonrelativistic case.
The principle of relativity tells us that all matter contains potential energy by virtue of
its mass. It is this energy source that is tapped to obtain nuclear energy. The main virtue
of this energy source is the vast amount of energy that can be derived from conversion into
its energy equivalent of small amounts of nuclear fuel.

EXAMPLE 2-3

(a) How much energy can be obtained from 1 g of nuclear fuel?

Solution
2
 m
E = mc 2 = 1×10-3 kg ⋅ 3 ×108  = 9 ×1013 J
 s

Since there are 2.78 × 10−7 kilowatt-hours (kW · h) per joule, 1 g of nuclear fuel yields

J kW ⋅h kW ⋅h
E = 9 ×1013 ⋅ 2.78 ×10-7 = 2.5 ×107 .
g J g

CH02.indd 11 03-04-2017 07:46:12

 12 Chapter 2

(b) How much coal, whose heat content is 13,000 Btu/lb, must be burned to liberate the
same amount of energy as 1 g of nuclear fuel?

Solution

1 Btu = 2.93×10-4 kW ⋅ h

Therefore, the amount of coal required is

Btu  -4 kW ⋅ h 
 2 ×103 lb ⋅C tons.
2.5 ×107 kW ⋅ h = 1.3 ×104 2.93 ×10
lb Btu  to
on

Therefore,

C = 3280 tons (2981 metric tons).

The loss in mass accompanying ordinary energy transformations is not detectable

because of the very large amount of energy released per unit mass and the consequent very
small change in mass for ordinary reactions. In the case of coal, for example, the above
example shows a loss in mass of 1 g per 3280 tons. The fractional mass loss is

∆m 1g
f= = = 3.3 ×10-10.
m  3 lb  4.54 ×10 g
3.28 ×10 tons 2 ×10
3 2
 ton  lb

Such a small fractional loss in mass is not detectable by any of our ordinary weighing
techniques.

ELECTRICITY
Electric Charge: The Coulomb
All the elements are electrical in nature and, except for hydrogen, are constructed of mul-
tiples of two charged particles and one uncharged particle. Their electrical properties are
due to extremely small, charged particles called protons and electrons. The mass of the pro-
ton is 1.6726 × 10−27 kg (1.6726 × 10−24 g) and the mass of the electron is 9.1094 × 10−31 kg
(9.1094 × 10−28 g) (see Appendix A for unrounded values). These two particles have charges
of exactly the same magnitude but are qualitatively different.
A proton is said to have a positive charge and an electron has a negative charge. Under
normal conditions, matter is electrically neutral because the positive and negative charges
are homogeneously (on a macroscopic scale) dispersed in equal numbers in a manner that
results in no net charge. However, it is possible, by suitable treatment, to induce either net
positive or negative charges on bodies. For example, combing hair with a hard rubber comb
transfers electrons to the comb from the hair, leaving a net negative charge on the comb.

CH02.indd 12 03-04-2017 07:46:13

 Review of Physical Principles 13

The uncharged component in elements is called the neutron; it has a mass of 1.6749 ×
10−27 kg (1.6749 × 10−24 g). For health physics purposes, these three particles—electron,
proton, and neutron—may be considered the basic building blocks of matter (although we
now understand that protons and neutrons themselves are made of still smaller particles
called quarks). It should be pointed out here that high-energy accelerators produce—in
addition to protons, neutrons, and electrons—a number of different extremely short-lived
unstable particles. In the context of health physics, the most important of these particles are
charged and uncharged pions and muons because they give rise to very high energy electrons
and gamma rays when they decay. Muons are produced also by cosmic radiation and con-
tribute to the dose from cosmic radiation.
Charged bodies exert forces on each other by virtue of their electric fields. Bodies with
like charges repel each other while those with unlike charges attract each other. In the case
of point charges, the magnitude of these electric forces is proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charged
bodies (r). This relationship was described by Coulomb and is known as Coulomb’s law.
Expressed algebraically, it is

q1q2
Fe = k , (2.23)
r2
where k, the constant of proportionality, depends on the nature of the medium that separates
the charges, q. In the SI system, the unit of electric charge, called the coulomb (C), is defined
in terms of electric current rather than by Coulomb’s law. For this reason, the constant of
proportionality has a value not equal to 1 but rather

N ⋅ m2
k0 = 9.00 ×109 , (2.24)
C2
when the two charges are in a vacuum or in air (air at atmospheric pressure exerts very little
influence on the force developed between charges and thus may be considered equivalent to
a vacuum). The subscript 0 signifies the value of k in a vacuum. If the charges are separated
by materials, other than air, that are poor conductors of electricity (such materials are called
dielectrics), the value of k is different and depends on the material.
It is convenient to define k0 in terms of another constant, ε0, called the permittivity:

1 N ⋅ m2
k0 = = 9.00 ×109 , (2.25)
4πε0 C2

1 1 C2
ε0 = = = 8.85 ×10-12 .
4πk0 N⋅m 2
N ⋅ m2
4π ⋅ 9.00 ×109
C2
The permittivity of any other medium is designated by ε. The relative permittivity, Ke, of
a substance is defined by

ε
Ke = (2.26)
ε0
and is called the dielectric coefficient.

CH02.indd 13 03-04-2017 07:46:17

 14 Chapter 2

For all dielectric materials, the dielectric coefficient has a value greater than 1. If every-
thing else is held constant, a higher dielectric coefficient leads to a greater amount of stored
electric energy.
The smallest natural quantity of electric charge is the charge on the electron or pro-
ton, ±1.6 × 10−19 C. The reciprocal of the electronic charge, 6.25 × 1018, is the number of
electrons whose aggregate charge is 1 C. In the cgs system, the unit of charge is the
statcoulomb (sC), and the electronic charge is 4.8 × 10−10 sC. There are 3 × 109 sC in 1 C (see
Appendix A for exact value).

EXAMPLE 2-4

Compare the electrical and gravitational forces of attraction between an electron and a pro-
ton separated by 5 × 10−11 m.

Solution
The electrical force is given by Eq. (2.23):

q1q2 9 N⋅m
2
1.6 ×10-19 C ⋅1.6 ×10-19 C
f = k0 = 9 . 00 × 10 ⋅ 2
r2 C2 (5 ×10-11 m)
= 9.2 ×10-8 N.

The gravitational force between two bodies follows the same mathematical formulation
as Coulomb’s law for electrical forces. In the case of gravitational forces, the force is always
attractive. The gravitational force is given by
Gm1m2
F= . (2.27)
r2
G is a universal constant that is equal to 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2/kg2 and must be used because
the unit of force, the Newton, was originally defined using “inertial” mass, according to
Newton’s second law of motion, given by Eq. (2.2). The mass in Eq. (2.27) is commonly
called “gravitational” mass. Despite the two different designations, it should be emphasized
that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equivalent. It should also be pointed out that
F in Eq. (2.27) gives the weight of an object of mass m1 when m2 represents the mass of the
Earth and r is the distance from the object to the center of the Earth. Weight is merely a mea-
sure of the gravitational attractive force between an object and the Earth and therefore varies
from point to point on the surface of the Earth, according to the distance of the point from
the Earth’s center. On the surface of another planet, the weight of the same object would be
different from that on the Earth because of the different size and mass of that planet and its
consequent different attractive force. In outer space, if the object is not under the gravita-
tional influence of any heavenly body, it must be weightless. Mass, however, is a measure of
the amount of matter and its numerical value is therefore independent of the point in the
universe where it is measured.

CH02.indd 14 03-04-2017 07:46:18

 Review of Physical Principles 15

The gravitational force between the electron and the proton is

N ⋅ m2
6.67 ×10-11 ⋅ 9.11×10-31 kg ⋅ 1.67 ×10-27 kg
kg 2
F= 2
(5 ×10 -11
m)
= 4.1×10-47 N.

It is immediately apparent that in the interaction between charged particles, gravitational

forces are extremely small in comparison with the electrical forces acting between the par-
ticles and may be completely neglected in most instances.

Electrical Potential: The Volt

If one charge is held rigidly and another charge is placed in the electric field of the first
charge, it will have a certain amount of potential energy relative to any other point within
the electric field. In the case of electric potential energy, the reference point is taken at an
infinite distance from the charge that sets up the electric field, that is, at a point far enough
from the charge so that its effect is negligible. As a consequence of the great separation,
these charges do not interact electrically. Therefore, a value of zero is arbitrarily assigned
to the potential energy in the system of charges; the charge at an infinite distance from
the one that sets up the electric field has no electric potential energy. If the two charges
are of the same sign, bringing them closer together requires work (or the expenditure of
energy) in order to overcome the repulsive force between the two charges. Since work was
done in bringing the two charges together, the potential energy in the system of charges
is now greater than it was initially. However, if the two charges are of opposite signs,
then a decrease in distance between them occurs spontaneously because of the attractive
forces, and work is done by the system. The potential energy of the system consequently
decreases, that is, the potential energy of the freely moving charge with respect to the
rigidly held charge decreases. This is exactly analogous to the case of a freely falling mass
whose potential energy decreases as it approaches the surface of the Earth. In the case
of the mass in the Earth’s gravitational field, however, the reference point for potential
energy of the mass is arbitrarily set on the surface of the Earth. This means that the mass
has no potential energy when it is lying right on the Earth’s surface. All numerical values
for potential energy of the mass, therefore, are positive numbers. In the case of electric
potential energy, however, as a consequence of the arbitrary convention that the point of
the zero numerical value is at an infinite distance from the charge that sets up the electric
field, the numerical values for the potential energy of a charge, owing to attractive electri-
cal forces, must be negative.
The quantitative aspects of electric potential energy may be investigated with the aid of
Figure 2-1, which shows a charge +Q that sets up an electric field extending uniformly in
all directions. Another charge, +q, is used to explore the electric field set up by Q. When

CH02.indd 15 03-04-2017 07:46:20

 16 Chapter 2

b a
+Q +q

rb

ra

Figure 2-1. Diagram illustrating work done in moving a charge between two points of different
potential in an electric field.

the exploring charge is at point a, at a distance ra cm from Q, it has an amount of potential

energy that depends on the magnitudes of Q, q, and ra. If the charge q is now to be moved to
point b, which is closer to Q, then, because of the repulsive force between the two charges,
work is done in moving the charge from point a to point b. The amount of work that is
done in moving charge q from point a to point b may be calculated by multiplying the
force exerted on the charge q by the distance through which it was moved, in accordance
with Eq. (2.2). From Eq. (2.23), however, it is seen that the force is not constant but varies
inversely with the square of the distance between the charges. The magnitude of the force,
therefore, increases rapidly as the charge q approaches Q, and increasingly greater amounts
of work are done when the exploring charge q is moved a unit distance. The movement of
the exploring charge may be accomplished by a series of infinitesimally small movements,
during each of which an infinitesimally small amount of work is done. The total energy
expenditure, or increase in potential energy of the exploring charge, is then merely equal to
the sum of all the infinitesimal increments of work. This infinitesimal energy increment is
given by Eq. (2.3):

dW = − f dr

(the minus sign is used here because an increase in potential energy results from a decrease
in distance between the charges) and if the value for f from Eq. (2.23) is substituted into
Eq. (2.3), we have

Qq
dW = -k0 dr , (2.28)
r2
rb
dr
W = -k0 Qq ∫ . (2.29)
ra
r2

Integration of Eq. (2.29) gives

1 1
W = k0Qq  - . (2.30)
 rb ra 

If the distances a and b are measured in meters and if the charges are given in coulombs,
then the energy W is given in joules.

CH02.indd 16 03-04-2017 07:46:23

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Six months in the gold
mines
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Six months in the gold mines

from a journal of three years' residence in Upper and Lower
California. 1847-8-9

Author: E. Gould Buffum

Release date: September 5, 2023 [eBook #71574]

Language: English

Original publication: Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1850

Credits: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIX MONTHS

IN THE GOLD MINES ***
 SIX MONTHS
IN THE GOLD MINES:
FROM A JOURNAL OF

IN

UPPER AND LOWER CALIFORNIA.

1847-8-9.

BY E. GOULD BUFFUM,
LIEUTENANT FIRST REGIMENT NEW YORK VOLUNTEERS.

PHILADELPHIA:
LEA AND BLANCHARD.
1850.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850,

BY LEA AND BLANCHARD,

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of
Pennsylvania.

PHILADELPHIA:
 C. SHERMAN, PRINTER.

TO

JOHN CHARLES FRÉMONT,

THE UNITED STATES SENATOR

FIRST CHOSEN TO REPRESENT THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA:

THE HISTORY

OF WHOSE INVALUABLE PIONEER LABOURS

WILL ENDURE AS LONG AS THE MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS, AND PLAINS

WHICH HIS COURAGE AND INDOMITABLE ENTERPRISE EXPLORED,

AND HIS GENIUS HAS ILLUSTRATED,

BY PERMISSION,

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,

BY

THE AUTHOR.
 PUBLISHERS’ NOTICE.
The pages of this work, in consequence of the public interest in all that
appertains to California, have been hurried through the press, without the
revision expected by the author; there may be, therefore, some slight errors
detected through the pages. The writer of the work, formerly connected
intimately with the New York press, has been a resident and explorer of
California for more than three years, and still remains there. The proof
sheets could not, therefore, well be submitted to his revision.

Philadelphia, May, 1850.

 CONTENTS.
Introduction, 13

CH AP TE R I.
Departure for the Mines—The Victims—Adventures of a Night on San
Francisco Bay—Voyage in a Launch—My Companion Higgins—
Resolutions of the Passengers—The Bay of San Pablo—The Straits
of Carquinez—Benicia—The Bay of Suisun—The Sacramento—
Beautiful Scenery—Montezuma—Monte Diablo—Camp on Shore
—Hala-chum-muck—Firing the Woods—Schwartz’s Rancho—A
“manifest destiny” Man—Involuntary Baptism—Sacramento City—
The Embarcadero, 25

CH AP TER II.
Arrival of our Party—The Mountaineer—A “prospecting” Expedition
—The Start—California Skies in November—A Drenching—Go-
ahead Higgins—“Camp Beautiful”—John the Irishman—The
Indian’s Grave—A “rock” Speech—The Return—Herd of Antelope
—Johnson’s Rancho—Acorn Gathering—Indian Squaws—Novel
Costume—The Rancheria—Pule-u-le—A Bear Fight, 35

CH A P TER III.
Yuba River—A Clean Shirt an Expensive Luxury—Yankee Pedler—
The Upper and Lower Diggings—Foster’s Bar—The Gold-Rocker
—Gold-Digging and Gold-Washing—Return to the Embarcadero—
Captain John A. Sutter—Curious Currency—Sutter’s Fort—Sam
Brannan and Co.—Washing Clothes—Salmon Shooting—Green
Springs—Weaver’s Creek—A Teamster’s Bill, 49

CH A P TER IV.
Our Log Cabin—Pi-pita-tua—Increase of our Party—The Dry 59
Diggings of Weaver’s Creek—The “Pockets” and “Nests”—Theory
of the Gold Region—My First Day’s Labour in the Placers—
 Extravagant Reports from the Middle Fork—Start for Culoma—
Approach of the Rainy Season—The “Devil’s Punch-Bowl,”

CH A P TER V.
Sutter’s Mill—Discovery of the Placers—Marshall and Bennett—
Great Excitement—Desertion of the Pueblos, and general Rush for
the Mines—Gold-Mine Prices—Descent into a Cañon—Banks of
the Middle Fork—Pan Washing—Good Luck—Our Camp—Terrific
Rain Storm—Sudden Rise of the River, 67

CH AP TER VI.
Mormon Exploration of the Middle Fork—Headquarters of the Gold-
hunters—The North Fork—Smith’s Bar—Damming—Great Luck
of a Frenchman and his Son—Kelsey’s Bar—Rise and Fall of the
Rivers—Return to Weaver’s Creek—Agricultural Prospects—
Culoma Sawmill—An Extensive and Expensive Breakfast
—“Prospecting” on the South Fork—Winter Quarters—Snow-storm
—A Robbery—Summary Justice—Garcia, Bissi, and Manuel—
Lynch Law—Trial for attempt to Murder—Execution of the
Accused—Fine Weather—How the Gold became distributed—
Volcanic Craters, 77

CH AP TER VII.
Monotonous Life at Weaver’s Creek—Dry Diggings Uncertain—
Discovery of a Rich Ravine—Great Results of One Day’s Labour—
Invasion of my Ravine—Weber and Dalor—The Indian Mode of
Trading—A Mystery—Settlement of Weaverville—Price of Gold-
dust in the Winter of 1848—Gambling—Cost of Provisions—
Opening of the Spring—Big Bar—Attack of the Land Scurvy—
Symptoms and Treatment—Lucky Discovery—Progress of Culoma
—Arrival of the First Steamer—Broadway Dandies wielding Pick
and Shovel—Indian Outrages—Capture and Execution of Redskins, 89

CH AP TER V III.
Extent and Richness of the Gold Region of Upper California—Are the 103
“Gold-washings” inexhaustible?—A Home for the Starving Millions
 of Europe and the Labouring Men of America—Suicidal Policy of
our Military Governors—Union of Capital, Labour, and Skill—A
Word to Capitalists—Joint-stock Companies—The Gold-bearing
Quartz of the Sierra—Experience of Hon. G. W. Wright—
Extraordinary Results of pulverizing Quartz Rock—The Gold Mines
of Georgia—Steam Engines and Stamping Machines—Growth of
Sacramento and San Francisco,

CH AP TER IX.
The Mexican System of Government—Establishment of the
Legislative Assembly of San Francisco—Seizure of the Town
Records—Address of the Assembly recommending the Formation
of a State Government—Interference of Brevet Brigadier-General
Riley—Public Meeting—Organization of the State Convention—
The Constitution—The Elections, 113

CH A P TER X.
Growth of San Francisco—Number of Houses erected—Prices of Real
Estate—Rents—Wages of Mechanics and Labourers—Gambling—
Prices Current—Climate—Churches—Steamboats—Statistics of
Shipping, &c., &c., &c., 121

CH AP TER XI.
Weber—Sullivan—Stockton—Hudson—Georgetown—Sam Riper—
The Slate Range—The “Biggest Lump” yet found in California, 125

CH AP TER XII.
Recapitulation—Population of the Mining Region—Average Amount
of Gold Dug—Requirements of a Gold-Digger—The Best Season—
In what kind of Soil is Gold Found?—Washing Machines—
California a Habitable Country—The Learned Professions, 131

CH AP TER X III.
The Old Towns of California, 139

CH AP TER X IV.
The New Towns of California, 149

CH A P T ER XV.
Lower California, 159
 INTRODUCTION.
On the 26th day of September, 1846, the 7th Regiment of New York
State Volunteers, commanded by Colonel J. D. Stevenson, sailed from the
harbour of New York under orders from the Secretary of War, to proceed to
Upper California. The objects and operations of the expedition, the fitting
out of which created some sensation at the time, are now too well
understood and appreciated to require explanation. This regiment, in which
I had the honour of holding a lieutenant’s commission, numbered, rank and
file, about seven hundred and twenty men, and sailed from New York in the
ships Loo Choo, Susan Drew, and Thomas H. Perkins. After a fine passage
of little more than five months, during which we spent several days
pleasantly in Rio Janeiro, the Thomas H. Perkins entered the harbour of San
Francisco and anchored off the site of the town, then called Yerba Buena,
on the 6th day of March, 1847. The remaining ships arrived soon
afterwards.
Alta California we found in quiet possession of the American land and
naval forces—the “stars and stripes” floating over the old Mexican
presidios. There being no immediate service to perform, our regiment was
posted in small detachments through the various towns.
The now famous city of San Francisco, situated near the extreme end of
a long and barren peninsular tract of land, which separates the bay of San
Francisco from the ocean, when first I landed, on its beach was almost a
solitude, there being not more than twelve or fifteen rough houses, and a
few temporary buildings for hides, to relieve the view. Where now stands
the great commercial metropolis of the Pacific, with its thirty thousand
inhabitants, its busy streets alive with the hum of trade, were corrals for
cattle and unoccupied sandy hills.
With the discovery of the gold mines, a new era in the history of
California commences. This event has already changed a comparative
wilderness into a flourishing State, and is destined to affect the commercial
and political relations of the world. Between California as she was at the
period of the cession to the United States and as she is at this time, there is
no similitude. In two short years her mineral resources have been
developed, and she has at once emerged from obscurity into a cynosure
upon which nations are gazing with wondering eyes. Her mountains and
valleys, but recently the hunting grounds of naked savages, are now peopled
with a hundred thousand civilized men; her magnificent harbours crowded
with ships from far distant ports; her rivers and bays navigated by
steamboats; her warehouses filled with the products of almost every clime,
and her population energetic, hopeful, and prosperous.
Although a history of California as she was would convey an entirely
false idea of California as she is, it may not be amiss to look back a few
months and see whence has sprung the young giantess now claiming
admission on equal terms among the starry sisterhood of our Union.
Prior to the discovery of the placers the country was thinly peopled, the
inhabitants being mostly native Californians, Mexicans, and Indians. The
better classes lived the indolent life of rancheros; their wealth consisting in
immense herds of cattle and horses running wild upon the hills and plains.
The Indians, with the exception of those living in a wholly savage state,
were little better than serfs, and performed all the drudgery and labour. The
great staples and principal articles of trade were hides and tallow, for which
goods at enormous prices were taken in exchange. Money was the scarcest
article on the coast, many persons never seeing a dollar from one year’s end
to another, ox hides having acquired the name and answering the purpose of
“California bank notes.” The amusements of the country were gambling and
fandangoes, freely participated in by both sexes, and all classes of the
community. A few American, English, and French merchants resided at San
Francisco, Monterey, Santa Barbara, and Los Angelos, who conducted the
whole mercantile business of the country. The missions, once flourishing
establishments, stripped of their privileges by the Mexican government, had
fallen to decay. The native inhabitants, a kind, hospitable, and light-hearted
race, too indolent even to desire more than an adobe house for a dwelling,
beef and frijoles for food, and spirited horses to bear them dashingly over
the hills and prairies, were either the victims of the tyranny of the central
government, or of pronunciamentos and petty civil broils; and California,
with her delicious climate, her inexhaustible resources, and important
geographical position, might to this day have remained an almost unknown
region, visited occasionally by a trading vessel with an assorted cargo, to be
exchanged for hides, had not a mysterious Providence ordained the
discovery of the golden sands of the Rio Americano. This event at once
gave a tremendous impetus to commerce and emigration, and may be said
to mark an important era in the history of the world.
Upper California, as defined by the old maps, embraces the region of
country lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra de los Mibres
on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west; and is bounded on the north
by the 42d degree of latitude, and on the south by Baja or Lower California
and Sonora. Its extent from east to west is from six to seven hundred miles,
with an area of about four hundred thousand square miles.
The boundaries of the new “State of California” as fixed by the
Constitution are as follows, viz.: “Commencing at the point of intersection
of the 42d degree of north latitude with the 120th degree of longitude west
from Greenwich, and running south on the line of said 120th degree of west
longitude until it intersects the 39th degree of north latitude; thence running
in a straight line in a south-easterly direction to the river Colorado, at a
point where it intersects the 35th degree of north latitude; thence down the
middle of the channel of said river, to the boundary line between the United
States and Mexico, as established by the treaty of May 30, 1848; thence
running west and along said boundary line to the Pacific Ocean, and
extending therein three English miles; thence running in a northwesterly
direction, and following the Pacific coast to the 42d degree of north
latitude; thence on the line of said 42d degree of north latitude to the place
of beginning. Also all the islands, harbours, and bays, along and adjacent to
the Pacific coast.”
The new state, embracing the whole country between the Pacific and the
120th degree of west longitude, includes both the western and eastern
flanks of the Sierra, and must contain an area of at least one hundred and
fifty thousand square miles, being from one hundred to two hundred and
fifty miles wide. This has been called the Maritime Region of California,
and contains nearly all the territory susceptible of cultivation and
inhabitable by civilized man. While the Great Basin or Desert lying east of
the Sierra Nevada, between four and five thousand feet above the level of
the sea, hemmed in on all sides by lofty ranges of snow-clad mountains,
completely isolated and shut out from communication with any other part of
the world for at least half the year, abounding in sterile plains and arid
waters, with few fertile spots, must for ever remain a sparsely peopled
region; the country lying west of the Sierra is smiling with plenty, and
capable of sustaining a population of several millions.
 There have never been greater mistakes made by writers than in
describing and estimating the climate and resources of California. The most
contradictory statements have been made, only to be reconciled on the
ground that the country was seen from different points, and at different
seasons of the year. It seems to have been forgotten that Upper California
embraces a region of country extending along the coast of the Pacific a
distance of more than six hundred miles, with a difference of ten degrees of
latitude, affording scope for a wide range and vast difference of climate.
The whole surface of the country is broken up into mountains, valleys and
plains, and is traversed from north to south by the Sierra Nevada and the
Coast Range, some of the volcanic peaks of the former rising to the height
of sixteen thousand feet into the region of perpetual snow. The country
directly bordering the coast has a high mean temperature, while a few miles
interior the climate will be found of the mildest and most genial character—
the atmosphere being remarkable for its softness and purity. Taking a
general view, I doubt much if any country in the world can boast a more
equable and salubrious climate. South of Sutter’s Fort, snow or ice is
seldom or never seen, except in the dim distance on the crests of the
mountain ranges. Upon the coast strong winds and fog prevail the greater
part of the year, rendering it unpleasant, though by no means unhealthy. The
appearance of the native population bears evidence to the salubrity of the
climate. The men are tall, well formed, and robust, and when visiting their
mother country, Mexico, have been looked upon almost as giants. The
women are queenly, with dark, flashing eyes, and magnificent busts, and are
remarkable for their fruitfulness. Families boasting twelve, fifteen, and even
twenty-five children, have been frequently met with. With the exception of
the new country now occupied by the miners, epidemics are unknown; and
it is a singular fact, that that awful scourge of mankind, the cholera, has
never left its destroying footprints in California. The great peculiarity of the
climate is its rainy season. From the month of April to November rain is
almost unknown, while during the winter months it falls in torrents. During
the present season the rains, however, have been light, and delightful spring
weather for a week or ten days successively has not been unfrequent.
During the “dry season,” heavy night dews almost supply the place of rain,
leaving the ground richly moistened in the morning.
The soil of California, like the face of the country, is extremely
diversified. The hills are usually barren, while throughout the whole
territory are well-watered valleys, whose soil is a rich black loam, capable
of producing many of the tropical fruits, and all the products of the
temperate zones. I cannot say I consider California, in its present condition,
an agricultural country. The rich and extensive valleys which exist from
north to south are indeed susceptible of the highest cultivation, and will
produce in the greatest luxuriance, but the hills along the Coast Range are
generally barren and sandy, and almost devoid of shrubbery, while the
plains, during eight months of the year, are parched with the summer heat.
There is this to be said, however;—the experiment has never been fairly
tried. When the mineral region shall offer less temptation than at present,
and American industry and ingenuity have been brought to bear, the
capacities of the soil will be fairly tested. The extensive and fertile valleys
of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, which offer the greatest inducements to
the agriculturist, lie north of San Francisco. The lower Sacramento valley is
about one hundred and seventy miles long, and about sixty broad in the
widest part. The valley of the San Joaquin is nearly three hundred miles
long, and from fifty to sixty miles wide. Both of these valleys are well
wooded, and are watered by the two great rivers (from which they take their
name) and their tributaries, and abound with a great variety of game. Herds
of elk, black-tailed deer, and antelopes are seen bounding over the hills and
plains,—and grizzly bears, coyotes, minxes, badgers, hares, foxes, and wild
geese are abundant. Wheat grows plentifully at many points, yielding from
thirty to fifty bushels to the acre. It is said that much of the land will give an
average yield of eighty bushels of wheat for every one sown.
The great difficulty in the way of extensive agricultural operations is the
lack of rain. But wherever the soil can be irrigated, everything grows most
luxuriantly; and it is astonishing to what an extent the wild oats and rye,
which cover the Coast Range and some of the foot hills of the Sierra, grow
even without it. In most places where the land can be irrigated, a succession
of crops may be raised throughout the year. Water can always be found by
digging for it, and the many small streams afford the means of irrigation.
South of San Francisco lie the beautiful and fertile valleys of San Jose
and San Juan—the garden spot of California. In these valleys, and in the
whole southern country below Point Conception and the Cuesta de Santa
Jues, about latitude 35°, most of the tropical and all the fruits of the
temperate zone are produced in great profusion. Figs, grapes, olives,
bananas, pomegranates, peaches, apples, quinces, pears, melons, and plums
of the finest quality grow abundantly. The olive of California is larger than
the French, and declared by gourmets to be far superior in flavour,—while
the wine pressed from the Californian grape needs only to become better
known to be appreciated. Among the fruits of California growing wild
throughout the whole country, is the tuna or prickly pear, one of the most
delicious fruits I have eaten. Onions, potatoes, parsnips, carrots, and other
culinary vegetables, are produced in the lower country in great size and
abundance. Hemp grows wild in many places, and sugar-cane, cotton, and
rice may be grown upon the plains with the aid of irrigation. There is no
country in the world better adapted for grazing; and the raising of stock,
particularly sheep, will yet prove one of the most profitable branches of
industry. The wild shrubbery is of an excellent character for sheep, and the
climate is peculiarly adapted to their growth.
In mineral resources California stands unrivalled. To say nothing at
present of her immense placers of gold, she contains within her bosom
minerals of other kinds sufficient to enrich her. In the north, on the Coast
Range above Sonoma, saltpetre, copper, sulphur, and lead, have been found
in large quantities; the latter so pure, that I was told by an old hunter two
years ago, that he had frequently run his bullets from the ore. Silver mines
have been discovered on the south side of San Francisco Bay, and near the
Pueblo de San Jose are the famous quicksilver mines of New Almaden, said
to be superior to those of Spain. A species of coal, between the bituminous
and the anthracite, has been found in the vicinity of San Diego, San Luis
Obispo, and Santa Cruz, and iron exists throughout the country.
California occupies a geographical position of the first rank and
importance, and must eventually control the commerce of the vast Pacific.
With a coast extending more than six hundred miles from north to south,
indented with numerous bays and harbours, connected with her golden
interior almost to the base of the lofty Sierra by navigable streams, blessed
with a mild and salubrious climate, and capable of sustaining a large
population, she must one day become the entrepôt of the commerce of the
East. With South America on the one side and Oregon on the other—the
vast empire of China, the rich isles of the Indies, Polynesia, Japan, and the
Sandwich Islands, lying close at hand—a steam communication will
connect her with the most distant of these points in a few weeks. When with
iron bands she is connected with the great valley of the Mississippi, and
thence with the shores of the Atlantic, the commerce which now is borne
around Cape Horn must inevitably pass through her borders; and long ere
that is accomplished, the completion of the railroad across the Isthmus of
Panama, or a ship canal across that of Tehuantepec, will bind her with a
closely woven chain to the eastern shores of our Union.
The following pages have been written currente calamo, in moments
stolen from the cares of business, within sound of the click of hammers, the
grating of saws, and all the noise, bustle, excitement, speculation, and
confusion of San Francisco, and on the eve of my departure for a further
exploration of the great southern mines. Under these circumstances, no
particular regard has been paid to style. It is not to be expected that a
California gold-hunter can afford to bestow hours on the mere polishing of
sentences and rounding of periods like a Parisian litterateur. They contain a
narrative of my journey to, and life and adventures in, the golden region of
California, during the autumn, winter, and spring of 1848-9, with a full and
complete description of the principal placers, the process of extracting gold
from the earth, and the necessary machines and implements; a theory of the
origin of the golden sands; an account of the gold-bearing quartz of the
Sierra Nevada; a history of the rise and progress of the principal new towns
and cities; the formation of the state government, and a six months’
residence on the Gulf of Lower California. I have endeavoured to give a
truthful narrative, and statistics upon which reliance may be placed, with a
view to a better understanding of the subject than can be gained from the
garbled, and in some cases maliciously untrue statements, which have
flooded the eastern press, written in some cases by men who have never
been farther than the town of San Francisco or Stockton, and who of course
know nothing of the country or the placers.
The statements of one attracted to California by other charms than those
of gold, a resident within her borders for nearly three years, conversant with
the language, manners, and customs of her inhabitants, an observer of her
wonderful growth, and a gold-digger for six months, will undoubtedly be
received with consideration; and if I succeed in imparting to my readers
(every one of whom has probably a brother or some dear friend here), a
correct idea of this interesting region, to which the eyes of the whole world
are now directed, I shall have achieved my object.
At the time of the discovery of the placers, I was stationed at La Paz,
Lower California, but being ordered to Upper California, arrived at
Monterey in the middle of June, 1848, about six weeks after the discovery
had been made public. The most extravagant stories were then in
circulation, but they were mostly viewed as the vagaries of a heated fancy
by the good people of Monterey. I was ordered to the Pueblo de los Angelos
for duty, where I arrived on the fourth day of July, and remained with the
detachment with which I was connected until it was disbanded, on the 18th
day of September, 1848. The day of our disbandment was hailed with joy
such as a captive must feel on his release from slavery. For three long
months we had anxiously awaited the event. The stories from the mines
breathed the spirit of the Arabian tales, and visions of “big lumps” floated
before our eyes. In three days La Ciudad de los Angelos was deserted by its
former occupants, and wagons and horses laden with tin pans, crowbars,
iron pots, shovels, pork, and pickaxes, might have been seen on the road to
the placers. On the 18th of October, I reached San Francisco, where a
curious state of things was presented. Gold dust and coin were as plentiful
as the sea-shore sands, and seemed to be thought about as valuable. The
town had but little improved since I first saw it, as upon the discovery of the
mines it had been nearly deserted by its inhabitants. Real estate had been
slowly depreciating for several months, and the idea of San Francisco being
a large city within two years had not yet been broached. Merchandise of all
descriptions was exceedingly high. Flour was selling at $50 per barrel;
dried beef 50 cents per pound; coffee 50 cents; shovels $10 each; tin pans
$5 do.; crow-bars $10 do.; red flannel shirts $5 do.; common striped shirts
$5 do.; common boots $16 per pair; and everything else in proportion. I
made a few purchases and held myself in readiness to start for the placers.
San Francisco, January 1st, 1850.

SIX MONTHS IN THE GOLD MINES.

 CHAPTER I.
Departure for the Mines—The Victims—Adventures of a Night on San Francisco Bay—
Voyage in a Launch—My Companion Higgins—Resolutions of the Passengers—The
Bay of San Pablo—The Straits of Carquinez—Benicia—The Bay of Suisun—The
Sacramento—Beautiful Scenery—Montezuma—Monte Diablo—Camp on Shore—Hala-
chum-muck—Firing the Woods—Schwartz’s Rancho—A “manifest destiny” Man—
Involuntary Baptism—Sacramento City—The Embarcadero.

Armed with a pickaxe, shovel, hoe, and rifle, and accoutred in a red
flannel shirt, corduroy pants, and heavy boots, and accompanied by two
friends, I found myself, on the afternoon of the 25th of October, 1848,
wending my way to the only wharf in San Francisco, to take passage for the
golden hills of the Sierra Nevada. The scenes that for days had met my
eyes, and even as I was stepping on board the launch, might have damped
the ardour of a more adventurous man. Whole launch-loads of miserable
victims of fever and ague were daily arriving from the mining region—
sallow, weak, emaciated and dispirited—but I had nerved myself for the
combat, and doubt not that I would have taken passage when I did and as I
did, had the arch-enemy of mankind himself stood helmsman on the little
craft that was to bear me to El Dorado. We had engaged and paid our
passage, and such was our eagerness to get a conveyance of some kind, that
we had not even looked at the frail bark in which we were to entrust our
now more than ever before valuable bodies.
The “Ann” was a little launch of about ten tons burden, a mere ship’s
boat, entirely open, and filled with barrels and merchandise of every kind,
and eight human beings, who, besides ourselves, had taken passage in her. I
looked at her,—there was not room upon her deckless hull to stow a brandy
bottle securely. We tried to reason the captain into an idea of the danger of
proceeding with so much freight, but the only reply he gave us was, that “he
received four dollars a hundred for it.” There was no alternative, so in we
jumped, and about dusk the boat was under way, and scudding with a fair
wind across the bay of San Francisco.
There was, of course, no room to cook on board, and there was no galley
or furnace to cook in; and, indeed, there was nothing to cook, as in our
hurry we had neglected to make purchases of any necessary articles of food,