Electronic Principles 7th Edition Albert

P. Malvino
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7th EDITION
7th EDITION

Albert Malvino
David J. Bates
About the Authors
Albert P. Malvino was an electronics technician while serving in the U.S. Navy from 1950 to 1954. He
graduated from the University of Santa Clara Summa Cum Laude in 1959 with a B.S. degree in Electrical
Engineering. For the next five years, he worked as an electronics engineer at Microwave Laboratories and
at Hewlett-Packard while earning his MSEE from San Jose State University in 1964. He taught at Foothill
College for the next four years and was awarded a National Science Foundation Fellowship in 1968. After
receiving a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1970, Dr. Malvino embarked on a
full-time writing career. He has written 10 textbooks that have been translated into 20 foreign languages
with over 108 editions. Dr. Malvino is currently a consultant and designs microcontroller circuits for SPD-
Smart™ windows. In addition, he is writing educational software for electronics technicians and
engineers. He also serves on the Board of Directors of Research Frontiers Incorporated. His website ad-
dress is www.malvino.com.
David J. Bates is an instructor in the Electronic Technologies Department of Western Technical
College located in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Along with working as an electronic servicing technician and
as an electrical engineering technician, he has over 25 years of teaching experience.
Credentials include an A.S. degree in Industrial Electronics Technology, B.S. degree in Industrial
Education, and an M.S. degree in Vocational/Technical Education. Certifications include an FCC GROL
license, A+ certification as a computer hardware technician, and a Journeyman Level certification as
a Certified Electronics Technician (CET) by the International Society of Certified Electronics
Technicians (ISCET). David J. Bates is presently a certification administrator (CA) for ISCET and has
served as a member of the ISCET Board of Directors, along with serving as a Subject Matter Expert
(SME) of basic electronics for the National Coalition for Electronics Education (NCEE).

David J. Bates is also a co-author of “Basic Electricity” a text-lab manual by Zbar, Rockmaker, and
Bates.
Dedication
Electronic Principles, 7th ed. is dedicated to my family and friends who have been so supportive
during this process and especially to Jackie, whose patience and skills helped put this all together.
vi Chapter 1
 Contents
Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 2
1-1 The Three Kinds of Formulas 1-5 Thevenin’s Theorem
1-2 Approximations 1-6 Norton’s Theorem
1-3 Voltage Sources 1-7 Troubleshooting
1-4 Current Sources

Chapter 2 Semiconductors 28
2-1 Conductors 2-9 Forward Bias
2-2 Semiconductors 2-10 Reverse Bias
2-3 Silicon Crystals 2-11 Breakdown
2-4 Intrinsic Semiconductors 2-12 Energy Levels
2-5 Two Types of Flow 2-13 The Energy Hill
2-6 Doping a Semiconductor 2-14 Barrier Potential and
2-7 Two Types of Extrinsic Temperature
Semiconductors 2-15 Reverse-Biased Diode
2-8 The Unbiased Diode

Chapter 3 Diode Theory 58

3-1 Basic Ideas 3-7 Reading a Data Sheet
3-2 The Ideal Diode 3-8 How to Calculate Bulk
3-3 The Second Approximation Resistance
3-4 The Third Approximation 3-9 DC Resistance of a Diode
3-5 Troubleshooting 3-10 Load Lines
3-6 Up-Down Circuit Analysis 3-11 Surface-Mount Diodes

vii
Chapter 4 Diode Circuits 88
4-1 The Half-Wave Rectifier 4-8 Other Power-Supply
4-2 The Transformer Topics
4-3 The Full-Wave Rectifier 4-9 Troubleshooting
4-4 The Bridge Rectifier 4-10 Clippers and Limiters
4-5 The Choke-Input Filter 4-11 Clampers
4-6 The Capacitor-Input Filter 4-12 Voltage Multipliers
4-7 Peak Inverse Voltage and
Surge Current

Chapter 5 Special-Purpose Diodes 142

5-1 The Zener Diode 5-6 Troubleshooting
5-2 The Loaded Zener Regulator 5-7 Load Lines
5-3 Second Approximation of a 5-8 Optoelectronic Devices
Zener Diode 5-9 The Schottky Diode
5-4 Zener Drop-Out Point 5-10 The Varactor
5-5 Reading a Data Sheet 5-11 Other Diodes

Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors 188

6-1 The Unbiased Transistor 6-7 Transistor
6-2 The Biased Transistor Approximations
6-3 Transistor Currents 6-8 Reading Data Sheets
6-4 The CE Connection 6-9 Surface-Mount
6-5 The Base Curve Transistors
6-6 Collector Curves 6-10 Troubleshooting

Chapter 7 Transistor Fundamentals 222

7-1 Variations in Current Gain 7-7 LED Drivers
7-2 The Load Line 7-8 The Effect of Small
7-3 The Operating Point Changes
7-4 Recognizing Saturation 7-9 Troubleshooting
7-5 The Transistor Switch 7-10 More Optoelectronic
7-6 Emitter Bias Devices

viii Contents
 Chapter 8 Transistor Biasing 260
8-1 Voltage-Divider Bias 8-5 Other Types of Bias
8-2 Accurate VDB Analysis 8-6 Troubleshooting
8-3 VDB Load Line and Q Point 8-7 PNP Transistors
8-4 Two-Supply Emitter Bias

Chapter 9 AC Models 286

9-1 Base-Biased Amplifier 9-6 Two Transistor Models
9-2 Emitter-Biased Amplifier 9-7 Analyzing an Amplifier
9-3 Small-Signal Operation 9-8 AC Quantities on the
9-4 AC Beta Data Sheet
9-5 AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode

Chapter 10 Voltage Amplifiers 318

10-1 Voltage Gain 10-4 Swamped Amplifier
10-2 The Loading Effect of Input Impedance 10-5 Two-Stage Feedback
10-3 Multistage Amplifiers 10-6 Troubleshooting

Chapter 11 CC and CB Amplifiers 344

11-1 CC Amplifier 11-4 Darlington Connections
11-2 Output Impedance 11-5 Voltage Regulation
11-3 Cascading CE and CC 11-6 The Common-Base
Amplifier

Chapter 12 Power Amplifiers 376

12-1 Amplifier Terms 12-6 Biasing Class B/AB
12-2 Two Load Lines Amplifiers
12-3 Class A Operation 12-7 Class B/AB Driver
12-4 Class B Operation 12-8 Class C Operation
12-5 Class B Push-Pull Emitter Follower 12-9 Class C Formulas
12-10 Transistor Power Rating

Contents ix
Chapter 13 JFETs 424
13-1 Basic Ideas 13-7 JFET Amplifiers
13-2 Drain Curves 13-8 The JFET Analog Switch
13-3 The Transconductance Curve 13-9 Other JFET Applications
13-4 Biasing in the Ohmic Region 13-10 Reading Data Sheets
13-5 Biasing in the Active Region 13-11 JFET Testing
13-6 Transconductance

Chapter 14 MOSFETs 478

14-1 The Depletion-Mode MOSFET 14-6 Digital Switching
14-2 D-MOSFET Curves 14-7 CMOS
14-3 Depletion-Mode MOSFET Amplifiers 14-8 Power FETs
14-4 The Enhancement-Mode MOSFET 14-9 E-MOSFET Amplifiers
14-5 The Ohmic Region 14-10 MOSFET Testing

Chapter 15 Thyristors 520

15-1 The Four-Layer Diode 15-5 Bidirectional Thyristors
15-2 The Silicon Controlled Rectifier 15-6 IGBTs
15-3 The SCR Crowbar 15-7 Other Thyristors
15-4 SCR Phase Control 15-8 Troubleshooting

Chapter 16 Frequency Effects 562

16-1 Frequency Response of an Amplifier 16-9 Risetime-Bandwidth
16-2 Decibel Power Gain Relationship
16-3 Decibel Voltage Gain 16-10 Frequency Analysis of
16-4 Impedance Matching BJT Stages
16-5 Decibels above a Reference 16-11 Frequency Analysis of
16-6 Bode Plots FET Stages
16-7 More Bode Plots 16-12 Frequency Effects of
16-8 The Miller Effect Surface-Mount Circuits

x Contents
Chapter 17 Differential Amplifiers 618
17-1 The Differential Amplifier 17-5 Common-Mode Gain
17-2 DC Analysis of a Diff Amp 17-6 Integrated Circuits
17-3 AC Analysis of a Diff Amp 17-7 The Current Mirror
17-4 Input Characteristics of an Op Amp 17-8 The Loaded Diff Amp

Chapter 18 Operational Amplifiers 660

18-1 Introduction to Op Amps 18-6 Linear ICs
18-2 The 741 Op Amp 18-7 Op Amps as Surface-
18-3 The Inverting Amplifier Mount Devices
18-4 The Noninverting Amplifier
18-5 Two Op-Amp Applications

Chapter 19 Negative Feedback 704

19-1 Four Types of Negative Feedback 19-5 The VCIS Amplifier
19-2 VCVS Voltage Gain 19-6 The ICIS Amplifier
19-3 Other VCVS Equations 19-7 Bandwidth
19-4 The ICVS Amplifier

Chapter 20 Linear Op-Amp Circuits 734

20-1 Inverting-Amplifier Circuits 20-7 Current Boosters
20-2 Noninverting-Amplifier Circuits 20-8 Voltage-Controlled
20-3 Inverter/Noninverter Circuits Current Sources
20-4 Differential Amplifiers 20-9 Automatic Gain Control
20-5 Instrumentation Amplifiers 20-10 Single-Supply
20-6 Summing Amplifier Circuits Operation

Chapter 21 Active Filters 782

21-1 Ideal Responses 21-3 Passive Filters
21-2 Approximate Responses 21-4 First-Order Stages

Contents xi
 21-5 VCVS Unity-Gain Second-Order 21-10 Bandstop Filters
Low-Pass Filters 21-11 The All-Pass Filter
21-6 Higher-Order Filters 21-12 Biquadratic and State-
21-7 VCVS Equal-Component Variable Filters
Low-Pass Filters
21-8 VCVS High-Pass Filters
21-9 MFB Bandpass Filters

Chapter 22 Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits 842

22-1 Comparators with Zero Reference 22-7 Waveform Generation
22-2 Comparators with Nonzero References 22-8 Another Triangular
22-3 Comparators with Hysteresis Generator
22-4 Window Comparator 22-9 Active Diode Circuits
22-5 The Integrator 22-10 The Differentiator
22-6 Waveform Conversion 22-11 Class-D Amplifier

Chapter 23 Oscillators 890

23-1 Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation 23-7 The 555 Timer
23-2 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator 23-8 Astable Operation of the
23-3 Other RC Oscillators 555 Timer
23-4 The Colpitts Oscillator 23-9 555 Circuits
23-5 Other LC Oscillators 23-10 The Phase-Locked Loop
23-6 Quartz Crystals 23-11 Function Generator ICs

Chapter 24 Regulated Power Supplies 946

24-1 Supply Characteristics 24-5 Current Boosters
24-2 Shunt Regulators 24-6 DC-to-DC Converters
24-3 Series Regulators 24-7 Switching Regulators
24-4 Monolithic Linear Regulators

Appendix A Mathematical Derivations 993

Answers Odd-Numbered Problems 999
Index 1007

xii Contents
Preface
Electronic Principles, seventh edition, continues its tradition as a clearly explained, in-depth introduction to
electronic semiconductor devices and circuits. This textbook is intended for students who are taking their first
course in electronic circuits. The prerequisites are a DC/AC Circuits course, algebra, and some trigonometry.
Electronic Principles provides essential understanding of semiconductor device characteristics, test-
ing, and the practical circuits in which they are found. The text provides clearly explained concepts—written
in an easy-to-read conversational style—esta blishing the foundation needed for understanding the operation
and troubleshooting of electronic systems. Practical circuit examples are found throughout the chapters.

New to This Edition

Based on the feedback from extensive reviewing and course research, the seventh edition of Electronic Prin-
ciples contains enhanced material on a variety of electronic devices and circuits, including:
• additional PNP transistor coverage,
• basic Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) voltage-divider circuit design
• increased ac load line analysis of BJT power amplifiers
• power E-MOSFET and D-MOSFET biasing
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
• R/2R ladder D/A converters
• Function generator integrated circuits
• Class-D amplifiers
Starting in Chapter 1, “Introduction,” the T-shooter troubleshooting exercise feature has been simplified for
easier student use and understanding. This practical feature is integrated throughout the remaining chapters.
In Chapter 2, “Semiconductors,” one of many “Summary Tables” has been added to provide concept rein-
forcement and a convenient information resource. Starting in Chapter 3, “Diode Theory,” data sheets for spe-
cific semiconductor devices will be found within the chapter as they are discussed. Chapters 4 through 6 have
additional content regarding the testing of diodes and transistors using DMMs, VOMs, and semiconductor
curve tracers. While Chapter 10, “Voltage Amplifiers,” retains its coverage of the common-emitter (CE) am-
plifier, Chapter 11, “CC and CB Amplifiers,” focuses on common-collector (CC) or emitter follower, com-
mon-base (CB), and Darlington amplifier configurations. Chapter 12, “Power Amplifiers,” has been modified
to include class A, B, AB and C power amplifiers, along with additional ac load line analysis. In Chapter 13,
“JFETs,” modifications have been made to the order of JFET biasing and biasing techniques. In Chapter 14,
“MOSFETs,” depletion-mode and power enhancement-mode MOSFET amplifiers have been added along
with MOSFET testing. Chapter 15, “Thyristors,” includes more detail in RC phase-shift control, SCR testing,
and introduces IGBTs. Frequency analysis of FET stages has been added to Chapter 16, “Frequency Effects.”
In Chapter 20, “Linear Op-Amp Circuits,” the circuit operation of the R/2R ladder D/A converter has been in-
cluded. Chapter 22, “Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits,” now includes the basic operation of a class-D amplifier.
Also, Chapter 23, “Oscillators,” has an additional section on function generator ICs, including the XR-2206.

xiii
Guided Tour
Learning Features
Many new learning features have been incorporated into the seventh edition of Electronic Principles. These
learning features, found throughout the chapters, include:

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
Each chapter begins with a brief introduction setting the
stage for what the student is about to learn.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Chapter Objectives provide a concise statement of expected
learning outcomes.

VOCABULARY
A comprehensive list of new vocabulary words alerts
the students to key words found in the chapter. Within
the chapter, these key words are highlighted in bold
print the first time used.

xiv Guided Tour

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Students can obtain critical feedback by performing the
Practice Problems that immediately follow most Examples.
Answers to these problems are found at the end of each
chapter.

GOOD TO KNOW
Good To Know statements, found in the margins, provide
interesting added insights to topics being presented.

EXAMPLES
Each chapter contains worked-out Examples that
demonstrate important concepts or circuit operation,
including circuit analysis, applications, troubleshooting,
and basic design.

MULTISIM
Students can “bring to life” many of the cir-
cuits found in each chapter. A CD contain-
ing MultiSim files is included with the text-
book; with these files students can change
the value of circuit components and in- DATA SHEETS
stantly see the effects, using realistic Tek-
tronix and Agilent simulation instruments. Full and partial component data
Troubleshooting skills can be developed by sheets are provided for many semi-
inserting circuit faults and making circuit conductor devices; key specifica-
measurements. Students new to computer tions are examined and explained.
simulation software will find a MultiSim Complete data sheets of these de-
Primer in the appendix. vices can be found on the Internet.

e 3-16 Data sheet for 1N4001–1N4007 diodes.

Guided Tour xv
Figure 7-22 Phototransistor.
nent, and concentrate on the thermally produced carriers in the collec-
tor diode. Visualize the reverse current produced by these carriers as an
COMPONENT PHOTOS
(a) Open base gives maximum
ideal current source in parallel with the collector-base junction of an
sensitivity; (b) variable base resistor
changes sensitivity; (c) typical
phototransistor.
ideal transistor (Fig. 7-21b).
Because the base lead is open, all the reverse current is forced
into the base of the transistor. The resulting collector current is:
Photos of actual electronic devices bring students
closer to the device being studied.
+VCC
ICEO ⫽ ␤dcIR
RC
where IR is the reverse minority-carrier current. This says that the collector cur-
rent is higher than the original reverse current by a factor of ␤dc.
The collector diode is sensitive to light as well as heat. In a phototran-
(a)
sistor, light passes through a window and strikes the collector-base junction. As
the light increases, IR increases, and so does ICEO .
+VCC

RC
Phototransistor versus Photodiode
The main difference between a phototransistor and a photodiode is the current
RB
gain ␤dc. The same amount of light striking both devices produces ␤dc times
more current in a phototransistor than in a photodiode. The increased sensitivity
(b)
of a phototransistor is a big advantage over that of a photodiode.
Figure 7-22a shows the schematic symbol of a phototransistor. Notice
the open base. This is the usual way to operate a phototransistor. You can control
the sensitivity with a variable base return resistor (Fig. 7-22b), but the base is
usually left open to get maximum sensitivity to light.
The price paid for increased sensitivity is reduced speed. A phototran-
sistor is more sensitive than a photodiode, but it cannot turn on and off as fast. A
photodiode has typical output currents in microamperes and can switch on and
off in nanoseconds. The phototransistor has typical output currents in mil-
(c) liamperes but switches on and off in microseconds. A typical phototransistor is
shown in Fig. 7-22c.
© Brian Moeskau/Brian Moeskau Pho-
tography
Optocoupler
Figure 7-23a shows an LED driving a phototransistor. This is a much more sensitive optocoupler than the
LED-photodiode discussed earlier. The idea is straightforward. Any changes in VS produce changes in the
LED current, which changes the current through the phototransistor. In turn, this produces a changing volt- SUMMARY TABLES
age across the collector-emitter terminals. Therefore, a signal voltage is coupled from the input circuit to the
output circuit.
Again, the big advantage of an optocoupler is the electrical isolation between the input and output
circuits. Stated another way, the common for the input circuit is different from the common for the output cir-
Summary Tables have been included at important
cuit. Because of this, no conductive path exists between the two circuits. This means that you can ground one

Figure 7-23 (a) Optocoupler with LED and phototransistor; (b) optocoupler IC.
points within many chapters. Students use these
+
RS RC

+
tables as an excellent review of important topics,
VS VCC
– –

© Brian Moeskau/Brian Moeskau

and as a convenient information resource.
(a ) ( b)
Photography

Figure 7-15 npn transistor.

C
C

C
N

B ⫽ B P ⫽ B

N
E
E
E

Out-of-Circuit Tests
A transistor is commonly tested using a DMM set to the diode test range. Figure 7-15 shows how an npn tran-
sistor resembles two back-to-back diodes. Each pn junction can be tested for normal forward and reverse bi-
ased readings. The collector to emitter can also be tested and should result in an overrange indication with ei-
ther DMM polarity connection. Since a transistor has three leads, there are six DMM polarity connections
possible. These are shown in Fig. 7-16a. Notice that only two polarity connections result in approximately a
0.7 V reading. Also important to note here is that the base lead is the only connection common to both 0.7 V
readings and it requires a (+) polarity connection. This is also shown in Fig. 7-16b.
A pnp transistor can be tested using the same technique. As shown in Fig. 7-17, the pnp transistor
also resembles two back-to-back diodes. Again, using the DMM in the diode test range, Fig. 7-18a and 7-18b
show the results for a normal transistor.
Many DMMs have a special ␤dc or hFE test function. By placing the transistor’s leads into the proper
slots, the forward current gain is displayed. This current gain is for a specified base current or collector cur-
rent and VCE. You can check the DMM’s manual for the specific test condition.
Another way to test transistors is with an ohmmeter. You can begin by measuring the resistance be-
tween the collector and the emitter. This should be very high in both directions because the collector and
emitter diodes are back to back in series. One of the most common troubles is a collector-emitter short, pro-

Figure 7-16 NPN DMM Readings (a) Polarity connections; (b) pn junction readings. COMPONENT TESTING
C

⫹
B
⫺
E
Reading
0.7
–

0.7
Students will find clear descriptions of how to
E
B
B
C
0L
0.7 B
+ + –

0L
test individual electronic components using
C
C
B
E
0L
0L
+

0.7
– +
common equipment such as digital multimeters
E C 0L
–

E
(DMMs).
(a) (b)

Transistor Fundamentals 245

xvi Guided Tour

 CHAPTER SUMMARIES
Students can use the summaries when reviewing for
examinations, or just to make sure they haven’t missed
any key concepts. Important circuit derivations and
definitions are listed to help solidify learning outcomes.

END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS

A wide variety of questions and problems
are found at the end of each chapter;
over 30% are new or revised in this
edition. These include circuit analysis
and critical thinking questions.

Guided Tour xvii

Supplements
In addition to the fully updated text, following resources are available for the students and the instructors to
aid in their understanding of electronic principles and applications at the Online Learning Center (OLC)
http://www.mhhe.com/malvino/ep7esie
Student’s resource contain a wealth of student features, links to industry sites, circuits and component
lists and activities based around key terms. It has chapter-wise job oriented questions. Besides a
detailed glossary of key terms, it also includes two appendices on
Data Sheets
Thevenizing the R/2R D/A converter
The OLC contains chapter-wise Mixed Quiz which will serve as a self testing tool for the students and
evaluation tool for the instructors.
Instructor’s Resource (password protected) includes the Instructor’s Manual and PowerPoint slides,
electronic testbanks online, links to industry and educational Web sites.
Visual Calculator for Electronic software, available at the author’s Web site http://www.malvino.com,
allows you to analyze over 140 basic electronics circuits with the ability to display any of the 1500
equations used in the calculations. With Visual Calculator you can substitute standard resistor values to
see the effects on circuit operation, view load lines and other graphs, along with viewing data sheets for
many of the components. This software can be used by instructors to help teach and demonstrate elec-
tronic circuit operation. Students can use the software to review for midterms and final exams, check
answers to homework problems and get answers faster than by any other method.

xviii
Acknowledgements
The production of Electronic Principles, seventh edition, is truly a team effort. It requires the hard work and
professional dedication of a large number of people. Thank you to everyone at McGraw-Hill Higher Educa-
tion who contributed to this edition, especially Tom Casson, Jonathan Plant, Lindsay Roth, Kay Brimeyer,
and Carol Kromminga. Special thanks should also go out to Pat Hoppe whose insights, careful review, and
tremendous work on the MultiSim files has been a significant contribution to this textbook.
Thanks to everyone whose comments and suggestions were extremely valuable in the development
of this edition. This includes those who took the time to respond to surveys prior to manuscript development
and those who carefully reviewed the revised material. Every survey and review was carefully examined and
has contributed greatly to this edition. Here is a list of the reviewers who helped make this edition compre-
hensive and relevant.

Current Edition Reviewers

Ron Barrier Paul Kiser
R rus Community National Institute of Technology, W V
College, NC Dan Lookadoo
Adrien Berthiaume New River Community College, VA
Northern Essex Community College, M A William Murray
M. C. Greenfield Broome Community College, N Y
Indiana State University, IN Rina Mazzucco
Craig Hill Mesa Community College, A Z
Erie Institute of Technology, PA Rajappa Papannareddy
Patrick Hoppe Purdue University, IN
Gateway Technical College, W I Ken White
Lakeland Community College, OH

Survey Respondents
Ben Bartlett Glen Elliott
College of Southern Idaho, ID Cambria County Area Community College, PA
Michele J. Chance Fred Etcheverry
Rowan-Cabarrus Community Hartnell College, C A
College, NC Jim Fiore
Walter O. Craig, III Mohawk Valley Community
Southern University, L A College, N Y
Sheila Donchoo Rex Fisher
Southern Polytechnic State Brigham Young University, ID
University, G A John E. Fitzen
James A. Duru Idaho State University, ID
Essex County College, NJ George Fredericks
William Eaton Northeast State Technical Community College, T N
Hinds Community College, M S G. J. Gerard
Udezei F. Edgal Gateway Community Technical
North Carolina A&T State College, CT
University, NC

xix
Albert Gerth Paul Nelson
Corning Community College, N Y College of the Sequoias, C A
Melvin G. Gomez Robert Peeler
Green River Community Lamar State College, T X
College, WA
James Henderson Nasser H. Rashidi
Arkansas State University, A R Virginia State University, VA
George Hendricks Steven D. Rice
Gaston College, NC University of Montana, M T
Larry Hoffman Robert J. Scoff
Purdue University, IN University of Memphis, T N
David A. Kruse Ron Tinckham
Lane Community College, OR Santa Fe Community College, FL
Daniel Landiss Anthony Webb
St. Louis Community College, MO Missouri Tech, MO
M. David Luneau, Jr. Harold Wiebe
University of Arkansas, A R Northern Kentucky University, K Y
Richard McKinney Michael Wilson
Nashville State Technical Community College, T N Kansas State University, K S

Manuscript Reviewers
Abraham Falsafi John Lindsey
National Institute of Technology, W V Kansas Community and Technical College System,
Mohamed Haj-Mohamadi KS
North Carolina A&T University, NC Jim Ramming
Patrick Hoppe Vatterott College, MO
Gateway Technical College, W I Vince Vasco
Pittsburgh Technical Institute, PA

xx
chapter

1 Introduction

The topics in this chapter include formulas, voltage sources, current sources, two
circuit theorems, and troubleshooting. Although some of the discussion will be

review, you will find new ideas that can make it easier for you to understand
semiconductor devices and to serve as a framework for the rest of the textbook.

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:

Name the three types of formulas and explain why each is true.
Explain why approximations are often used instead of exact formulas.
Define an ideal voltage source and an ideal current source.
Describe how to recognize a stiff voltage source and a stiff current source.
State Thevenin’s theorem and apply it to a circuit.
State Norton’s theorem and apply it to a circuit.
List two facts about an open device and two facts about a shorted device.

2
Vocabulary
cold-solder joint open device
definition second approximation
derivation shorted device
duality principle solder bridge
formula theorem
ideal (first) approximation Thevenin resistance
law Thevenin voltage
Norton current third approximation
Norton resistance troubleshooting

3
 1-1 The Three Kinds of Formulas
A formula is a rule that relates quantities. The rule may be an equation, an inequality, or other mathematical
description. You will see many formulas in this book. Unless you know why each one is true, you may be-
come confused as they accumulate. Fortunately, there are only three ways formulas can come into existence.
Knowing what they are will make your study of electronics more logical and satisfying.

GOOD TO KNOW The Definition

For all practical purposes, a When you study electricity and electronics, you have to memorize new
formula is like a set of instructions words like current, voltage, and resistance. However, a verbal explana-
written in mathematical shorthand. tion of these words is not enough. Why? Because your idea of current
A formula describes how to go
must be mathematically identical to everyone else’s. The only way to get
this identity is with a definition, a formula invented for a new concept.
about calculating a particular
Here is an example of a definition. In your earlier course work, you
quantity or parameter. learned that capacitance equals the charge on one plate divided by the
voltage between plates. The formula looks like this:
Q
C
V
This formula is a definition. It tells you what capacitance C is and how to calculate it. Historically, some re-
searcher made up this definition and it became widely accepted.
Here is an example of how to create a new definition out of thin air. Suppose we are doing research
on reading skills and need some way to measure reading speed. Out of the blue, we might decide to define
reading speed as the number of words read in a minute. If the number of words is W and the number of min-
utes is M, we could make up a formula like this:
W
S
M
In this equation, S is the speed measured in words per minute.
To be fancy, we could use Greek letters: for words, for minutes, and for speed. Our definition
would then look like this:

This equation still translates to speed equals words divided by minutes. When you see an equation like this
and know that it is a definition, it is no longer as impressive and mysterious as it initially appears to be.
In summary, definitions are formulas that a researcher creates. They are based on scientific obser-
vation and form the basis for the study of electronics. They are simply accepted as facts. It’s done all the time
in science. A definition is true in the same sense that a word is true. Each represents something we want to
talk about. When you know which formulas are definitions, electronics is easier to understand. Because def-
initions are starting points, all you need to do is to understand and memorize them.

The Law
A law is different. It summarizes a relationship that already exists in nature. Here is an example of a law:
Q1Q2
f K
d2

4 Chapter 1
 where f force
K a constant of proportionality, 9(109)
Q1 first charge
Q2 second charge
d distance between charges

This is Coulomb’s law. It says that the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is directly pro-
portional to the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
This is an important equation, for it is the foundation of electricity. But where does it come from?
And why is it true? To begin with, all the variables in this law existed before its discovery. By experiment,
Coulomb was able to prove that the force was directly proportional to each charge and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the charges. Coulomb’s law is an example of a relationship that exists
in nature. Although earlier researchers could measure f, Q1, Q2, and d, Coulomb discovered the law relating
the quantities and wrote a formula for it.
Before discovering a law, someone may have a hunch that such a relationship exists. After a num-
ber of experiments, the researcher writes a formula that summarizes the discovery. When enough people con-
firm the discovery through experiments, the formula becomes a law. A law is true because you can verify it
with an experiment.

The Derivation
Given an equation like this:

y 3x

we can add 5 to both sides to get:

y 5 3x 5

The new equation is true because both sides are still equal. There are many other operations like subtraction,
multiplication, division, factoring, and substitution that preserve the equality of both sides of the equation.
For this reason, we can derive many new formulas using mathematics.
A derivation is a formula that we can get from other formulas. This means that we start with one or
more formulas and, using mathematics, arrive at a new formula not in our original set of formulas. A deriva-
tion is true because mathematics preserves the equality of both sides of every equation between the starting
formula and the derived formula.
For instance, Ohm was experimenting with conductors. He discovered that the ratio of voltage to
current was a constant. He named this constant resistance and wrote the following formula for it:
V
R
I
This is the original form of Ohm’s law. By rearranging it, we can get:
V
I
R
This is a derivation. It is the original form of Ohm’s law converted to another equation.

Introduction 5
 Here is another example. The definition for capacitance is:

Q
C
V

We can multiply both sides by V to get the following new equation:

Q CV

This is a derivation. It says that the charge on a capacitor equals its capacitance times the voltage across it.

What to Remember
Why is a formula true? There are three possible answers. To build your understanding of electronics on solid
ground, classify each new formula in one of these three categories:
Definition: A formula invented for a new concept
Law: A formula for a relationship in nature
Derivation: A formula produced with mathematics

1-2 Approximations
We use approximations all the time in everyday life. If someone asks you how old you are, you might answer
21 (ideal). Or you might say 21 going on 22 (second approximation). Or, maybe, 21 years and 9 months (third
approximation). Or, if you want to be more accurate, 21 years, 9 months, 2 days, 6 hours, 23 minutes, and 42
seconds (exact).
The foregoing illustrates different levels of approximation: an ideal approximation, a second ap-
proximation, a third approximation, and an exact answer. The approximation to use will depend on the situ-
ation. The same is true in electronics work. In circuit analysis, we need to choose an approximation that fits
the situation.

The Ideal Approximation

Did you know that 1 ft of AWG 22 wire that is 1 in from a chassis has a resistance of 0.016 , an inductance
of 0.24 H, and a capacitance of 3.3 pF? If we had to include the effects of resistance, inductance, and ca-
pacitance in every calculation for current, we would spend too much time on calculations. This is why every-
body ignores the resistance, inductance, and capacitance of connecting wires in most situations.
The ideal approximation, sometimes called the first approximation, is the simplest equivalent cir-
cuit for a device. For instance, the ideal approximation of a piece of wire is a conductor of zero resistance.
This ideal approximation is adequate for everyday electronics work.
The exception occurs at higher frequencies, where you have to consider the inductance and ca-
pacitance of the wire. Suppose 1 in of wire has an inductance of 0.24 H and a capacitance of 3.3 pF. At
10 MHz, the inductive reactance is 15.1 , and the capacitive reactance is 4.82 k . As you see, a circuit
designer can no longer idealize a piece of wire. Depending on the rest of the circuit, the inductance and ca-
pacitive reactances of a connecting wire may be important.

6 Chapter 1
 As a guideline, we can idealize a piece of wire at frequencies under 1 MHz. This is usually a safe
rule of thumb. But it does not mean that you can be careless about wiring. In general, keep connecting wires
as short as possible, because at some point on the frequency scale, those wires will begin to degrade circuit
performance.
When you are troubleshooting, the ideal approximation is usually adequate because you are looking for
large deviations from normal voltages and currents. In this book, we will idealize semiconductor devices by re-
ducing them to simple equivalent circuits. With ideal approximations, it is easier to analyze and understand how
semiconductor circuits work.

The Second Approximation

The ideal approximation of a flashlight battery is a voltage source of 1.5 V. The second approximation adds
one or more components to the ideal approximation. For instance, the second approximation of a flashlight bat-
tery is a voltage source of 1.5 V and a series resistance of 1 . This series resistance is called the source or
internal resistance of the battery. If the load resistance is less than 10 , the load voltage will be noticeably less
than 1.5 V because of the voltage drop across the source resistance. In this case, accurate calculations must include
the source resistance.

The Third Approximation and Beyond

The third approximation includes another component in the equivalent circuit of the device. Chapter 3 will
give you an example of the third approximation when we discuss semiconductor diodes.
Even higher approximations are possible with many components in the equivalent circuit of a de-
vice. Hand calculations using these higher approximations can become very difficult and time-consuming.
Because of this, computers using circuit simulation software are often used. For instance, MultiSim by Elec-
tronics Workbench (EWB) and PSpice are commercially available computer programs that use higher ap-
proximations to analyze semiconductor circuits. Many of the circuits and examples in this book can be ana-
lyzed and demonstrated using this type of software.

Conclusion
Which approximation to use depends on what you are trying to do. If you are troubleshooting, the ideal ap-
proximation is usually adequate. For many situations, the second approximation is the best choice because it
is easy to use and does not require a computer. For higher approximations, you should use a computer and a
program like MultiSim.

1-3 Voltage Sources

An ideal dc voltage source produces a load voltage that is constant. The simplest example of an ideal dc volt-
age source is a perfect battery, one whose internal resistance is zero. Figure 1-1a shows an ideal voltage
source connected to a variable load resistance of 1 to 10 M . The voltmeter reads 10 V, exactly the same
as the source voltage.
Figure 1-1b shows a graph of load voltage versus load resistance. As you can see, the load voltage
remains fixed at 10 V when the load resistance changes from 1 to 1 M . In other words, an ideal dc volt-
age source produces a constant load voltage, regardless of how small or large the load resistance is. With an
ideal voltage source, only the load current changes when the load resistance changes.

Introduction 7
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
having conquered the valley of the Nile, his lieutenant Amrou
suggested to him the formation of a canal direct from Suez to
Pelusium; but,” continues Monsieur Dupin, “was it likely that the
man (Amrou) who was guilty of burning the Alexandrian library,
should possess sufficient capacity to carry out so grand an idea.”
Now there are here almost as many errors as words. First, the
Emir Omar never did conquer the valley of the Nile. Secondly, he
could not have rejected the idea of the construction of a canal
from Suez to Pelusium, for the very good reason that the canal
already existed; and lastly, he did not burn the Ptolomean library
of Alexandria, as it had been destroyed two centuries and a half
previously.
[16] This literal translation from the passage in Arabic is due to
Silvestre de Sacy. G. Heyne, in his Opuscula Academica,
explains concisely all the vicissitudes the Alexandrian Library
underwent.
[17] Mémoire de C. Langlès, Magasin Encyclopédique, 1799, Vol.
III.
[18] Martinus Polonus died about the year 1270, that is to say 184
years after Marianus. His remarks on Pope Joan are not fit for
transcription.
[19] Familier éclaircissement de la question si une femme a été
assise au siège Papal de Rome: Amsterdam 1747, in 8ᵛᵒ.
[20] In his dissertation De nummo argenteo, Benedicti III.: Rome
1749, in 4ᵗᵒ.
[21] Inserted in vol. II. part 1. of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores.
[22] Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne: Février 1863.
[23] This decree of the council is delivered in terms sufficiently
damaging to the reputation of the convent of which Eloisa was
prioress: “In communi audientiâ conclamatum est super
enormitate et infamiâ cujusdam monasterii sanctimonialium quod
dicitur Argentolium in quo paucæ moniales multiplici infamiâ ad
ignominiam sui ordinis degentes, multo tempore spurcâ et infami
conversatione omnem ejusdem loci affinitatem fœdaverant.”
(Gallia Christiana, Vol. VII. p. 52.)
[24] Dulcius mihi semper exstitit amicæ vocabulum aut si non
indigneris, concubinæ vel scorti. Charius mihi et dignius videretur
tua dici meretrix quam Augusti imperatrix.
[25] The rest is better left in Latin: “Concupiscentia te mihi potius
quam amicitia sociavit, libidinis ardor potius quam amor. Ubi igitur
quod desiderabas cessavit, quicquid propter hoc exhibebas
pariter evanuit.”
[26] Frustra utrumque geritur quod amore Dei non agitur. In omni
autem Deus scit, vitæ meæ statu, te magis adhuc offendere
quam Deum vereor. Tibi placere amplius quam ipsi appeto. Tua
me ad religionis habitum jussio, non divina traxit dilectio. Vide
quam infelicem et omnibus miserabiliorem ducam vitam, si tanta
hic frustra substineo: nihil habitura remunerations in futuro!!
[27] M. Lenoir, at the time of the publication of his work, was the
keeper of the Musée des petits Augustins, in Paris.
[28] Annales archéologiques de Didron, 1846. p. 12.
[29] Lettres d’Abailard et d’Héloïse traduite sur les manuscrits de
la Bibliothèque Royale par E. Oddoul, avec une préface par
Monsieur Guizot Paris 1839, gr. in 8ᵒ, gravures.
[30] It was taken down 1861 and a plaister statue of Tell erected
in its place.
[31] L’illustre Châtelaine des environs de Vaucluse; dissertation et
examen critique de la Laure de Pétrarque. Paris 1842, in 8ᵛᵒ.
[32] As already stated, a large tablet was carried before her on
which her alleged crimes were inscribed.
[33] Namely: Mémoire tiré des archives de Chateaubriand par feu
le Président Ferrand.
[34] Mignet, Amédée Pichot, and W. Stirling.
M. Gachard has rather given the rein, we believe, to his
imagination, and adopts the legend of the funeral obsequies. We
shall see how triumphantly M. Mignet rebuts it.
[35] It was the Venetian, Frederic Badouaro, who conceived the
comical idea of representing Giovanni Torriano as a simple
clockmaker. Cardanus, in book XVII. of his work De Artibus,
mentions a wonderful piece of mechanism constructed by
Torriano.
[36] Henry Coiffier de Ruzé d’Effiat, Marquis de Cinq-Mars,
beheaded at Lyons in 1642 by order of Richelieu. He was secretly
married to Marion Delorme.
 [37] The author of this letter adds in a note: “The Marquis of
Worcester, who is considered by the English to be the inventor of
the steam-engine, appropriated to himself the discovery of
Salomon de Caus and inserted it in a book entitled Century of
Inventions, published in 1663.”
[38] Some very interesting details on Salomon de Caus and on
the honourable appointments he held until his death may be
found in a work of M. L. Dussieux: Les Artistes Français à
l’Étranger, Paris 1856.
[39] Only a very few of the innumerable Histories and Biographies
of Charles V. will be mentioned here.

Transcriber’s Notes:
Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
Perceived typographical errors have been changed.
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