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org/aip/adv

Effect of coating of waste toner powder weight

concentration on absorber plate of solar still
Cite as: AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247
Submitted: 12 December 2023 • Accepted: 12 February 2024 •
Published Online: 4 April 2024

Pradeep Boka,1,2,a) Hitesh Panchal,3,a) Md Irfanul Haque Siddiqui4,a) and Mohd Asif Shah5,6,7,a)

AFFILIATIONS
1
Research Scholar, Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad 382424, Gujarat, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Palanpur 385001, Gujarat, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College Patan, Patan 384265, Gujarat, India
4
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
5
Department of Economics, Kebri Dehar University, Somali, Kebri Dehar, Ethiopia
6
Centre of Research Impact and Outcome, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Rajpura-140401, Punjab, India.
7
Chitkara Centre for Research and Development, Chitkara University, Baddi, 174103, Himachal Pradesh, India.

a)
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: bokapradeep@gmail.com; Engineerhitesh2000@gmail.com;
msiddiqui2.c@ksu.edu.sa; and drmohdasifshah@kdu.edu.et

ABSTRACT
A solar still is a device that uses sun energy to convert brackish or salted water into drinkable water and its distillate output is lower. In addition,
it is the primary issue with the solar still; thus, researchers are looking for fresh ideas to raise the distillate output. The primary goal of this
study is to examine the effects of mixing different weight concentrations (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of toner waste powder (TWP) nanoparticles
with black paint on distillate output and energy–exergy efficiency analysis. Two solar stills of similar dimensions have been used in the current
study from February to March 2023 at Palanpur, Gujarat, India. Basin water, inner glass surface temperature, distillate output, and intensity of
solar radiation are all monitored hourly for solar stills. This research indicates that the application of TWP coating to absorber plates increased
the distillate output, and the highest distillate output of 955 ml was achieved at 10 wt. % concentration of nanoparticles, which is 40.03% higher
than a conventional solar still (CSS) and 33.38%, 10.40%, and 30.64% higher than 5, 15, and 20 wt. % concentrations of nanoparticles at the
same water depth, respectively. In addition, it was discovered that adding TWP to the solar still enhanced energy and exergy efficiency. Based
on this research, it can be concluded that TWP is a suitable, inexpensive resource to boost energy and exergy efficiency and distillate output
of solar still.
© 2024 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0191247

I. INTRODUCTION
Water sustains a connection to all aspects of life and is nec-
essary for it. Every single person needs to have access to clean,
drinkable water. Freshwater makes up only 2.5% of the planet’s total
water volume; however, it is projected to be 1.386 × 109 km3 . The
amount of freshwater present in lakes and river reservoirs as liquid
is only 0.3% of the total, with the remaining 30.8% coming from
subsurface sources. It contains permafrost, swamp water, and soil
moisture. Glaciers and permanent snow cover account for 68.9%
of the water in this system.1,2 The industrial revolution and pop-
ulation increase have made water more and more essential, and
a global water catastrophe is all but inevitable. The present water
crisis has several countries searching for new water sources. In order
to make salted or brackish water drinkable, they were discovering
technologies to do it.3–7
Desalination has been around for a long time and is still one
of the most common ways to obtain safe water. The desalination
process is one way to purify salty water into drinkable water.8,9 A
simple solar still (SS) device uses solar energy to convert salty or
brackish water into potable water at a minimal cost. Solar stills have
been the subject of much study in an attempt to maximize out-
put by optimizing their form, water depth, and overall design.10–12
Many researchers used the solar still with solar collectors: flat plate
collectors, and parabolic trough collectors to improve the distil-
late output. Experimentally, they get a higher distillate output than

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conventional solar still.13–18 Several researchers attached evacu-
ated tubes to enhance the performance of conventional solar stills,
and they discovered through experimentation that this increased
the distillate output by attaching the evacuated tubes to the solar
stills compared to conventional.19–25 Researchers used various tech-
niques, such as using energy storage materials, reflectors, etc., to
increase the productivity of traditional solar stills and experimentally
get good results.22,25–30 Many researchers used condenser coupled to
the solar still and discovered that the productivity in modified stills
was greater than that in the passive solar still.30–35 They experimen-
tally proved that combining the above configurations, such as solar
stills coupled with evacuated tubes, condenser, and energy storage
materials, gives a higher distillate output.34,35
Combining the nanoparticles with basin water, researchers
were able to conduct experiments with cuprous oxide (CuO) at
two distinct water depths.36,37 The results demonstrated that com-
pared to a conventional solar still, the distillate output was higher
at lower water depths. In one experiment, Kabeel et al.38 combined
CuO nanoparticles with black paint at 10%–40% at weight con-
centrations. Through experimentation, they found that solar stills
containing nanomaterials had productivity between 16% and 25%
higher productivity than those without. Al2 O3 nanoparticles of dif-
ferent masses were employed in a single-slope, double-basin solar
still by Modi et al.39 According to their findings, nanoparticle weight
concentrations were found to enhance distillate output by 17.6%,
FIG. 1. Preparation of absorber plate coating with TWP.
AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247
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12.3%, 7.2%, and 2.6%. Panchal and Sadasivuni40 used with and
without the use of the zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles and drip-
ping arrangement. They obtained higher water temperature and
distillate output than conventional ones. The absorber plates were
coated with a 10% weight proportion of micro- and nano-coated
Fe2 O3 particles by Balachandran et al.41 Their experimental results
showed that solar stills coated with nano-Fe2 O3 received distillate
output 4.39 kg/m2 compared to 3.23 kg/m2 for solar stills coated
with micro-Fe2 O3 . Manoj Kumar et al.42 coated absorber plates
with SiO2 nanoparticles at different depths of water. Lower water
depths resulted in an 8.78% increase in distillate output compared
to a non-coated absorber plate. In order to create zinc (Zn) sample
specimens with different weight concentrations, Ahmad et al.43 uti-
lized metallic zinc (Zn) nanomaterial and black paint. Their research
showed that zinc coating on metal plates reduced the amount of
heat that could be transmitted by the sun compared to bare alu-
minum. The addition of reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanosheets
to the absorber plate increased the temperatures of the basin water
by 14.7% and the absorber by 15.7%, according to Thakur et al.44
A study comparing solar stills with coated absorber plates using
RGO-reduced graphene oxide and activated carbon pellets to solar
stills was carried out experimentally by Thakur et al.45 By combin-
ing RGO with activated carbon pellets, they were able to increase
the distillate ouptut of water by 58.15%. In order to determine
the impact of nanoparticles of manganese oxide (MnO2 ) in black
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paint on distillate production, Panchal et al.46 performed studies.
Experiments with nanoparticle weight concentrations found a 19.5%
improvement between 20% and 50% MnO2 nanoparticle weight
concentration. Rasachak et al.47 studied solar stills in both indoor
and outdoor settings to see how a coating of tin oxide (SnO2 )
nanoparticles affected the temperature. There was a direct corre-
lation between the absorber plate’s temperature and the weight
concentration of SnO2 , with a maximum rise of 53.67% seen at a 15%
weight concentration. Hasanianpour Faridani and Ameri48 inves-
tigated the effects of γ-Al2 O3 nanoparticles on distillate output of
solar still with a single slope basin. The distillate production was
found to increase by 60.03% when 0.3 weight percent of γ-Al2 O3
was added to the water in the still. In a study conducted by Alqsair
et al.,49 nano-coating NC, parabolic solar concentrator (PSC), and
an external condenser were utilized. The researchers found that the
DSS productivity reached its peak at 0.3 rpm, leading to a 32%
increase in production and a 72% improvement in efficiency. Sathya-
murthy et al.50 used the leftover soda cans that were coated with
carbon soot particles that were gathered from motor exhaust and
experimentally compared to the SSSS with uncoated pulsed-code
modulation (PCM) cans and those without energy storage; the SSSS
with coated PCM cans demonstrated notable improvements in ther-
mal performance and cumulative distillate output, with gains of
about 75.7% and 102.3%, respectively. Coating of the absorber plate
with iron oxide for experimental work at different water levels in
the basin found that the iron oxide nanoparticles increased the heat
FIG. 2. (a) and (b) FE-SEM images of the nano coating material at two different magnifications.
FIG. 3. (a) Absorber plate coating with TWP. (b) Absorber plate coating without TWP.
AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247
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absorption rate, raising the water’s temperature and increasing the
pace at which evaporation occurs. Also, thermal efficiency increased
by 42.85% with coating at lower water levels in the basin according
to Dhasan et al.51
According to the reviewed literature, the absorber plate temper-
ature is the most significant parameter for determining the distillate
output of a solar still. A faster rate of evaporation occurs when
the water temperature in the basin is higher. Coating the absorber
plate is one way to accomplish this. However, coating the absorber
plate to increase the solar still’s production has only been done
by a few researchers. The following are the primary goals of this
article:
● Investigate the impact of different weight concentrations
of toner waste powder (TWP) nanoparticles on coating
and uncoated absorber plates, with varying percentages of
5%–20%.
● An examination of the energy–exergy efficiency of solar
still coated with toner waste powder (SSCWTWP) and
conventional solar still (CSS) solar stills.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. TWP coating on absorber plate
In CSS, commercially available black paint was used to paint
the interior surface of the basin and side walls. In modified solar still
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FIG. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of SSCWTWP. (b) Schematic diagram of CSS. (c) Actual setup.
coated with toner waste powder (SSCWTWP), toner waste powder
(TWP) is used as a nanomaterial. Initially, 50 g of black paint was
measured on an electronic weight scale, and then measured weight
concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% of nanomaterials accord-
ing to the black paint were taken and manually stirred until proper
mixing of the nanomaterials and black paint than 20 g of turpen-
tine were added. To ensure appropriate mixing, additional stirring
AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247
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was performed. Using the spray, a mixture of black paint, turpen-
tine, and TWP was applied to the SSCWTWP absorber plate. After
properly drying, the absorber plates were SSCWTWP and CSS, used
for the experimentations. The side walls of the SSCWTWP have
mirrors attached to them for reflection purposes in experimenta-
tions. Figure 1 depicts the steps used for applying the coating in this
work.
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B. Characterization of nano coating material (TWP)
Initially, the TWP is collected from the used toner of the
printer from the Government Engineering College, Palanpur. The
main objective is to raise distillate output at an economical
rate; hence, the absorber plate of the solar still is coated using
the “best from the west” idea. To analyze the surface morphol-
ogy and characterize TWP nanoparticles, x-ray diffraction (XRD)
and field emission scanning electron micrographs (FE-SEM) were
done. FE-SEM was done by Carl Zeiss Model Supra 55 Ger-
many and XRD by Bruker D8 Focus, X-ray Source-Copper Anode
v-40kv I-35 mA. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) illustrate the field emis-
sion scanning electron micrographs (FE-SEM) at two different
magnifications, which show the spherical shape of the nanoparti-
cles. The mean size of the particles was 100 nm, with a range of
58–159 nm.52 It can be observed that the nanoparticles are uni-
formly scattered across the whole surface of the absorber plate.
Figure 3(a) and 3(b) shows the absorber plate coating with and
without TWP.
C. Experimental setup
In this work, two single-sloped solar stills—the solar still mod-
ified by coating with toner waste powder (SSCWTWP) and the
Conventional Solar Still (CSS)—with the same technical specifi-
cations and dimensions have been subjected to an experimental
analysis over a few days in the month of February 2023, in Palan-
pur, Gujarat, which has a climate of 24.1724○ N and 72.4346○ E.
Figures 4(a), 4(b), and 4(c) show the schematic diagram and actual
experimental setup of the experimental work, respectively. The
0.5 × 0.5 m2 (0.25 m2 ) solar still’s basin is made of a 2 mm thick
galvanized iron (G.I.) sheet. The front, back, and side walls of the
solar stills were built using plywood, which works as a thermal insu-
lator that is easily found at any local hardware shop. In addition,
proper insulation has been used to prevent heat loss. The vapor-
ized water was condensed and gathered using a standard white glass
cover that was 4 mm thick, and then, it was collected in a collecting
jar with a proper pipe connection. The glass cover was positioned
at a latitude of 24○ at Palanpur, Gujarat, India. Silicone and rub-
ber sealing strips are employed to prevent leakage from the basin
and to securely attach the glass. The tap water that feeds both stills
is stored in a storage tank. The basin’s outflow was removed, and
pipes were built to deliver water to the basin from a storage tank.
A buoyancy-controlled valve mechanism ensures a consistent water
level in the basin.
In order to optimize solar energy utilization and prevent the
occurrence of shadows, the two solar stills were positioned near
each other, facing south. Experiments were carried out in Palanpur,
Gujarat, to investigate the effects of varying weight concentrations
(5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of TWP nanoparticles. The experi-
ments took place in February 2023, from 7:00 am to 7:00 pm. The
water level in the basin remained constant at 2 cm throughout the
experiments.
For comparing the performance of the two stills, numerous fac-
tors were measured throughout the experiment. These parameters
included the amount of water in the basin, the glass cover, the ambi-
ent temperatures, the amount of solar radiation, the wind speed, and
the amount of distillate produced.
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Wind speed is measured by an anemometer with an accu-
racy of ±3%, solar intensity is measured using a solarimeter with
an accuracy of ±10 w/m2 , and distillate output is measured using
a laboratory-calibrated beaker with a capacity of 1 l (accuracy
±2.5 ml). Equations for calculating the degree of uncertainty in this
research are taken from Naveen Kumar et al.53 During the exper-
iment, the greatest amount of uncertainty that should be allowed
is 4%.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this experimental investigation, the performance of both
modified SSCWTWP and CSS was examined for different weight
concentrations (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of nanoparticles (TWP)
at 2 cm water depth in the basin at Palanpur city’s location dur-
ing February 8, 2023–February 13, 2023. Table I gives the details
of the days where readings were taken for different weight con-
centrations. In the solar system, the primary factors that determine
performance are still wind speed, temperature, and solar radiation
intensity. Several characteristics were measured for the experimental
study, such as the temperatures of the water, glass, and atmo-
sphere, the strength of the radiation from the sun, and the distillate
output.
A. Hourly changes in the ambient temperature
and solar radiation intensity during
the experimental days
The hourly fluctuations in temperature and solar radiation
intensity during test days in February 2023 are displayed in Fig. 5.
There are similar patterns in the ambient temperature and the inten-
sity of solar radiation. The solar radiation gradually increases until
it reaches its highest point at midday, whereas the ambient tem-
perature is lower in the morning throughout the duration of the
experiment. During the time of the experiment, the highest recorded
solar radiation intensity was 919 W/m2 on February 10th , 2023. In
addition, the maximum ambient temperature reached 37.03 ○ C on
February 8th , 2023.
B. Water temperature variations
With 10% weight concentrations of nanoparticles in the black
paint at 2 cm water depths, the hourly variations of the water
temperatures of the basin for both conventional (CSS) and mod-
ified (SSCWTWP) solar stills are displayed in Fig. 6. At first, the
morning temperatures are nearly identical; however, as solar radi-
ation intensity increases, the temperature also increases, reaching
its peak at noon before progressively dropping in the afternoon.
Similar trends were observed at all weight concentrations, and the
TABLE I. Information of days of experiments for different wt. concentrations.
Sr. no. Date Wt. concentration of TWP (%)
1 08-02-2023 10
2 10-02-2023 15
3 11-02-2023 5
4 13-02-2023 20
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FIG. 5. Hourly changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation intensity.

FIG. 6. The water temperature of the basin changes hourly with time at 10 wt. %.

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water temperature in a nano-coated absorber plate is higher than
that in a non-coated absorber plate because of the nanoparticle’s
increased capacity to absorb heat and due to the activation of solar
energy absorption with improved surface roughness. Furthermore,
the water temperature is higher for concentrations of 10%, 15%,
20%, and 5% of weight, respectively. The highest temperatures ever
recorded in CSS were 55.12 and 58.94 ○ C at a 10% weight concentra-
tion in MSS. A greater water temperature leads to a higher distillate
output because higher temperatures cause enhancement in water
evaporation.
C. Inner glass cover temperature variations
The variations in temperatures, which occur on the inner
glass, are depicted in Fig. 7. During the morning, the temperatures
on the inner glass were found to be lower than that of the out-
side glass. They then rise with solar radiation, peak at midday.
In the afternoon, however, they fall during the hours when the
sun is not shining. The water temperature in the basin is reflected
in the observed trend. The temperature of the glass cover rises
with increased basin water. The vapor produced inside the basin
rejects heat to the surrounding area through the glass cover by
conduction and convection. The accumulation of vapor within
the chamber impacts condensation by raising the temperature of
the glass. Although the temperature is marginally greater for a 10
wt. %, the temperatures recorded on the surfaces of the glass are
extremely similar in all instances of wt. concentrations of TWP
were compared to other wt. concentrations of TWP. The highest
temperatures observed in CSS were 49.66 ○ C, and in SSCWTWP,
FIG. 7. Inner glass temperature variations at 10 wt %.
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they were 51.38 ○ C at 10 wt. % concentrations of TWP, respectively.
Variables, including the vapor temperature within the chamber,
the ambient temperature outside, the speed of the wind, and the
intensity of the solar radiation, contribute to the overall increase in
temperature.
D. Variation in distillate output
For different TWP weight concentrations, the distillate pro-
duction of modified SSCWTWP and CSS hourly and cumulative
variations are depicted in Figs. 8 and 9. For modified SSCWTWP
at 5, 10, 15, and 20 wt. %, the hourly collected distillate at peak
solar radiation intensity was found to be 141, 185, 170, and 140 ml,
respectively, at a water depth of 2 cm. The higher distillate output
was achieved on February 8, 2023, at 10% weight concentrations
of nanoparticles (TWP). That same day, the hourly distillate out-
put of CSS reached 127 ml at the highest solar radiation intensity.
Cumulative distillate output of modified SSCWTWP at 5, 10, 15, and
20 wt. % is found as 716, 955, 865, and 731 ml, respectively. The dis-
tillate output reached its peak at 955 ml when nanoparticles were
applied at a concentration of 10 wt. % on February 8th, 2023. This
distillate output of 40.03% greater than the distillate output attained
with CSS and 33.38%, 10.40%, and 30.64% higher than the obtained
with 5, 15, and 20 wt. % concentrations of nanoparticles at the same
water depth. It can be observed that the coating of the absorber plate
with toner waste powder is more effective at 10 wt. % concentrations
compared to 5%, 15%, and 20% weight concentrations of nanopar-
ticles (TWP). At higher weight concentrations, nanoparticles were
not mixed properly, and due to this, it will not adhere properly on
the absorber plate.
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FIG. 8. Changes in hourly distillate output of modified SSCWTWP and CSS at different weight concentrations of TWP nanoparticles.

FIG. 9. Changes in cumulative distillate output of modified SSCWTWP and CSS at different weight concentrations of TWP nanoparticles.

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FIG. 10. Variation of evaporative fractional exergy.

E. Thermal analysis (energy and exergy efficiency)
Higher energy–exergy factors influence the solar still’s distillate
output. A solar still with greater energy and exergy efficiency rat-
ings will produce more output. The energy, exergy, and efficiency
study is a crucial factor to consider when evaluating the perfor-
mance of a solar still. Thermal properties of a solar still coated
with nanoparticles, weighing 10% of the total weight, were assessed
using formulas supplied in Refs. 25 and 29 during the investigation.
These included the partial pressure of basin water vapor (Pbw ), and
inner glass surface (Pig ), the evaporative and convective heat trans-
fer coefficient (he,bw-ig , and hc,bw-ig ), the latent heat of vaporization
(L), and the exergy for evaporation and convection (Exe,bw-ig, and
Exc,bw-ig ).
1. Fractional evaporative variations
Figure 10 illustrates the variations in the fractional evaporative
exergy for the redesigned SSCWTWP and CSS. The exergy evapo-
ration fraction was calculated to range from 0.68% to 0.92%. This
phenomenon is facilitated by the elevated evaporative heat transfer
coefficient of the heated water in the basin. In addition, it was noted
that the fractional exergy efficiency of the modified SSCWTWP is

FIG. 11. Variation of convective fractional exergy.

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FIG. 12. Energy–efficiency comparison.

greater during the afternoon and till the evening periods. The pres-
ence of the toner waste powder on the absorber plate has enhanced
its heat transfer -, resulting in this phenomenon.
2. Fractional convective exergy variations
Variations in the fractional convective exergy for both stills
are depicted in Fig. 11. The computed value of fractional convec-
tive exergy for modified SSCWTWP remains lower from morning to
evening compared to CSS. At 8:00 am, it is 0.2878%, and at midday,
when sun radiation peaks, it is 0.0811%, decreasing the fractional
convective exergy in modified SSCWTWP because of increased
convective heat transfer coefficient and exergy convection values.
Furthermore, the latent heat of vaporization of modified SSCWTWP
is smaller than that of CSS. When the convective exergy efficiency
is lower, modified SSCWTWP produces more distillate output than
CSS.
3. Energy–efficiency comparison
The energy and efficiency for the modified SSCWTWP and
CSS using the experimental data are depicted in Fig. 12. It is
found from figure that the energy and efficiency of modified
SSCWTWP and CSS were 47.42% and 31.09%, respectively. Mod-
ified SSCWTWP’s higher distillate output and exergy value result in
a 52.52% higher energy–efficiency than CSS. The addition of TWP
enhances the heat absorption capacity of the modified SSCWTWP,
improves the heat transfer coefficient of evaporation, and results
in a higher production of distillate output. Both the MSS and CSS
systems distillate output nearly equal amounts of distillate in the

FIG. 13. Exergy–efficiency comparison between modified SSCWTWP and CSS.

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morning. However, as the solar radiation intensity increases, the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

modified SSCWTWP system produces a greater amount of distillate
The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Sup-
compared to CSS.
porting Project number (RSPD2024R999), King Saud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

4. Exergy–efficiency comparison
Figure 13 depicts the exergy–efficiency of modified SSCWTWP
and CSS based on the experimental results. The figures for exergy
efficiency for modified SSCWTWP and CSS are 16.23% and
4.31%, respectively. Because there is less water evaporation in
the morning due to the lower strength of solar radiation inten-
sity, the exergy for both modified SSCWTWP and CSS is the
same. However, due to the coating, modified SSCWTWP exhibits
a higher afternoon exergy generation value than CSS. The coating’s
enhanced rate of water evaporation may lead to higher exergy
efficiency.
AUTHOR DECLARATIONS
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts to disclose.
Author Contributions
Pradeep Boka: Data curation (equal). Hitesh Panchal: Methodology
(equal). Md Irfanul Haque Siddiqui: Formal analysis (equal). Mohd
Asif Shah: Conceptualization (equal).

IV. CONCLUSIONS DATA AVAILABILITY

In this work, the performance of two equally sized CSS and The data that support the findings of this study are available
modified SSCWTWP was experimentally tested in the Palanpur cli- from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.
mate in February 2023 under varying weight concentrations of 5%,
10%, 15%, and 20% of nanoparticle toner waste powder (TWP).
Toner waste powder (TWP) combined with 20 g of turpentine and NOMENCLATURE
50 g of black paint has been mixed, and a spray gun was used to
CSS Conventional solar still
coat the modified SSCWTWP’s absorber plate for research purposes.
FE-SEM Field emission scanning electron micrograph
Based on the results and discussion, the experimental investigation
SSCWTWP Solar still coated with toner waste powder
leads to the following conclusions:
TWP Toner waste powder
● Modified SSCWTWP produces more distillate output than wt Weight
CSS because of the coating of the absorber plate with TWP XRD X-ray diffraction
nanoparticles.
● At 10% weight concentrations of TWP nanoparticles, the
maximum basin water and glass surface temperatures of REFERENCES
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and on that day for CSS, 55.12 and 49.66 ○ C were achieved. P. Boka, “Use of computational fluid dynamics for solar desalination system: A
Similar trends were observed during other experimental review,” Int. J. Ambient Energy 43(1), 5742–5757 (2022).
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mined to be 141, 185, 170, and 140 ml, respectively. Energy Rev. 69, 750–758 (2017).
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H. Panchal, D. Mevada, and R. Sathyamurthy, “The requirement of various
concentrations. methods to improve distillate output of solar still: A review,” Int. J. Ambient
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of 10 wt. % nanoparticles, with a cumulative volume of 955 5
H. Panchal, K. Sadashivuni, R. Sathyamurthy, and D. Mevada, “Developments
ml. This output is 40.03% greater than the output reached and modifications in passive solar still: A review,” Desalin. Water Treat. 143,
with CSS, and 33.38%, 10.40%, and 30.64% higher than the 158–164 (2019).
outputs achieved with 5, 15, and 20 wt. % concentrations of 6
H. Panchal, K. Kumar Sadasivuni, M. Suresh, S. Yadav, and S. Brahmbhatt,
nanoparticles at the same water depth. “Performance analysis of evacuated tubes coupled solar still with double basin
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day, while exergy convection exhibits a lower value than 7
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● Energy and exergy efficiency for modified SSCWTWP and 8
H. Panchal, R. Sathyamurthy, A. E. Kabeel et al., “Annual performance analysis
CSS are 47.42% and 31.09%, respectively, and 16.23% and of adding different nanofluids in stepped solar still,” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 138,
4.35%. 3175–3182 (2019).

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© Author(s) 2024
 AIP Advances
9 30
H. Panchal, D. Mevada, K. K. Sadasivuni, F. A. Essa, S. Shanmugan, and M.
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12
H. Panchal, N. Patel, and H. Thakkar, “Various techniques for improvement in
distillate output from active solar still: A review,” Int. J. Ambient Energy 38(2),
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17
M. Fathy, H. Hassan, and M. Salem Ahmed, “Experimental study on the
effect of coupling parabolic trough collector with double slope solar still on its
performance,” Sol. Energy 163, 54–61 (2018).
18
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K. Sampathkumar, T. V. Arjunan, and P. Senthilkumar, “The experimental
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21
H. N. Panchal and P. K. Shah, “Performance analysis of double basin solar still
with evacuated tubes,” Appl. Sol. Energy 49(3), 174–179 (2013).
22
M. Bhargva and A. Yadav, “Productivity augmentation of single-slope solar still
using evacuated tubes, heat exchanger, internal reflectors and external condenser,”
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M. B. Farghaly, R. N. Alahmadi, H. H. Sarhan, and E. S. Abdelghany,
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24
M. Samimi and H. Moghadam, “Modified evacuated tube collector basin solar
still for optimal desalination of reverse osmosis concentrate,” Energy 289, 129983
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D. Mevada, H. Panchal, and K. K. Sadasivuni, “Investigation on evacu-
ated tubes coupled solar still with condenser and fins: Experimental, exergo-
economic and exergo-environment analysis,” Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 27, 101217
(2021).
26
H. N. Panchal, “Use of thermal energy storage materials for enhancement in
distillate output of solar still: A review,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 61,
86–96 (2016).
27
H. N. Panchal, “Performance analysis of solar still with cow dung cakes and blue
metal stones,” Front. Energy 9(2), 180–186 (2015).
28
S. W. Sharshir et al., “Improving the performance of solar still using differ-
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AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247
© Author(s) 2024
ARTICLE pubs.aip.org/aip/adv
A. S. Abdullah, W. H. Alawee, S. A. Mohammed, A. Majdi, Z. M. Omara,
and M. M. Younes, “Utilizing a single slope solar still with copper heating coil,
external condenser, phase change material, along with internal and external
reflectors—Experimental study,” J. Energy Storage 63, 106899 (2023).
31
A. E. Kabeel, Z. M. Omara, F. A. Essa, and A. S. Abdullah, “RETRACTED: Solar
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839–857 (2016).
32
H. Panchal, D. Mevada, and K. K. Sadasivuni, “Recent advancements in con-
densers to enhance the performance of solar still: A review,” Heat Transfer 49(6),
3758–3778 (2020).
33
A. A. Hussein and N. Abid Jassim, “Experimental investigation of solar
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34
W. H. Alawee, A. S. Abdullah, S. A. Mohammed, A. Majdi, Z. M. Omara,
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37
B. Gupta, P. Shankar, R. Sharma, and P. Baredar, “Performance enhance-
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38
A. E. Kabeel, Z. M. Omara, F. A. Essa, A. S. Abdullah, T. Arunkumar, and
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39
K. V. Modi, D. L. Shukla, and D. B. Ankoliya, “A comparative performance
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40
H. Panchal and K. K. Sadasivuni, “Experimental investigation on solar still with
nanomaterial and dripping arrangement,” Energy Sources, Part A 2020, 1–11.
41
G. B. Balachandran, P. W. David, R. K. Mariappan, A. E. Kabeel, M. M. Athike-
savan, and R. Sathyamurthy, “Improvising the efficiency of single-sloped solar still
using thermally conductive nano-ferric oxide,” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27(26),
32191–32204 (2020).
42
P. Manoj Kumar et al., “Augmenting the performance of conventional solar still
through the nano-doped black paint (NDBP) coating on absorber,” Mater. Today:
Proc. 47, 4929–4933 (2021).
43
M. S. Ahmad et al., “Indoor and outdoor performance study of metallic zinc
particles in black paint to improve solar absorption for solar still application,”
Coatings 11(5), 536 (2021).
44
A. K. Thakur, R. Sathyamurthy, S. W. Sharshir, A. Elnaby Kabeel, M. Shamsud-
din Ahmed, and J. Y. Hwang, “A novel reduced graphene oxide based absorber for
augmenting the water yield and thermal performance of solar desalination unit,”
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45
A. K. Thakur et al., “Performance analysis of a modified solar still using reduced
graphene oxide coated absorber plate with activated carbon pellet,” Sustainable
Energy Technol. Assess. 45, 101046 (2021).
46
H. Panchal et al., “Experimental investigation on the yield of solar still using
manganese oxide nanoparticles coated absorber,” Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 25,
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47
S. Rasachak et al., “Effect of tin oxide/black paint coating on absorber plate tem-
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Z. Hasanianpour Faridani and A. Ameri, “Performance enhancement of a basin
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14, 045208-12
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50
R. Sathyamurthy et al., “Enhancing solar still thermal performance: The role of
surface coating and thermal energy storage in repurposed soda cans,” J. Energy
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K. S. Dhasan, R. Sathyamurthy, K. Mohanasundaram, and P. Sudalaimuthu,
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oxide nanoparticles at different water thickness,” Sol. Energy 264, 112083 (2023).
52
H. Panchal, P. Boka, K. Sharma, M. I. H. Siddiqui, and D. Dobrotă, “A case study
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AIP Advances 14, 045208 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0191247 14, 045208-13

© Author(s) 2024