A.

Sampling Methods:

1. Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a population in which each member of the population has a
known and non-zero probability of being included in the sample. It provides a way to obtain representative samples and
make statistical inferences about the population. The main types of probability sampling methods are:

2. Simple Random Sampling:

In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected. For
example, if a researcher wants to study the opinions of students in a school, they could assign each student a number and
then use a random number generator to select a sample of students.

3. Stratified Sampling:
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into homogeneous subgroups called strata and then selecting samples
from each stratum in proportion to their representation in the population. For instance, if a researcher wants to study the
performance of students in a school, they may divide the students into strata based on grade levels and then randomly
select a certain number of students from each grade.

4. Systematic Sampling:
Systematic sampling involves selecting every nth element from a population after randomly selecting a starting point. For
example, if a researcher wants to survey customers exiting a store, they could choose every 10th customer who leaves the
store after selecting a random customer as the starting point.

5. Cluster Sampling:
Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters (groups) and randomly selecting entire clusters to include in
the sample. This method is useful when it is impractical or costly to sample individuals directly. For example, if a researcher
wants to study the health status of households in a city, they may randomly select a few neighborhoods and include all
households within those neighborhoods in the sample.

6. Non-probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling methods do not rely on random selection and do not guarantee that every member of the
population has a known chance of being included in the sample. While they may be more convenient and cost-effective, the
results obtained from non-probability samples may not be statistically representative of the population. Some common non-
probability sampling methods include:
 7. Haphazard/Accidental Sampling:
Haphazard or accidental sampling involves selecting participants based on convenience or availability. For example, a
researcher conducting a survey at a shopping mall may approach individuals who happen to be passing by and are willing
to participate.

8. Convenience Sampling:
Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who are readily available and accessible to the researcher. For
instance, conducting a survey among students in a particular classroom because they are easily accessible.

9. Volunteer Sampling:
Volunteer sampling involves individuals self-selecting themselves to be part of the sample. This often occurs in studies
where participants voluntarily sign up or respond to advertisements. For example, a study on the effectiveness of a new
therapy may recruit participants who actively express interest in the treatment.

10. Purposive Sampling:

Purposive sampling involves intentionally selecting individuals who possess specific characteristics or qualities relevant to
the research objective. For instance, a researcher studying expert opinions on a particular topic may specifically choose
individuals who are recognized authorities in the field.

11. Quota Sampling:

Quota sampling involves selecting individuals to fulfill certain predetermined quotas based on specific characteristics, such
as age, gender, or occupation. For example, a researcher conducting a political survey may aim to interview a certain
number of participants from different age groups and genders to ensure representation.

12. Snowball Sampling:

Snowball sampling begins with an initial set of participants who meet the desired criteria, and then additional participants
are recruited through referrals from existing participants. This method is often used when the population of interest is difficult
to reach. For example, in a study on illegal drug use, initial participants who are known drug users may refer other drug
users they know.

13. Reasons for the need for sampling:

a) Cost: Conducting a study on an entire population may be prohibitively expensive, while sampling allows researchers to
collect data more economically.
b) Time: Sampling methods can save time compared to collecting data from the entire population, enabling researchers to
obtain results more quickly.
c) Accessibility: Some populations are geographically dispersed or have logistical constraints, making it difficult to collect
data from all members. Sampling allows researchers to overcome such challenges.
d) Destructive testing: In cases where destructive testing is involved, such as in quality control or medical research,
sampling allows for the examination of a subset of the population without damaging the entire population.
e) Infeasibility: For certain populations or characteristics of interest, it may be impractical or impossible to measure every
member. Sampling provides a feasible means of studying such populations.

14. Ways to compute sample size from a given population:

a) Statistical Formulas: Various statistical formulas exist to estimate the required sample size based on factors like desired
confidence level, margin of error, and population size. Examples of such formulas include the one for estimating sample
size in a proportion estimation or the one for estimating sample size in a mean estimation.
b) Power Analysis: Power analysis is commonly used in experimental researchto determine the sample size needed to
detect a significant effect or difference between groups. It considers factors such as the desired statistical power, effect size,
and significance level.

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