OSR Academy TM 8447550189; 9650825058; 8010336582

PREFACE
Dear students,

This edition of Physics study material is an outcome of

exhaustive research which has been done, keeping in
mind the current changes in C.B.S.E. mode of evaluation.
We at OSR Academy covered the entire syllabus based on
N.C.E.R.T. as well as we supplement our pedagogy with
the study material prepared by us.
The study material has been prepared by a team of
specialist, which guarantees your success.
This study material is a genuine compilation done from
all the standard textbooks available in the market.
Nothing more than this study material is required to
score A+ grade.
Thank you for being a part of OSR Academy a well renowned
institute, dedicated to the betterment of education.
Wish you all the best for the preparation period.

Regards
TM
OSR Academy

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INDEX
NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. MAGNETISM AND MATTER 3 - 17

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 18 - 28

3. ALTERNATING CURRENT 29 - 51

4. EM WAVES 52 - 56

5. RAY OPTICS 57 - 96

6. WAVE OPTICS 97 - 107

7. DUAL NATURE OF MATTER 108 - 117

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER
 Magnet
A magnet is a material that has both attractive and directive properties. It attracts small pieces
of iron, nickel, cobalt etc. This property of attraction is called magnetism.
- Some common types of magnets are:
1. Bar Magnet: It is a bar of circular or rectangular cross – section.

2. Magnetic needle: It is a thin magnetised steel needle having pointed ends and is pivoted at
its centre so that it is free to rotate in a horizontal plane.

3. Horse shoe magnet: It has the shape of a horse – shoe and thus it has been named so.

4. Ball – ended magnet: It is a thin bar of circular cross – section ending in two spherical balls.

- Basic properties of magnets:

1. Attractive property: A magnet attracts small pieces of iron, cobalt, nickel etc. When a magnet
is bought near a heap of iron fillings, the ends of the magnet show the greatest attraction.
These ends, where the magnetic attraction is maximum, are called poles of the magnet. Thus
every magnet has two poles.
2. Directive property: When a magnet is suspended or provided freely, it aligns itself in the
geographical north – south direction. The pole of the magnet which points towards the
geographical north is called the north – seeking or north (N) pole.
The other pole which points towards the geographical south is called the south seeking or
south (S) pole.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
4. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs (No monopole).
5. Magnetic induction: A magnet can magnetise nearby magnetic substances, this phenomenon
is called magnetic induction.

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- Some basic definitions:

1. Magnetic field: The space around a magnet within which its influence can be experienced, is
called its magnetic field.
2. Uniform magnetic field: Magnetic field having some magnitude and direction at all given
points, is called uniform magnetic field.
3. Magnetic poles: These are the regions of apparently concentrated magnetic strength in a
magnet where the magnetic attraction is maximum.
4. Magnetic axis: The line passing through the poles of the magnet is called the magnetic axis of
the magnet.
5. Magnetic equator: The line passing through the centre of the magnet and at right angle to
the axis is called the magnetic equator of the magnet.

6. Magnetic length: The distance between the two poles of a magnet is called the magnetic
length of the magnet. It is slightly less than the geometrical length of the magnet.
Experimentally it is found that,
ƒ‰‡–‹ Ž‡‰–Š
ൌ ͲǤͺͶ
‡‘‡–”‹ ƒŽŽ‡‰–Š

 Coulomb’s law of magnetic force

This law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles, is directly
proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
If qm1 and qm2 are the poles strengths which are distance ‘r’ apart, then force ‘f’ will be
f ‫ ן‬qm1 X qm2 ....................... (1)
ଵ
and f ‫ ן‬୰మ ....................... (2)
Combining (1) and (2)
୯୫భ ୯୫మ
Then, f‫ן‬ ୰మ
୏୯୫భ ୯୫మ
Or, fൌ ୰మ
K = proportionality constant which depends on nature of material and unit used,
ρ ୯୫ ୯୫
Also, f = బ ସ஠୰భ మ మ
ρ  ୯୫భ ୯୫మ
బ
For vacuum or air, f = ସ஠ ୰మ
బ ρ 
Where, ସ஠ ൌ 10-7N

 Magnetic dipole and magnetic dipole moment:

- Magnetic dipole

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An arrangement of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance is
called a magnetic dipole.

- Magnetic dipole moment

The product of its pole strength and magnetic length is called magnetic dipole moment.
It is a vector quantity with direction from S – pole to N – pole
m = qm X 2 l
We shall see later on that S. I unit of magnetic dipole moment is ampere metre2 (Am2)

 Magnetic field lines

 Properties of magnetic field lines

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- Describe method for plotting magnetic field of a bar magnet

- Magnetic field of bar magnet at axial point:

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- Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an equatorial point

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- Torque on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field

 S.I unit of magnetic moment:

த
As, m = ୆ ୱ୧୬ ஘
୒୫
Therefore, S.I unit of m = ୘
= Nm T-1 = ߬ T -1 = Am2

Ques: Show that unit of magnetic moment is Am2.

- Potential energy of a magnetic dipole:

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- Special cases for torque

1. θ = 0o 2. θ = 90o 3. θ = 180o
߬ = m B sin θ ߬ = m B sin θ ߬ = m B sin θ
߬ = 0 = minimum ߬ = mB(1) = mB = maximum ߬ = mB(0)
Stable equilibrium No equilibrium ߬ = 0; Unstable equilibrium

Ques: A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 ߬ T-1 lies aligned with the direction of a uniform
magnetic field of 0.22 T.
a) What is the amount of work required by an external torque to turn the magnet so as to align its
magnetic moment:
i) Normal to the field direction, and (ii) Opposite to the field direction?
b) What is the torque on the magnet in cases (i) and (ii)?

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Ques: A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment 0.48 ߬ T-1. Give the magnitude and direction of
the magnetic field produced by the magnet at a distance of 10cm from the centre of magnet on
i) the axis, (ii) equatorial lines of the magnet.

- Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid:

- Current carrying solenoid equivalent to a bar magnet:

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 Gauss’s law in magnetism

As we know Gauss’s law in electrostatic states that, electrostatic field E over a closed surface
ଵ
integral of the electrostatic surface ‘S’ is equal to ‫ א‬times the total charge ‘q’ enclosed by
బ
surface ‘S’.
୯
So, ‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †• = ‫א‬
బ
- Suppose that closed surface encloses an electric dipole, then
qnet = +q + (-q) = 0

Therefore, ‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †• = 0

Now, in the case of magnetic field, it is always produced by magnetic dipole, so the above
equation for magnetic field can be written as; ‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †• = 0
Therefore, Gauss law in magnetic shows that monopole doesn’t exist.

- Magnetic field of the earth:

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Earth is a powerful natural magnet. Its magnetic field is present everywhere near the
earth’s surface. This field can be approximately to the field of a magnetic dipole of
dipole moment 8 X 1022 Am2 assumed to be located at the centre of the centre of the
earth.

Note: The branch of physics that deals with the study of earth’s magnetism is called
terrestrial magnetism or geomagnetism.

- Some definitions related with earth’s magnetism

1. Geographic axis: The straight line passing through the geographical north and south poles of
the earth is called the geographic axis. It is the axis of rotation of the earth.

2. Magnetic Axis: the straight line passing through magnetic north and south poles of the earth
is called its magnetic axis.

3. Magnetic equator: It is the great circle on the earth perpendicular to the magnetic axis.
4. Magnetic Meridian: The vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of a freely
suspended small magnet is called magnetic meridian. The earth’s magnetic field, acts in the
direction of the magnetic meridian.

5. Geographic meridian: The vertical plane passing through the geographic north and south
poles is called geographic meridian.

Ques: Is magnetic meridian is same for all points on earth? Explain.

 Components of earth’s magnetic field to study it properly:

1. Magnetic declination (Angle of declination)

The angle between the geographical meridian and the magnetic meridian at a place is called
the magnetic declination (‫ )ן‬at that place.
2. Angle of dip or magnetic inclination:
The angle made by the earth’s total magnetic field B with the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian is called angle of dip (Ɂ) at any place.
3. Horizontal component:
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It is the component of the earth’s total magnetic field B in the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian, if ‘Ɂ’ is the angle of dip at any place then the horizontal component if earth’s field B at the
place is given by,
BH = B cos Ɂ
At magnetic equator, Ɂ = 0o, BH = B cos 0o = B
At the magnetic poles, Ɂ = 90o, BH = B cos 90o = 0

Ques: How the value of dip angle changes from equator to pole?

- Relation between horizontal and vertical component of magnetic field of earth:

Let ‘ B ‘ be the net magnetic field of earth, then Horizontal component of magnetic field is
BH = B cos Ɂ ..................... (1)
And vertical component be
BV = B sin Ɂ ....................... (2)
Dividing (1) and (2)
୆ౄ ୆େ୭ୱஔ
ൌ  ୆ୗ୧୬ஔ
୆౒
୆ౄ େ୭ୱஔ
ൌ  ୗ୧୬ஔ
୆౒
୆ౄ
Also, ୆ ൌ –ƒ Ɂ
౒
Or, BV = BH tan Ɂ
Again, Bnet = ටୌ ଶ ൅୚ ଶ ൅ ʹୌ ୚ ‘•Ʌ

Bnet = ටୌ ଶ ൅୚ ଶ ൅ ʹୌ ୚ ሺͲሻ

Bnet = ටୌ ଶ ൅୚ ଶ

- Types of magnetic substances

1. Diamagnetic substances
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Substance which develop feeble magnetisation in opposite direction to that of magnetising field
are called diamagnetic substances.
They are feebly repelled by magnet, and moves from strong to weak region of magnetic field. For
example, copper , water etc.

2. Paramagnetic substances
Substance which develop feeble magnetisation in same direction to that of magnetising field,
when kept in magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
They are feebly attracted by magnet, and moves towards strong magnetic field from weak. For
example, aluminium.

3. Ferromagnetic substances
Ferromagnetic substances are those substances which develop strong magnetisation in the
direction of the magnetising field. They are strongly attracted by magnets and tend to move from
weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field. Example, soft iron.

- Magnetising field intensity

The ability of magnetising field to magnetise a material medium is expressed by a vector H, called
magnetising field intensity or magnetic intensity.
If magnitude may be defined as the number of ampere forms (nI) flowing round the unit length of
the solenoid required to produce the given magnetising field. Thus, H = nI

- Intensity of magnetisation
The magnetic moment developed per unit volume of a material when placed in a magnetising field
is called intensity of magnetisation or simply magnetisation.
‫ܕ‬
M=
‫ܞ‬

- Magnetic permeability
The magnetic permeability of a material may be defined as the ratio of its magnetic induction ‘B’ to
the magnetic intensity ‘H’.
۰
So, μ =
۶

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- Relative permeability
It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space, thus,
ૄ
μr=
ૄ૙

- Magnetic susceptibility
It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation M to the magnetising field intensity H.
‫ۻ‬
xm =
۶

- Relation between
If a substance is subjected to magnetising field intensity H, develops magnetisation M and
magnetic induction B, then
B = μo( H + M)
But, B = μH
Therefore, μH = μo( H + M)
୑
μ = μo( 1 + ୌ )
or μr = 1 + xB

Diamagnetic
-1 ≤ x < 0
0 < μr <1
μ < μ0

Paramagnetic
0<x<E
1 < μr < 1 + E
μ > μ0

Ferromagnetic
X >>1
μr >>1
μ >> μ0

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 Hysteresis loop:

Ques: A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane parallel to the magnetic meridian
has its north tip printing down at 22o with horizontal. The horizontal components of the
earth’s magnetic field at a place is know to be 0.35 G. Determine the magnitude of the
earth’s magnetic field at that place. (Given cos 22o = 0.927; sin 22o = 0.375)

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Ques: Draw diagram to depict the behaviour of magnetic field lines near a ‘bar’ of (i)
Copper, (ii) aluminium, (iii) Mercury, cooled to a very low temperature (4.2K).

Ques: When a magnetic needle is kept at pole, what will happen, explain?

Ques: Which one will have large susceptibility, copper or iron?

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 FARADAY’S EXPERIMENT (Electromagnetic induction):
- Faraday in 1831 first discovered that whenever the magnetic flux (magnetic lines) of
forces in a circuit changes, a emf is produced in the circuit and is known as induced
emf and this phenomenon is known as Electro Magnetic Induction.
- This induced emf and current lasts only for the time while magnetic flux changing and
circuit closed.

 Experiment 1

 Experiment 2

Example -6.1: Consider example, (a) What would you do to obtain a large deflection of
the galvanometer? (b) How would you demonstrate the presence of an induced current
in the absence of a galvanometer?

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 Magnetic flux:
If ds be an area element on any arbitrary surface and B be the magnetic field passing the
area perpendicularly, then, magnetic flux (‫ )׎‬is written as
‫ ׯ = ׎‬Ǥ †•
Or
d‫ = ׎‬B . ds = B ds Cos ߠ
Unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb)
1wb = 1Tm2
Note: 1 wb = it can be defined as magnetic ‫ ׎‬through area of 1m2 have magnetic flux of
1T making an angle of 0o with area vector.

Example- 6.2: A square loop of side 10cm and resistance 0.5Ω is placed vertically in the
east – west plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the
north – east direction. The magnetic field is decreased to zero in 0.70 sec at a steady rate.
Determine the magnitudes of indeed emf and current during this time interval.

Example – 6.3: A circular coil of radius 10cm, 500 turns and resistance 2Ω is placed with
its plane perpendicular t o the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. It is
rotated about its vertical diameter through 180o in 0.25 sec. Estimate the magnitudes of
the emf and current induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
field at the same place is 3.0 X 10 -5 T.

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Ques: Write S.I unit of magnetic flux. Is it a scalar or a vector quantity?

Ans:

 FARADAY’S LAW OF EMI:

According to Faraday’s law of induction, the net induced emf for a circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the conductor.
ௗ‫׎‬
IЄI = k ௗ௧
K = nearly unity.
ௗ‫׎‬
Hence, IЄI = k ௗ௧ ................... (1)
If, conductor has, N = no. Of turns, then
ௗ‫׎‬
IЄI = N ௗ௧ ................ (2)

 LENZ’S LAW:
It is the law which gives the direction of induced current and emf. It states that:
The individual current due to the individual emf always flow in such a direction as to
oppose the change causing it.
ௗ‫׎‬
Єe = - N ௗ௧

- Experiment of lenz’s law:

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Example – 6.5:
a) a closed loop is held stationary in the magnetic field between the north and south
poles of two permanent magnets held fixed. Can we hope to generate current in the loop
by using very strong magnets?

b) A closed loop moves normal to the constant electric field between the plates of a
large capacitor. Is a current induced in the loop (i) When it is wholly inside the region
between the capacitor plates (ii) When it is partially outside the plates of the capacitor?
The electric field is normal to the plane of the loop.

- Motional emf induced

As work done can be written as:

W = F X disp.
W = qvB X l
Since, emf is the work done per unit charge,
So, Є = W/q
Є = Blv

 MOTIONAL EMF FROM FARADAY’S LAWS

Motional emf from faraday’s law induced emf by change of area of the coil linked with
the magnetic field. The emf induced across the ends of a conductor due to its motion in a
magnetic field is called motional emf.

Suppose a length ‘n’ of the loop lies inside the magnetic field at any instant of time ‘t’.
Then the magnetic flux linked with the rectangular loop. PQRS is
‫ = ׎‬BA = Blx
ƒ ‘”†‹‰–‘ ƒ”ƒ†ƒ› ᇱ •Žƒ™‘ˆ‡Ž‡ –”‘ƒ‰‡–‹ ‹†— –‹‘ǡ –Š‡‹†— ‡†‡ˆ‹•
ௗ‫׎‬ ୢሺ୆୪୶ሻ ௗ௫
Є = െ ௗ௧ = െ ௗ௧ = െ‫ ݈ܤ‬ௗ௧
Or, Є = Blv

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 METHODS OF GENERATING INDUCED EMF
1. Changing the magnetic field B,
2. Changing the area A of the coil, and
3. Changing the relative orientation of B and A.

1. Induced emf by changing the magnetic field B:

We have already learnt how an induced emf is set up in a coil on changing the
magnetic flux through it by (i) moving a magnet towards a stationary coil, (ii) moving
a coil towards a stationary magnet and (iii) varying current in the neighbouring coil.

2. Induced emf by changing the area of the coi:

Consider a conductor CD of length ‘l’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ towards right on U –
shaped conducting rails situated in a magnetic field B, as shown in fig. The field is
uniform and points into the plane of the paper. As the conductor slides, the area of
the circuit changes from ABCD to ABC’D’ in time dt.

The increase in flux,

d‫ ׎‬ൌB X change in are
= B X area CDD’C’ = B . l v dt
This sets up induced emf in the loop of magnitude
ௗ‫׎‬
lЄl = =Blv
ௗ௧

3. Induced emf by changing relative orientation of the coil and the magnetic field:
Theory of AC generator
‫ = ׎‬BA CosӨ
‫݈݅݋݄ܿ݁ݐ݂݋ܽ݁ݎ݂݄ܽ݁ܿܽ݁ݐݏ݅ܣ݁ݎ݄݁ݓ‬Ǥ

If the coil rotates with an angular velocity ߱ and turns through an angle Ө in time t,
then
Ө = ߱‫ݐ‬
‫׵‬ ‫ = ׎‬BA Cos߱‫ݐ‬
As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked with it changes. An induced emf is set up
in the coil which is given by

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ௗ‫׎‬ ୢ
Є = െ ௗ௧ = െ ௗ௧ ሺ‘•߱‫ݐ‬ሻ= ߱‹߱‫ݐ‬
If the coil has N turns, then the total induced emf will be
Є = NBA߱‹߱‫ݐ‬

-Concept of eddy current:

Minimisation: The eddy currents can be reduced by using laminated core which
instead of a single solid mass consists of thin sheets of metal, insulated from each
other by a thin layer of varnish, as shown in fig.

 Applications of eddy currents

1. Induced furnace: If a metal specimen is placed in a rapidly changing magnetic field

(produced by high frequency a.c.), very large eddy currents are set up. The heat
produced is sufficient to even melt the metal. This process is used in the extraction of
some metals from their ores.
2. Electromagnetic damping: When a current is passed through a galvanometer, its coil
suffers few oscillations before coming to rest in the final position. As the coil moves
in the magnetic field, induced current is set in the coil which opposes its motion. The
oscillations of the coil are damped. This is called electromagnetic damping.
3. Electric brakes: A strong magnetic field is applied to the rotating drum attached to
the wheel. Eddy currents set up in the drum exert a torque on the drum so as to stop
the train.
4. Speedometers: In a speedometer, a magnet rotates with the speed of the vehicle.
The magnet is placed inside an aluminium drum which is carefully pivoted and held in
position by a hair spring.
5. Induction motor: In an a.c. induction motor rotating magnetic field is produced by
two single phase alternating current having a phase difference of 90o. A metallic rotor
is placed in the magnetic field. The eddy currents set up in the rotor tend to oppose
the relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor.

 SELF-INDUCTION:
Self – induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil when a
changing current passes through it.

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Co-efficient of self induction: At any instant, the magnetic flux ‫ ׎‬linked with a coil is
proportional to the current I through it, i.e.,
‫ ן ׎‬I or ‫ = ׎‬LI
ௗ‫׎‬ ୢ୍
Є = െ ௗ௧ = െ ୢ୲ ........(1)
Thus the self – inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked
with the coil when a unit current flows through it.

- Units if self inductance from equation (1)

ʲ
L = ௗூ
ൗௗ௧
ଵ୴
SI unit of L = = 1 V sA-1 = 1 henry (H)
ଵ୅ୱషభ

Ques: Define 1 henry.

Ans:

 SELF – INDUCTANCE OF A LONG SOLENOID

If a current I flows through the coil, then the magnetic field inside the coil is almost
constant and is given by
B = ߤ଴ n
Magnetic flux linked with each turn
= BA = ߤ଴ n A
2
Where A = πr = the cross sectional area of the solenoid.
Therefore, magnetic flux linked with the entire solenoid is
‫ = ׎‬flux linked with each turn X total number of turns
= ߤ଴ n A X nl = ߤ଴ n2 lA
But ‫ = ׎‬LI
Therefore, self – inductance of the long solenoid is
L = ߤ଴ n ݈A
If N is the total number of turns in the solenoid then n = N / l and so
ρబ ୒మ ୅
L=
୪

Ques: If the number of turns in the solenoid is doubled, keeping other factors constant,
how does the self inductance of the coil change?
Ans:

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 MUTUAL INDUCTION
Mutual induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to a
change of current in the neighbouring coil.

Coefficient of mutual induction: At any instant, Magnetic flux linked with the secondary
coil ‫ ן‬current in the primary coil.
i.e. ‫ן ׎‬
or ‫ = ׎‬M ....................(1)
The proportionality constant M is called the Mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual
induction of the two coils. Any change in the current I sets up an induced emf in the
secondary coil which is given by
ௗ‫׎‬ ୢ୍
Є = െ = M . ..................(2)
ௗ௧ ୢ୲
Thus the mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal to magnetic flux linked with
one coil when a unit current passes through the other coil.

 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG SOLENOIDS

As shown in figure, consider two long so = axial solenoids S1 and S2, with S2 wound over S1.

Let l = length of each solenoid

r1 , r2 = radii of the two solenoids
A = πr12
= area of cross – section of inner solenoid s1.
N1, N2 = number of turns in the two solenoids. First we pass a time varying current I 2
through S2. The magnet field set up inside S2 due to I2 is
B2 = ߤ଴ n2I2
Where n2 = N2/ l = the number of turns per unit length of S2
Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid S1 is
‫׎‬ଵ ൌ  ଶ ଵ ൌ  ρ଴ ଶ ଶ Ǥ ଵ
Therefore, Mutual inductance of coil I with respect to Coil 2 is
‫׎‬భ ρబ ୒భ ୒మ ୅
M12 = = ρ଴ ଶ ଵ =
୍మ ୪

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We now consider the flux linked with the outer solenoid S2 due to the current I1 in the
inner solenoid S1. The field B1 due to I1 is constant inside S1 but zero in the angular region
between the two solenoids.
Hence, B1 = ρ଴ ଵ I1
Where, n1 = N1/l = the number of turns per unit length of S1.
Total flux linked with the outer solenoid S2 is
ρ ୒ ୒ ୅୍
‫׎‬ଶ ൌ  ଵ ଶ = ρ଴ ଵ ଵ Ǥ ଶ = బ భ మ భ
୪
Therefore, mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is
‫׎‬మ ρబ ୒ భ ୒ మ ୅
M21= =
୍భ ୪
Clearly, M12 = M21 = M (say)
ρబ ୒ భ ୒ మ ୅
Therefore, M = = ρ଴ ଵ ଶ Ž = ρ଴ ଵ ଶ πr12 l
୪

 Factors on which mutual inductance depends:

1. Number of turns.
2. Common cross – sectional are
3. Relative separation
4. Relative orientation of the two coils.

Ques: Write an expression for the energy stored in an inductor of inductance ‘L’, when a
steady current is passed through it. Is the energy electric or magnetic?
Ans:

Ques: a) Obtain the expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid in terms of
magnetic field B, area A and length l of the solenoid.
b) How does this magnetic energy compare with the electrostatic energy stored in a
capacitor?

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Ques: Predict the directions of induced currents in metal rings 1 and 2 lying in the same
plane where current I in the wire is increasing steadily.

1
I

2
Ans:

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Ques: Predict the directions of induced currents in a metal ring when the ring is moved
towards a straight conductor with constant speed v. The conductor is carrying current I in
the direction shown in the figure.

v
I
Ans:

Ques: State Lenz’s law.

Ans:

Ques: Show that Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Ans:

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Alternating current
An alternating current is that whose magnitude changes continuously with time and
direction reverses periodically. In contrast to it a direct current is that current which
flows with a constant magnitude in the same direction.

We know that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an alternating emf is induced in
it, which is given by the relation:
Є = Єo sin߱t
Suppose this emf is applied to a circuit resistance R. Then by ohm’s law, the current in
the circuit will be
ʲ ‫א‬బ
ൌ ൌ ‹ɘ–‘” ൌ o ‹ɘ–
ୖ ୖ
Thus the current in the circuit varies sinusoidally with time and is called alternating
current. Here,
= instantaneous value of a.c at any instant t.
‫א‬బ
o = = Peak or maximum value of a.c and is called current amplitude.
ୖ
- Amplitude: The maximum value attained by an alternating current in either direction
is called its amplitude or peak value and is donated by o.

- Time period: The time taken by an alternating current to complete any cycle of its
variations is called its time period and is denoted by T.
୅୬୥୳୪ୟ୰ୢ୧ୱ୮୪ୟୡୣ୫ୣ୬୲୧୬ୟୡ୭୫୮୪ୣ୲ୣୡ୷ୡ୪ୣ
Time period =
ୟ୬୥୳୪ୟ୰୴ୣ୪୭ୡ୧୲୷
ଶగ
Or T=
ఠ

- Frequency: The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating current is

called its frequency and is denoted by f.
ଵ ఠ
F= ൌ
் ଶగ
So an alternating current can be represented as:
ଶ஠
= o ‹ɘ– = o ‹ʹɎ f t = o ‹ ୘ t
Note: The alternating current supplied to our houses has a frequency of 50 cps or
50Hz.

 Prove mathematically that the average value of alternating current over one complete
cycle is zero.

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 Ordinary moving coil galvanometer cannot be used to measure a.c.:

Ordinary moving coil galvanometer is based on magnetic effect of current which, in turn,
depends on direction of current. So it cannot be used to measure a.c. During one half
cycle of a.c., its pointer moves in one direction and during next half cycle, it will move in
the opposite direction. Now the average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero. Even
if we measure an alternating current of low frequency, the pointer, will appear to be
stationary at the zero due to persistence of vision.

 Mean or average value of A.C

It is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same change in a circuit in the
same time as is sent by the given alternating current in its half time. It is denoted by

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av or mean

Relation between average value and peak value of a.c.

 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) OR VIRTUAL OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF A.C

It is defined as that value of a direct current which produces the same heating effect in a
given resistance as is produced by the given alternating current. When passed for the
same time. It is denoted by rms, v or by eff.

Relation between the effective and peak value of a.c.

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 ROOT MEAN SQUARE OF AN ALTERNATING EMF

It is defined as that value of a steady voltage that produces the same amount of heat in a
given resistance as is produced by the given alternating emf when applied to the same
resistance for the same time. It is also called virtual or effective value of the alternating
emf. It is denoted by Єrms or Єeff or Єv.

Relationship between the rms value and the peak value of an alternating emf.

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 PHASORS AND PHASOR DIAGRAMS

A rotating vector that represents a soidally varying quantity is called a phasor.
A diagram represents alternating current and voltage of the same frequency rotating
vectors (phasors) along with proper phase angle between them is called a phasor
diagram or Argand diagram.

Suppose the alternating emf and current in a circuit are given by

Є = Єo‹ɘ– and = o ‹ሺɘ– ൅ ɔሻ
Where ɔ is the phase angle between Є and I. To represent these quantities as phase, we
draw circles of radii Є and o as shown in figure. Let L AOX = wt and LBOX = ɘ– ൅ ɔ.
Then vector OA represents phasor Є of magnitude Єo and OB represents phasor of
magnitude o, both rotating with the same angular velocity w in the anticlockwise
direction. The projection OM ( = Є) of OA on the vertical axis represents the
instantaneous value of the alternating current. The angle ɔ and LAOB rpresents the
phase angle between the phasors Є and . In the present case, the current leads the emf
by phase angle ɔ.
If the current lags behind the emf, we can write, = o ‹ሺɘ– െ ɔሻ

 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY RESISTOR

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 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY AN INDUCTOR

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Ques: A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220V supply. Find a) Resistance of bulb, b) the
peak voltage of the source and c) the rms current through the bulb.

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Ques: A pure indicator of 25 m H is connected to a source of 220V. Find the inductive

reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz.

Ques: Give the relationship between average value and rms value of current.

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 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY A CAPACITOR

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Ques: A 15ࣆf capacitor is connected to a 220V, 50Hz source. Find the capacitive reactance
and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happened
to the capacitive reactance and the current?

 SERIES LCR – CIRCUIT

As shown in fig. Suppose a resistance R, an inductance L and Capacitance C are connected
in series to a source of alternating emf. Є is given by
Є = Єo ‹ɘ–

Let I be the current in the series at any instant. Then

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1. Voltage VR = RI across the resistance R will be in phase with current I. So phasors V R
and I are in same direction, as shown in fig. The amplitude of V R is
VoR = IOR
2. Voltage VL = XLI across the inductance. L is ahead of current I in phase by π/2 rad. So
phasor VL lies π/2 rad anticlockwise with respect to the phasor I. Its amplitude is
V o L = I O XL

3. Voltage VC = XcI across the capacitance C lags behind the current I in phase by π/2
rad. So phasor Vc lies π/2 clockwise w.r.t the phasor I. Its amplitude is
VOc = IO Xc

As VL and VC are in opposite directions, their resultant is (VL – VC). By parallelogram law, the
resultant of VR and (VL – VC) must be equal to the applied emf Є, given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram.
Using Pythagoras theorem, we get
Є2o = (VoR)2 + (VoL = Voc)2
= (IoR)2 + (IoXL – IoXc)2
= IO2[R2 + (XL – Xc)2]
‫א‬
Or Io = మ బ మ
ඥୖ ାሺଡ଼ై ିଡ଼ి ሻ
Clearly, ඥଶ ൅  ሺ െ େ ሻଶ is the effective resistance of the series LCR – Circuit which
୐
opposes or impedes the flow of current through it and is called its impedance. It is denoted
by Z and its SI unit is Ohm (Ω). Thus
ଵ
Z = ඥଶ ൅  ሺ୐ െ େ ሻଶ = ටଶ ൅  ሺɘ െ  னୡሻଶ
The relationship between the resistance R, inductive reactance XL, capacitance reactance Xc
and the impedance Z is shown in figure (b). The right angled triangle OAP is called the
impedance triangle.

Ques: A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an a.c. source through a key
as shown in fig. The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb a) increases; b) decreases; c) is
unchanged as the iron rod is inserted. Give your answer with reasons.

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Ques: a resistor of 200Ω and a capacitor of 15ࣆf are connected in series to a 220V, 50Hz
ac source (a) calculate the current in the circuit, (b) calculate the voltage (rms) across the
resistor and the capacitor. Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source
voltage? If yes, resolve the paradox.

Ques: A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. Determine the rms value
of the current in the circuit.

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 Give some of the important characteristics of the series resonance circuit.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT:

1. Resonance occurs in a series LCR – circuit when XL = XC
ଵ
2. Resonant frequency, fr = ଶ஠ξ୐େ
3. The impedance is minimum and purely resistive.
4. The current has a maximum value of (Єo/R) at resonant condition.
5. The power dissipated in the circuit is maximum and is equal to Є2rms/R.
6. The current is in phase with the voltage or the power factory is unit (cos߮ = 1 when ߮
= 0).
7. Series resonance can occur at all values of resistance R.
8. The voltage across R is equal to the applied emf.
9. The voltage across L and C are very high as compared to the applied voltage. Hence a
series LCR – circuit is used to obtain a large magnification of a.c voltage.
10. The voltage across L and C are equal and have a phase difference of 180o and so their
resonant is zero.
11. The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit. When a number of
frequencies are fed to it, it accepts only one frequency f r and rejects the other
frequencies. The current is maximum for this frequency.

 SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE: Q – FACTOR

Here, the figure shows the variation of current amplitude Io in a series LCR – circuit with
angular frequency w, for three difference value of R. The current amplitude has a peak all
ଵ
the resonant frequency wr = and falls to zero in either direction.
ξ୐େ

The Q – factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the resonant
frequency to the difference in two frequencies taken on both sides of the resonant

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ଵ
frequency such that at each frequency, the current amplitude becomes times the
ξଶ
value at resonant frequency.
ன౨ ୵ ౨ ୰ୣୱ୭୬ୟ୬୲୤୰ୣ୯୳ୣ୬ୡ୷
Mathematically, the Q – factor can be expressed asQ = ୵ ൌ  ଶο୵ ൌ
మ ି୵భ ୠୟ୬ୢ୵୧ୢ୲୦
ଵ
Where w1 and w2 are the frequencies at which the current falls to times its resonant
ξଶ
value, as shown in figure and we have used
w1 = wr - οw; w2 = wr + οw

The frequency range w2 – w1 = 2οw is called bandwidth. The larger the value of Q –
factor, the smaller is the value of 2οw or the bandwidth and sharper is the peak in the
current. Q – factor is a dimensionless quantity.

 POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

The rate at which electric energy is consumed in an electric circuit is called its power.

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 POWER FACTOR
The average power of an a.c. circuit is given by
Pav = Ԫrms . Irms cos߮
Average power
= Virtual emf X virtual current X cos߮
The product Ԫrms . Irms does not give the actual power and is called apparent power. It
gives actual or true power only when multiplied by factor cos߮. The factor cos߮ is called
the power factor of an a.c. circuit.
Therefore, True power = Apparent power X power factor.
Thus power factor may be defined as the ratio of the true power to the apparent power
of an a.c circuit. The power factor of the series LCR – Circuit is given by
ோ ୖ
cos߮ ൌ  ௓ ൌ  మ మ
ඥୖ ାሺ୵୐ିିଵȀ୵ୡሻ
for a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, ߮ = 90o
therefore, Power factor = cos 90o = 0
thus the power factor assumes that the minimum value for a purely inductive or
capacitive circuit.
For a purely resistive circuit, ߮ = 0o.

 WATTLESS CURRENT
What is wattless current? When is the current in an a.c circuit wattless?
The current in a.c circuit is said to be wattles if the average power consumed in the
circuit is zero.
Pav = Ԫrms . Irms cos߮

a) Component Irms cos߮ along Ԫrms . as the phase angle between Irms cos߮ and Ԫrms is
zero therefore,
Pav = Ԫrms (Irms cos߮) cos 0
= Ԫrms Irms cos0
b) Component Irms sin߮‘”ƒŽ–‘Ԫ”•Ǥ•–Š‡’Šƒ•‡ƒ‰Ž‡„‡–™‡‡Irms sin߮ƒ†
Ԫ”•‹•ɎȀʹǡ–Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡

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ƒ˜ൌԪrms (Irms sin߮) . cos π/2 = 0
 ‡ ƒŽŽ–Š‡ ‘’‘‡– ”••‹߮ƒ•–Š‡‹†Ž‡‘”™ƒ––Ž‡• —””‡–„‡ ƒ—•‡‹–†‘‡•
‘– ‘•—‡ƒ›’‘™‡”‹ƒǤ ‹” —‹–ǤŠ‹•Šƒ’’‡•‹ƒ’—”‡Ž›‹†— –‹˜‡‘” ƒ’ƒ ‹–‹˜‡
‹” —‹–‹™Š‹ Š–Š‡˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡ƒ† —””‡–†‹ˆˆ‡”„›ƒ’Šƒ•‡ƒ‰Ž‡‘ˆɎȀʹǡ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ߮ൌേɎȀʹǡ•‘
–Šƒ–
  ƒ˜ൌԪrms Irms cosሺേ π/2) = 0

 AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH A RESISTOR

 ENERGY AND AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH A PURE INDUCTOR

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Prove that an ideal indicator connected to an a.c source does not dissipate any power.
Average power associated with an indicator
When a.c is applied to an ideal indicator current lags behind the voltage in phase by π/2
radian.

 ENERGY AND AVERAGE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH A PURE CAPACITOR

Energy stored in a capacitor.

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Ques: prove that an ideal capacitor connected to an a.c. source does not dissipate any
power.
Average power associated with a capacitor.

Ques: derive the formula for Q- factor by alternative method.

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Ques: there are two LCR – circuits (i.e) A and B. Which one will you prefer to make
better radio transistor?

Ques: obtain the resonant frequency wr of a series LCR circuit with L = 2H, c = 32 µf and
R = 10Ω. What is the Q- value of this circuit.

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૚
Ques: A resonance condition of LCR – series circuit, show that fr =
૛ૈξ‫ۺ‬۱

Ques: explain how at resonant circuit of LCR, is act as frequency acceptor.

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 Transformer:

Types:

Principal:

Construction:

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Working:

Energy losses in transformer:

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1. Copper loss:

2. Eddy current loss:

3. Hysteresis loss:

4. Flux leakage:

Ques: State the underlying principle of a transformer. How is the large scale transmission
of electric energy over long distances done with the use of transformers.

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EM WAVES
 Concept of displacement current:
Let us consider a circuit containing the capacitor as shown in figure:

According to ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of magnetic field along any closed
path is ߤ଴ times the total current enclosed by the closed path.
Mathematically: ‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †Ž ൌ  ρ଴

As it was assumed that there is no current follows in the space between the plates.
ACTUALLY IT IS NOT TRUE

- Displacement current: When the circuit is closed, conduction current flows from the
plate P of the capacitor to the other plate Q through the conducting wires. Maxwell
suggested that due to time varying electric field between the plates, an electric
current, called displacement current (ID), also flows across the space between the
plates of the capacitor.

 Ic and ID:
There is a continuous flow of current in a capacitive circuit also, through the conducting
wire there is a flow of conduction current IC.
Though the space across the plates of capacitor, there is flow of displacement current ID.
Hence total current flowing in the circuit containing capacitance is,
Itotal = େ ൅ ୈ

 Modification of ampere circuital law:

‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †Ž ൌ  ρ଴ ሺ େ ൅  ୈ ሻ............................(1)
ௗ‫׎‬ఢ
It is called the [Ampere – Maxwell’s] circuital law, where, ଴ = Ԗ୭
ௗ௧
And ‫ = ߳׎‬electric flux linked between the plates of the capacitor at any instant, hence
equation (1) can also be expressed as
ௗ‫׎‬ఢ
‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †Ž ൌ  ρ଴ ሺ େ ൅ Ԗ୭ )
ௗ௧
Note: The conduction current and the displacement are always equal (i.e., ) େ ൌ ୈ.

 Maxwell’s equation:
1. Gauss’s law in electrostatics:

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It states that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to 1/Ԗ୭ times
the net charge enclosed by surface.
‫ݍ‬
ර ߳Ǥ ݀‫ ݏ‬ൌ 
߳଴
This is called Maxwell’s first equation.

2. Gauss’s law in magnetism:

It states that the net magnetic flux crossing any close surface is always zero.
ර ‫ܤ‬Ǥ ݀‫ ݏ‬ൌ Ͳ
This is called Maxwell’s second equation.

3. Faraday’s law of EMI: It states that the included emf produced in a circuit is
numerically equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux through it.
݀‫߳׎‬
Ԗୣ = െ ݀‫ݐ‬
But, ߳௘ = ‫ ߳ ׬‬Ǥ ݈݀
݀‫߳׎‬
‫ ߳ ׬ ׵‬Ǥ ݈݀ = െ ݀‫ݐ‬
This, is called Maxwell’s third equation.

4. Maxwell – Ampere circuital law:

It states that the line integral of magnetic field along a closed path is equal to ߤ଴
times the total current (i.e., sum of conduction and displacement currents threading
the surface bounded by that closed path)
Mathematically,
ௗ‫׎‬ఢ
‫ ׯ‬Ǥ †Ž ൌ  ρ଴ ሺ େ ൅ Ԗ୭ )
ௗ௧
This equation is called Maxwell’s fourth equation.

5. Lorentz:
The vector sum of electric force & magnetic force on any charged particle is called
Lorentz force.
F = Felectric + fmay
F = qϵ + q (V X B)
F + q (ϵ + (V X B)
This is called Maxwell’s fifth equation.

 Concept of EM Waves:
Maxwell and Neil Bohr suggested that accelerated charge particle produces radiation in
the form of waves known as EM Waves (Electromagnetic waves)

 EM Waves:
Type of wave in which electric field and magnetic field oscillate perpendicular to each
other with no phase difference (‫ = ׎‬0)
EX = E0 sin (kz – wt)
BY = B0 sin (kz – wt)
Where,
k = 2π/lambda

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-GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

 Properties of EM waves:
1. All EM Waves propagate with speed of light (C = 3X 108 m/s)
2. E and magnetic field (B) are always perpendicular to each other.
3. EM Waves do not need any medium to travel.

-Relationship between electric and magnetic field in EM waves:

B0 = E0/c
Where, c = speed of light.
B and E = magnitude of magnetic and electric field respectively.

Ex 8.2 : A plane em wave of frequency 25 MHz travelling in free space along x-axis. At a
particular point , E = 6.3 V/m. What is B at this point?

 General definitions of EM Waves:

a) Amplitude:

b) Frequency (V):

c) Time period (T):

d) Wavelength :

e) Wave number :

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 Relations:
ଵ ଵ
1. Frequency: = ሾܸ ൌ  ሿ
்௜௠௘௣௘௥௜௢ௗ ்

ଵ ଵ
2. Wave number = ሾܸ ൌ  ሿ
ௐ௔௩௘௟௘௡௚௧௛

3. Speed: =

 Different types of EM Waves:

1. ߛ - rays:
a) Discovery: Henry Becquerel and Madam Curie
b) How produced: Due to decay of radioactive nuclei
c) Wavelength: 10 -14 m to 10 -10m
d) Properties: i) High penetrating power
ii) Uncharged
iii) Low ionisation power
e) Applications: i) Give information on nuclear structure
ii) medical treatment

2. ܺ− rays:
a) Discovery: Roentgen
b) How produced: Collision of high energy e- with heavy targets
c) Wavelength: 150 to 0.1 Ao
d) Properties: i) Low penetrating power
ii) uncharged
iii) Low ionisation power
e) Applications: i) Medical diagonosis of bones
ii) Study of crystals
iii) Radio - graphy

3. Ultraviolet rays:
a) Discovery: Ritter
b) How produced: By ionised gas, sun, lamps, sparks, etc.
c) Wavelength: 3800 to 150Ao
d) Properties: i) Photo electric effect
ii) Causes skin cancer
e) Applications: i) Sanitisation of water, glasswares
ii) To create bacteria free environment

4. Visible light /rays:

a) Discovery: Newton

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b) How produced: Outer orbit electron transition discharge tube etc.
c) Wavelength: 7600 to 3800A
d) Properties: i) sensitive to human eye
e) Applications: i) To see objects
ii) To study molecular structures.

5. Infra-red rays:
a) Discovery: William
b) How produced: i) Change in molecular vibrational and rotational energy
ii) Re-arrangement of outer orbitals
c) Wavelength: 6 X 106 to 7600Ao
d) Properties: Thermal effect
e) Applications: i) Plants used for photosynthesis
ii) Maintains earths temperature
iii) Used in industries

6. Microwaves:
a) Discovery: Hertz
b) How produced: Devices such as Klystromtube
c) Wavelength: 3 X 109 to 6 X 106 Ao
d) Properties: Phenomenon of reflection, refraction and diffraction.
e) Applications: i) Radar and telecommunication
ii) Analysing of five details of molecular structure
iii) To heat or cook food.

7. Radio waves:
a) Discovery: Marconi
b) How produced: Oscillating circuits
c) Wavelength: 3X 1013 to 3 X 109 Ao
d) Properties: Contain more wave nature as compare to partial nature
e) Applications: i) Radio communication
ii) Television communication
iii) Radar and satellite communication

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RAY OPTICS
OPTICS: It is a branch of physics which deals with the study of nature, production and
propagation of light.

Ray optics: It concerns itself with the particle nature of light and is based on the rectilinear
propagation of light.

Wave optics: It concerns itself with the wave nature of light and based on interference,
diffraction and polarisation of light.

 Behaviour of light at the interface of two media:

i) A part of the incident light is turned back into the first medium. This is called reflection
of light.
ii) A part of the incident light is transmitted into the second medium along a changes
direction, called refraction of light.
iii) The remaining third part of light is absorbed the second medium. This is called
absorption of light.

 Laws of reflection:
i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident, all lie on
the same plane.
ii) Angle of incident is always equal to angle of reflection. i.e., i = r

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- Object: In optics, which can emit light.

- Image: optical appearance of object.
i) Real: Which can be formed on screen.
ii) Virtual: Which can’t be formed on screen.
iii) Erect: Up-side-up and down-side-down image.
iv) Inverted: Up-side down image.

 Properties of image formed by plane mirrors:

1. Virtual and erect
2. Same size
3. Formed at same distance from the mirror
4. Laterally inverted.

Note: Laterally inversion: Image in which left appears right and right appears to be left.

 Spherical mirrors: They are reflecting surfaces which forms part of a hallow sphere.
1. Concave mirrors: It is a type of mirror in which light reflects by bulging in surface or
concave surface.

2. Convex mirrors: It is a type of mirror in which light reflects by bulging out surface or
convex surface.

 Some basic defines:

1. Pole: It is the middle point of the spherical mirror.
2. Centre of curvature: It is the of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
3. Radius of curvature: It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
4. Principal axis: The line passing through pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror
is called its principal axis.
5. Linear aperture: It is the diameter of the circular boundary of the spherical mirror.
6. Angular aperture: It is the angle subtended by the boundary of the spherical mirror at
its centre of curvature.
7. Principal focus: It is a point on principal axis where parallel beam of light converge or
appears to be converged.
8. Focal length: It is the distance between the focus and the pole of the mirror.

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- Focal plane: The vertical plane passing through the principal focus and
perpendicular to the principal axis is called focal plane.

 Cartesian sign convention for spherical mirrors:

i) All ray diagrams are drawn with incident light travelling from left to right.
ii) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
iii) All distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken to be positive.
iv) All distance measured in the opposite direction of incident light are taken to be
negative.
v) Height measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis is taken positive.
vi) Height is measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis is taken
negative.

Note: Radius of curvature = 2 X focal length

RR==2f2f

 Rules for drawing images by spherical mirrors:

i) A ray coming parallel to principal axis, reflects and passes from the focus or appears to
passes from focus.

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ii) A ray passing from focuses or appears to pass from focus, become parallel to principal
axis.

iii) A ray passing through centre of curvature in the case of concave mirror, and directed
towards the centre of curvature in the case of a convex mirror, falls normally (Li=Lr=0)
and is reflected back along the same path.

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iv) For the ray incident at some Li, then reflected back by making same angle at pole.

 Formation of images by Concave mirror

i) Object beyond C:

ii) Object at C:

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iii) Object between C and f:

iv) Object between f and P:

v) Object at F:

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vi) Object at infinity:

 Image formed by convex mirror:

i) Object between pole and infinite:

ii) Object at infinite:

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Ques: An object AB is kept in front of a concave mirror as shown in figure.

B C F

a) Complete the ray diagram showing the image formation of the object.

Ex 9.1: Suppose that the lower half of the concave mirror’s reflecting surface is covered
with an opaque material. What effect will this have on the image of an object?

- Mirror formula: Formula which gives the relation between focal length, image distance
and object distance for a mirror.

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ͳ ͳ ͳ
ൌ  ൅
݂ ‫ݒ ݑ‬

Where, f = focal length; u = object distance; v = image distance.

Ex 9.3: An object placed at i) 10cm, ii) 5cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 15cm. Find the position, nature and magnification of the image in each case.

Ex 9.4: Suppose while sitting in a parked car, you notice a jogger approaching towards
you in the side view mirror of R = 2m. If the jogger is running at speed of 5ms-1, how
fast the image of the jogger appears to move when the jogger is 39m away.

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- Spherical aberration: The inability of a spherical mirror of large aperture to bring all the
rays of wide beam of light falling on it to focus at a single point is called spherical
aberration.

- Spherical aberration can be reduced by following methods:

1. By using spherical mirrors of small apertures.
2. By using stoppers so as to cut off the marginal rays.
3. By using parabolic mirrors.

 Uses of concave mirror:

1. Concave mirror is used as shaving mirror as it forms highly magnified image in one
case.
2. Used in headlights of vehicles and torch to produce a parallel beam of light.
 Uses of convex mirror:
1. Used in rear view mirrors as it covers a large area by forming diminished image.

 Refraction of light
The bending of light, when it passes from one medium to another due to difference in
speed of light in different mediums.
i) When a ray of light passes from an optically denser to a rarer medium, it bends
towards the normal ( Lr < Li )

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ii) When a ray of light passes from an optically denser to a rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal ( Lr > Li ),

iii) A ray of light travelling along the normal passes unaffected, here, Lr = Li = 0o.

 Laws of refraction of light:

1st law: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
2nd law: The ratio of the sine of the ingle of incidence and the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media.
ୱ୧୬ ௜
Mathematically, ୱ୧୬ ௥ ൌ ߤଶ
Where, ߤଶ = refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1st.
The above law is also known as smell’s law.

 Refractive index:
The refractive index of a medium for a light of given wavelength may be defined as the
ratio of the speed of light vacuum to its speed in that medium.
ୱ୮ୣୣୢ୭୤୪୧୥୦୲୧୬୴ୟୡ୳୳୫
Refractive index = ୱ୮ୣୣୢ୭୤୪୧୥୦୲୧୬୫ୣୢ୧୳୫
௖
ߤ ൌ  ௩ (frequency remains constant)

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-Relation between refractive index and wavelength:

‫ ׵‬Refractive index can be defined as ratio of wavelength of light in vacuum to its

wavelength in that medium. During refraction of light, frequency of light is constant.

- Principle of reversibility of light: If the final path of a ray of light after it has suffered
several reflections and refractive is reversed, it retraces its path exactly.

- Refraction through a rectangular glass slab and lateral shift:

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- Lateral shift
It is the perpendicular distance between the incident and emergent rays, when light are
incident at angle other than 90 0 on a refracting slab with parallel faces.

Ques: Explain with the help of diagram, what will happen when light falls on slab at
right angle?

 Applications of refraction
1. Concept of real and apparent depth: Object appears at apparent depth above the
real depth.

2. Position shift of sun, during sunset and sunrise:

Or
Sun appears two minute before and still after the sunset sunrise.
Sun appears to be shift upward due to refraction of light and hence we can able to
see the sun, 2 minutes before the actual sunrise. Same happens during sunset.

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Ex 9.5: The earth takes 24 h to rotate once about its axis. How much time does the sun
take to shift by 1 degree when viewed from the earth?

 Total internal reflection

- Critical angle: The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium is 90o is called critical angle of the denser medium and
is denoted by ic.

The phenomenon in which a ray of light travelling at an angle of incidence greater

than the critical angle from denser to a rarer medium is totally reflected back into the
denser medium is called total internal reflection.

- Necessary conditions for total internal reflection:

1. Light must travel from optically denser to optically rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical
angle for the two media.

(ic)
Note: Water 48.75o
Glass 41.14o

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Flint glass 37.31o
Diamond 24.41o

 Applications of total internal reflection:

1. Sparkling of Diamond: Diamond having a small value of critical angle due to which
large amount of light rays maintained inside the diamond due to TIR. Hence diamond
sparkles much in dark.

2. Mirage:

3. Total reflecting prisms: A right – angled isosceles prising (i.e.) a 45o – 90o – 45o prism
is called totally reflecting prism.

Ques: a) State the conditions for total internal reflection to occur.

b) Calculate the speed of light in the medium whose critical angle is 45 o .

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-Refraction through glass prism:

Ques: Show formation of spectrum by glass prism, hence show Newton’s classical
experiment on dispersion of white light.

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Ques: Write a short note on human eye and its defects.

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Ex 9.10: What focal length should the reading spectacles have for a person for
whom the least distance of distinct vision is 50cm?

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Derivations for ray optics

1. R = 2f

2. Mirror formula:
a) For concave, when it forms real image.

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b) For concave mirror, virtual and erect.

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c) For convex mirror:

- Magnification: The ratio of the height of image to that of the object.

୦ ୦ୣ୧୥୦୲୭୤୧୫ୟ୥ୣ
 ൌ  ୦మ ൌ  ୦ୣ୧୥୦୲୭୤୭ୠ୨ୣୡ୲
భ
a) Concave mirror:

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b) Convex mirror:

- Linear magnification in terms of u and f:

ଵ ଵ ଵ
൅ ൌ
௨ ௩ ௙
Multiplying both sides by u,
௨ ௨
ͳ ൅ ൌ
௩ ௙
ି௨ ௨ ௙ି௨
Or, ൌ ͳ െ ൌ 
௩ ௙ ௙
െ‫ݒ‬ ݂
‫ ݉ ׵‬ൌ ൌ
‫ݑ‬ ݂െ‫ݑ‬

- Linear magnification in terms of v and f:

ଵ ଵ ଵ
൅ ൌ
௨ ௩ ௙
Multiplying both sides by v,
௩ ௩
൅ ͳ ൌ 
௨ ௙
ି௩ ௩ ௙ି௩
Or, ൌ ͳ െ ൌ
௨ ௙ ௙
െ‫ݒ‬ ݂െ‫ݒ‬
‫ ݉ ׵‬ൌ ൌ
‫ݑ‬ ݂
Ques: Use the mirror equation to show that
a) An object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror produces a real image
beyond
b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of the location of the
object.

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c) An object placed between the pole and focus of a concave mirror produces a
virtual and enlarged image.

- Angle of incident = angle of emergent

- Lateral shift for a glass slab:

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- Relation between Real and Apparent depth and derivation of normal shift:

Normal shift = real depth – apparent depth

- Relation between critical angle and refractive index:

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-Derivation of angle of deviation for glass prism:

 Refraction through spherical lenses:

- CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS)

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1. Focus: Point on principle axis where all parallel lines to principle axis meet after
refraction through lens.
2. Focal length: Distance between focus and optical centre.
3. Optical centre: Centre point of the lens.

 Rules for image formation in convex lens:

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 Image formation of convex lens:

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Ques: Write thin lens formula for a convex lens and draw the graph showing the variation
of u and v for convex lens.

- CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS)

1. Focus: Point on principle axis where all parallel lines w.r.t to principle axis appears
to meet.
2. Focal length:
3. Optical centre:

-Rules for image formation:

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-Image formation:

 Derivation of lens formula:

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1. From convex lens when it forms virtual image:

2. From convex lens when it forms real image:

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3. From concave lens:

 Refraction through spherical surfaces:

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Ex 9.7: A magician during a show makes a glass lens with index = 1.47 disappears in a
trough of liquid. What is the refractive index of the liquid? Could it be water?

 Lens maker’s formula:

It is a relation that connects focal length of a lens to radii of curvature of the two surfaces
of the lens and refractive index of the material of the lens.
The following assumptions are made for the derivation:
1. The lens is thin so that distances measured from the poles of its surfaces can be
taken as equal to the distances from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The aperture of the lens is small.
3. Point object is considered.
4. Incident and reflected rays make small angles.

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Ques: A convex lens made up of glass of refractive index 1.5 is dipped, in turn, in (i) a
medium of refractive index 1.65, (ii) a medium of refractive index 1.33.
a) Will it behave as a converging or a diverging lens in the two cases?
b) How will its focal length change in the two media?

 Simple microscope
A simple microscope is nothing but a single biconvex lens. It is referred to as magnifying
glass. Usually the focal length of the convex lens is around 2.5cm. the object to be viewed
through a simple microscope is placed between the optic center and the focus and the
image is erect, virtual and magnified. The figure below gives the ray diagram showing the
principle of the simple microscope. From the ray diagram it is clear that the image
formed is erect, virtual and magnified.

- Magnifying power of a simple microscope:

The magnifying power or angular magnification of a microscope may be defined as the
ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image formed at the distance of the
distinct vision to the angle subtended by the object when placed at the distance of the
distinct vision.
The ray diagram shows that the image of the object AB is formed at A-1B-1. A-1B-1 is
formed at the least distance of distinct vision.

 Features of compound microscope:

A compound microscope is an optical instrument which is used to magnify very small
objects like blood cells, bacteria which otherwise cannot be seen with the naked eye.

A laboratory model of compound microscope

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The essential parts of a compound microscope are two convex lenses of short focal
length. These lenses are referred to as:
The objective lens or objective
The eye piece or lens

 Construction of compound microscope:

A compound microscope consists of the following parts:
Objective lens: The objective lens of a compound microscope is a convex lens of very
short focal length (fo) that is fo < 1cm. The object to be seen is kept very close to the
objective lens.
Eye piece: The eye piece of a compound microscope is also a convex lens of short focal
length fe . But fe > fo.
Microscope tube: The objective lens and the eyepiece are mounted coaxially (having a
common axis)n at the ends of two brass tubes which can be made to slide into each other
so that the distance between the two lenses can be adjusted.

 Working

 Magnifying power of a compound microscope

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 Astronomical telescope

-Newton’s telescope: (REFLECTING TELESCOPE)

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Ques: Explain how Newton telescope is better than others?

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WAVE OPTICS
 WAVEFRONTS AND RAYS
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all such particles of the medium which are
vibrating in the same phase at any instant.

1. Spherical wavefront
Diagram

2. Cylindrical wavefront
Diagram

3. Plane wavefront
Diagram

An arrow drawn perpendicular to wavefront in the direction of propagation of a wave is called a ray.

 HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE OF SECONDARY WAVELETS

According to Huygens’ principle, each point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves,
which add up to give a wavefront at any later time. This principle is based in the following
assumptions:
1. Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh source of new disturbance, called secondary waves
or wavelets.
2. The secondary wavelets spread out in all directions with the speed of light in the given
medium.
3. The new wavefront at any later time is given by the forward envelope (tangential surface in
the forward direction) of the secondary wavelets at that time.

Note:
No backward wavefront is possible. There cannot be backward flow of energy during the
propagation of a wave. It can be shown mathematically that the amplitude of secondary
wavelets is proportional to (1 + cosӨ), where Ө is the angle between the ray at the point of
consideration and the direction of secondary wavelets for a backward wavefront Ө = π, so that 1
+ cosӨ= 0. Thus the resultant amplitude of all the secondary wavelets at any point on the
backward wavefront is zero.

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 REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE THEORY

 REFRACTION ON THE BASIS OF WAVE THEORY

 REFRACTION AT A RARER MEDIUM

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 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

When a number of waves travelling through a medium superpose on each other, the resultant
displacement at any point at a given instant is equal to the vector sum of the displacements due
to the individual waves at that point
If y1, y2, y3, ........, yn are the displacements due to the different waves acting separately, then
according to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement when all the waves act
together is given by the vector sum:
Y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ..... + yn

 CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

 RELATION BETWEEN INTENSITY AND INTEFERENCE

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 COHERENT AND INCOHERENT SOURCES

Two sources of light which continuously emit light waves of same frequency (or wavelength) with
a zero or constant phase difference between them, are called coherent sources.
Two sources of light which do not emit light waves with a constant phase difference are called
incoherent sources.

 Two independent sources cannot be coherent

This is because of the following reasons:
1. Light is emitted by individual atoms and not by the bulk of matter acting as a whole.
2. Even a tiniest source consists of millions of atoms and emission of light by them takes place
independently.
3. Even an atom emits an unbroken wave of about 10-8 sec due to its transition from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state.

 Two coherent sources can be obtained from a single parent source.

Some of the methods of producing coherent sources are as follows:
1. In young’s double slit experiment, the two sources S1 & S2 get light from the same sources.
Whatever phase changes occur in S1, the same phase changes occur in S2. The relative phase
difference between S1 and S2 remains constant with time. So they act as coherent sources.
2. In frensnel’s biprism method, two coherent sources are obtained from the same parent source
by refraction.
3. In lloyd’s mirror method, a source and its reflected image act as two coherent sources.

 THEORY OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES : FRINGE WIDTH (YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT

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 FRINGE WIDTH: It is the separation between two successive bright or dark fringes.

 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE

1. The two sources should be continuously emit waves of same frequency or wavelength.
2. The two sources of light should be coherent, i.e., they must vibrate either in the same phase or
with a constant phase difference between them.
3. For a better contrast between maxima and minima of intensity, the amplitude of the interfering
waves should be equal.
4. The two sources should be narrow, otherwise interference will occur between waves of
different parts of the same source.
5. The interfering waves must travel nearly along the same direction.
6. The sources should be monochromatic, otherwise fringes of different colours will overlap just to
give a few observable fringes.
7. The interfering waves should be in the same state of polarisation.
8. To have sufficient fringe width, the distance between the two coherent sources should be small
and the distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.

 INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION CURVE FOR INTERFERENCE

Suppose the two interfering waves has the same amplitude a,
The intensity of the bright fringe will be
Imax = k(a + a)2 = 4Ka2 = constant
So all bright fringes will have the same maximum intensity.
The intensity of a dark fringe will be
Imin = K(a – a)2 = 0
So all dark fringes will be perfectly dark.
Graph

 COMPARISON OF INTENSITIES AT MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Amplitude at a maximum in interference pattern = a1 + a2
Amplitude at a minimum in interference pattern = a1 – a2
Therefore, the ratio of intensities at maxima and minima is
୍ౣ౗౮ ሺୟ ାୟ ሻమ ୍ ୰ାଵ ଶ
୍ౣ౟౤
ൌ  ሺୟభ ିୟమ ሻమ or ୍ౣ౗౮ ൌ ሾ ሿ
భ మ ౣ౟౤ ୰ିଵ

 DISPLACEMENT OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES

When a thin transparent sheet of thickness t and refractive index ρ is inserted in the path of one
of the interfering beams, the extra path difference introduced is
Δp = length t in transparent medium – length t in air

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= ρ t – t = (ρ െ 1) t
Suppose the present position of the particular fringe is
ୈ୮
X=
ୢ
Then the new position of the same fringe will be
ୈ
X1 = (p + Δp)
ୢ
Hence the lateral displacement of the particular fringe on the screen is
ୈ୼୮
Δx = x – x = ୢ
ୈ ୆
Or Δx = (ρ െ 1) t = (ρ െ 1) t
ୢ ஛
ୈ஛ ୈ ୆
[B= ‫] = ׵‬
ୢ ୢ ஛

 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
Diagram

 FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION

The diffraction phenomenon can be divided into two categories:

Fresnel’s diffraction
In Fresnel’s diffraction, the source and screen are placed close to the aperture or the obstacle
and light after diffraction appears converging towards the screen and hence no lens is required to
observe it. The incident wave fronts are either spherical or cylindrical.

Fraunhoffer’s diffraction
In Fraunhoffer’s diffraction the source and screen are placed at large distances (effectively at
infinity) from the aperture or the obstacle and converging lens is used to observe the diffraction
pattern the incident wavefront is planar one.

 DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT

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 WIDTHS OF CENTRAL AND SECONDARY MAXIMA

- Angular width of central maximum

The angular width of central maximum is the angular separation between the directions of the
first minima on the two sides of the central maximum.
Diagram

The directions of first minima on either side of central maximum are given by
஛
Ө=
ୢ
This angle is called half angular width of central maximum
ଶ஛
Therefore, angular width of central maximum = 2Ө=
ୢ

- Linear width of central maximum

If D is the distance of the screen from the single slit, then the linear width of central maximum
ଶୈ஛ ୟ୰ୡ ஒబ
will be β0 = D X 2Ө= [ 2Ө (rad) = =
ୢ ୰ୟୢ୧୳ୱ ୈ

- Linear width of secondary maximum

The angular width of nth secondary maximum is the angular separation between the directions of
nth and (n + 1)th minima.
୬஛
Direction of nth minimum, Өn =
ୢ
Direction of (n + 1)th minimum
஛
Өn+1 = (n + 1)
ୢ
Therefore, angular width of nth secondary maximum
஛ ஛ ஛
Өn+1+ - Өn = (n + 1) – n =
ୢ ୢ ୢ
Hence the linear width of nth secondary maximum = angular width X D
ୈ஛
Β= ୢ
Clearly β0 = 2β
Thus, the central maximum of diffraction pattern is twice as wide as any secondary maximum.

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ଵ
Clearly, width of a secondary maximum ‫ן‬
ୱ୪୧୲୵୧ୢ୲୦

 VALIDITY OF RAY OPTICS : FRESNEL’S DISTANCE

Ray optics as a limiting case of wave optics: Fresnel’s distance and Fresnel’s zone.
A parallel beam of light OF wavelength λ on passing through an aperture of size ‘d’ gets
diffracted into a beam of angular width,
஛
Ө= ୢ
If a screen is placed at distance D, this beam spreads over a linear width,
ୈ஛
X= ୢ
If the diffraction spread x is small, the concept of ray optics will be valid.
If we have an aperture of size d = 10mm and use light of wavelength λ = 6 X 10-7m, then the beam
after travelling a distance of 3m will get diffracted through a width
ୈ஛ ଷଡ଼଺ଡ଼ଵ଴షళ
x = ൌ  ଵ଴ଡ଼ଵ଴షయ = 18 X 10-5m = 0.18mm
ୢ
this diffraction spreading is not quite large. Thus ray optics is valid in many common situations. It is
useful here to define what is called Fresnel’s distance, DF.
The distance at which the diffraction spread of a beam is equal to the size of the aperture is called
Fresnel’s distance i.e., when x = d, D = DF
ୈ ஛ ୢమ
Therefore, ୢూ or DF = ஛
If D < DF, then there will not be too much broadening by diffraction i.e., the light will travel along
straight lines and the concepts of ray optics will be valid.
ୢమ
As D < DF or D < ஛
or d > ξɉ
For a given value of D, the quantity ξɉ is called the size of Fresnel zone and is denoted by df.
df = ξɉ

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

Interference
1. Interference is the result of superposition of
secondary waves starting from two different
wavefronts originating from two coherent
sources.
2. All bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
3. All bright fringes are of same intensity.
4. Regions of dark fringes are perfectly dark. So
there is a good contrast between bright and
dark fringes.
5. At an angle of λ/d, we get a bright fringe in
the interference pattern of two, narrow slits
separated by a distance d.
Diffraction
1. Diffraction is the result of superposition of
secondary waves starting from different parts
of the same wavefront.
2. The width of central bright fringe is twice the
width of any secondary maximum.
3. Intensity of bright fringes decreases as we
move away from central bright fringe on either
side.
4. Regions of dark fringes are not perfectly
dark so there is a poor contrast between bright
and dark fringes.
5. At an angle of λ/d, we get the first dark
fringe in the diffraction pattern of a single slit
of width d.

 DIFFERACTION AS A LIMIT ON RESOLVING POWER

 Limit Of Resolution
The smallest linear or angular separation between two point objects at which they can be just
separately seen or resolved by an optical instrument is called limit of resolution of the
instrument.

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 Resolving power
The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to resolve or separate the images of
two nearly point objects so that they can be distinctly seen. It is equal to the reciprocal of the
limit of resolution of the optical instrument.

 RESOLVING POWER OF MICROSCOPE AND TELESCOPE

 Resolving power of a microscope

The resolving power of a microscope is defined as reciprocal of the smallest distance between
two point objects at which they can be just resolved when seen through the microscope.
The smallest distance between two point objects at which they can be just resolved by the
microscope, or the limit of resolution is given by
஛
d=
ଶρୱ୧୬
ଵ ଶρୱ୧୬
Therefore, resolving power of a microscope = ୢ = ஛
 Resolving power of a telescope
The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angular
separation between two distant objects whose images can be just resolved by it.
The smallest linear angular separation between two distant objects whose images can be just
ଵǤଶଶ஛
resolved by the telescope, or the limit of resolution, is given by dӨ=
ୢ
ଵ ୈ
Therefore, Resolving power of a telescope ൌ ൌ
ୢ ଵǤଶଶ஛

 POLARISATION OF WAVES: INTRODUCTION

A transverse wave in which vibrations are present in all possible directions, in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, is said to be unpolarised. If the vibrations
of a wave are present in just one direction of propagation, the wave is said to be
polarised or plane polarised.

 UNPOLARISED AND PLANE POLARISED LIGHT

At light which has vibrations in all directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is said to be unpolarised light.

 Plane polarised or linearly polarised light

If the electric field vector of a light wave vibrates just in one direction perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation, then it is said to be linearly polarised.
Diagram

a) vibrations parallel to the plane of paper

b) vibrations perpendicular to the plane of paper.

 POLARISERS

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A device that plane – polarises the unpolarised light passed through it is called a
polariser.

 LAW OF MALUS

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DUAL NATURE OF MATTER

 Electron emission: Electron can be emitted by a body by following methods:
a) Thermionic emission: by suitable heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted
to the free electrons to enable them to come out of the metal
b) Field emission : By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108Vm-1) to a
metal, electrons can be pulled out of the metal. As in a spark plug.
c) Photo – electric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal
surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surface. These photo (light) –
generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

 Photoelectric effect:-
1. H.Hertz observed that the light of certain frequencies strikes the surface of some metals then
electrons are rejected from the metals.
2. The phenomena of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of suitable
frequency strikes on it is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons.
3. Only a few metals such as potassium, rubidium and cesium in which electrons are loosely held by
the nucleus shows this effect because their ionization energy is very low.

Some important observations:-

1. Each metal required some minimum frequency of light to eject the electron and this minimum
frequency is known as threshold frequency (Ӳठ 0). Different metals have different threshold
frequencies. Electrons cannot be ejected below threshold frequency although how many high
frequency is to be.
2. Kinetic energy of ejected electrons is directly proportional to the frequencies of incident radiation
and is independent of its intensity.
3. Number of electrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the intensity of light but do
not depends on the frequency of light.

Hence, energy of incident light = work function of the metal + kinetic energy of
photoelectron

E = w0 + K.E
hठ = hठ0 + K.E
K.E = hठ – hठ0
K.E = h(ठ– ठ0)

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 Note:- Work function is the minimum energy required by an electron to just escape from the
metal surface.

Ques: Generate graph for photoelectric equation and explain how we can calculate the value of
Planck’s constant from graph?

 PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION:-

- All magnetic radiation is a form of energy.
- Max. PLANCK gave a theory known as quantum theory of radiation.
- The main features of planck’s quantum theory of radiation are:-
1. Radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy called quanta. In the case of light quanta is named as photon.
2. Amount of energy in each quanta is directly proportional to the frequency of light.
E ‫ ן‬ठ
E = hठ, where h = Planck’s constant having value 6.63 X 10 -34 Js.
3. If there are n number of quanta or photons then total energy of the radiation is
E = nhठ, n = 1, 2, 3, 4…………(always in the form of natural numbers)

 Einstein’s view of photoelectric effect:- According to Einstein’s view on photoelectric effect,

whenever light having certain photons falls on the metal surface, each photon collide with electron and
eject out appropriate number of electrons with certain velocity. There is no time lag between ejection of
electron and collision with photon.

Ques: Explain the effect of intensity on photo current and generate graph between intensity and
photo current.

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Ques. Calculate the energy of 1 mole of photons whose frequency is 5 X 10 14 Hz.

Ans.

Ques. A 100 W bulb emits light of wavelength 400nm. Calculate the number of photons emitted
per second.
Ans.

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Ques. When EM wave of wavelength 300nm falls on sodium, kinetic energy of electron ejected is
1.68 X 105 J/mole. Find the work function and threshold frequency.
Ans.

Ques. The threshold frequency v0 for a metal is 7 X 1014 Hz. Calculate the kinetic energy of
electron when frequency of 1 X 105 Hz hits the metal.
Ans.

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Ques: Explain the effect of potential on photocurrent with the help of graph with constant
frequency.

Ques: Explain the effect of frequency of incident wave on photo current with respect to same
potential.

 DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT:

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 MODERN CONCEPT OF STRUCTURE OF ATOM QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL:-

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- To overcome the short coming of Bohr’s model. Two important development which contributed
significantly in the formulation of a new model were,
1. Dual nature of matter
2. Heisenberg uncertainly principle

1. Dual nature of matter:- De-Broglie suggested that just as light exhibits wave and particle
properties, particle such as electrons, protons, atoms, molecules etc have also dual character.
- According to De-Broglie, all material particles in motion possess wave characteristics.
- According to De-Broglie, wavelength is given by
ࢎ ࢎ
λ= ൌ
࢓࢜ ࢖
 Photon energy
E = hठ_ _ _ _ _ _ (1)

According to Einstein,

E = mc2_ _ _ _ _ _(2)

Combining the above two equation

hठ = mc2
௖
h = mc2 ఒ
ࢎ
= mc
ࣅ
ࢎ
 or, λ =
࢓ࢉ
- The equation is valid for a photon.
De-Broglie suggested that on substituting the mass of the particle m and its velocity v in place of
velocity of light c, the equation can also be applied to material particles.
ࢎ
λ=
࢓࢜
This equation is known as De-Broglie’s equation.
௛
λ=
௣
‫ͳ  ן ߣ ׵‬Τ݉‫݉ݑݐ݊݁݉݋‬

It means that the wave length of particles in motion is inversely proportional to its momentum.
- Let an electron of charge e be accelerated by potential v. the K.E acquired by the electron which
is accelerated from rest by passing through a potential difference v is ev. The kinetic energy of
the electron moving with velocity v is also written as ½ mv2.
Thus, ½ mv2 = eठ
ଶ௩௘
ठൌට 
௠
Substituting the value of ठ‹–Š‡‡Ǧ”‘‰Ž‹‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘ǡ™‡‰‡–

2. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle:- It is not possible to measure simultaneously both the

position and momentum (or velocity) of a microscopic particles with absolute accuracy.

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Ques. What will be the wave length of a ball of mass 0.1kg moving with a velocity of
10m/sec?
Ans.

Ques. The mass of an electron is 9.1 X 10 -31 kg. If it’s K.E is 3 X 10 – 25. Calculate its
wavelength.
Ans.

Ques. Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength 3.6A?

Ans.

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Ques. A microscope using suitable photon is employed to locate an electron in an atom

within a distance of 0.1A0, what is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its
velocity?
Ans.

Ques. A golf ball has a mass of 40g and a speed of 45 m/sec. if the speed can be measured
within accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in the position.
Ans.

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TEST REPORT
S.No DATE CHAPTER/SYLLABUS MARKS OBTAINED PARENT’S
MAXIMUM MARKS SIGNATURE