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Biology New Notes
Biology New Notes
Biology New Notes
PERFORMANCE
ENHARNCING NOTES
NSSCO BIOLOGY GRADE 10-11
PREPARED NOTES FOR GRADE 10-11 LEARNERS, BASED ON THE
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE REVISED SYLLABUS. 2019
Compiled By:
1. Amutenya Bilha
2. Hausiku Andreas
3. Katega Maria
4. Nauyoma Elizabeth
5. Sifwaku Lydia
6. Simbombo Julius
7. Sindano Ambrosius
Topic 5 Relationship of organisms with one another and with their environment
1
Topic 1: Scientific processes
(a) The plant lost 8.2 g of mass on day 6, 6.4 g on day 7 and on day 4.3 g on day 8.
What was the total mass lost from day 6 to 8?
Answer: 8.2 g + 6.4 g + 4.3 g = 18.9g
(b) A plant’s mass was 675 g on the first day of an experiment, and 649 g on the fifth
day.
How much mass did the plant lose?
Answer: 675 g – 649 g = 26 g
(c) Approximately 2000 dm3 of blood is pumped through your heart every day.
How much blood does your heart pump in a week?
Answer: 200 dm3 x 7 days = 14 000 dm3 per week
(d) Your heart beats about 4200 times an hour. What is the heart rate per minute?
Answer: 4200 beats /hour ÷ 60 minutes = 70 beats / min
Averages
An average is a measure of central tendency in a set of data.
It is a representative value for the whole set of data.
The median, mean and mode are three measures of central tendency.
Add up all the values involved and then divide by the total number of
values in the set.
Finding the mode
Mode is the common value (the one appearing the most) or the value
with the highest frequency.
2
Decimals
Improper fraction – when the top (numerator) is larger than the bottom
(denominator), e.g. 7
3
Proper fraction – the top is less than the bottom, e.g. 5 1 = 0.5
10 2
Percentages
Ratios
3
Reciprocals
4
Set square – is used to draw a perpendicular line
Direct proportion
- Means that two variables increase at a constant rate
- E.g. temperature of a reptile such as a snake, increases as external
(environmental) temperature increases
Using indices
- The index (plural indices) of a number (base) says how many times to use the
number in a multiplication.
- Indices are used to write large numbers in a simple manner.
- E.g. 26 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64 ( 2 is the base and 6 is the index/exponent)
The exponent of 2 is 6 in this example and is pronounced as two is raised to
the power of 6.
5
Specific objective: solve equations of the form x = y + z and x = yz for any one term
when the other two are known
Examples:
(a) The form x = y + z
The total number of learners (x) in grade 10 at a particular school is 135. If there
are 65 girls(y), how many boys (z) are there?
x=y+z
135 = 65 + z
135 – 65 = z
70 = z
Therefore, number of boys is 70
x = yz
2480 = 80z
2 480 = 80z
80 80
31 = z
Number of stomata in each leaf is 31
6
1.2 . Scientific skills
Biologists use many different types of apparatus for their observations and
experiments.
Many materials in the laboratory can cause injury if not handled carefully.
To protect yourself from possible injury, wear safety googles whenever working
with chemicals, burners or any substance that might get into eyes.
Wear a laboratory coat and tie back long hair whenever working with chemicals
or heated substances.
Follow instructions correctly.
Do not eat or drink in the laboratory or from laboratory glassware.
When you light a Bunsen burner, strike the match first, and then turn on the gas.
Be careful when handling sharp instruments such as scalpels and scissors.
Report any breakage or spills to your teacher immediately and ask about the
proper clean-up procedure.
7
Specific objective: distinguish between independent, dependent and constant
variables
Variables refers to all the conditions that might affect the outcome of an
experiment.
Independent variable
Is the variable that can be changed on purpose (manipulated) in an experiment.
Dependent variable
Specific objective: state the hypothesis or the aim of the investigation in relation to
dependent and independent variables
Hypothesis
- To test a hypothesis, you need to design a fair test where you isolate the
factor influencing the hypothesis while keeping other variables the same
(constant)
8
1.2.2 Recording data
Specific objective: locate, select and organize information from a variety of sources
9
1.2.3 Drawing graphs and tables
Specific objective: complete tables of data, and process data, using a calculator where
necessary
Constructing a table
A table must have an appropriate heading/title
A table consists of a number of different columns and rows
The independent variable usually appears in the left-hand column
The dependent variable usually appears in the right-hand column
The name of each variable must appear at the top of the column with the unit
written next to or below the heading e.g. time/s (units should be in the heading
column and not with measurements column).
Example:
The table shows heart rate during running and cycling
Heart rate/min
Time/min Run cycle
0 70 70
10 72 71
20 74 96
30 120 125
40 140 127
50 143 103
60 122 89
- Has a heading/title
- Time is the independent variable (appears in the left-hand column)
because you can change it on purpose
- Heart rate is the dependent variable (appears in the right-hand
column) the readings depend on time
- Variables have units next to them
10
Drawing graphs (bar graph, histogram and line graph)
11
Drawing histogram
Similar to bar graph but with no spaces in between bars / bars should
touch
Bars should be drawn in order of increasing or decreasing magnitude
A histogram is used to show the distribution of continuous data e.g. height
Example of a histogram
Should be drawn with the sectors in rank order, largest first, beginning at
noon and proceeding clockwise
Pie charts should preferably contain no more than six sectors
12
Specific objective:
- draw charts and graphs from given data to include plotting of one or
several curves
- label each axis with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit
- plot the independent variable on the x-axis and depended variable
on the y-axis
- present points on the curve clearly marked as crosses or encircled
dots
- label each graph with the appropriate heading
Example: use the data in the table to draw a line graph on the
grid provided
13
Specific objective: interpret charts and graphs
From the graph drawn above, interpret the relationship between pH and
time taken to break down starch in minutes.
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14
1.2.4 Basic units and derived units
(Note: The solidus (/) will be used for a quotient and to indicate units in labels of
tables and graphs)
Specific objective: explain and use the relationship between length, surface
area and volume and their units on metric scales
Length
Is a measure of the distance between two points.
Metre (m) is the basic unit of length.
Metric unit of length symbols:
- 1 micrometre (µm) = 0.001 or 1/1000 millimetre
- 1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 or 1/1000 metre
- 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 or 1/100 metre
- 1 metre = 1m
- 1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 or 1/10 metre
- 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres
Surface area
Is the size of the surface of an object.
The units for measuring surface area are mm2, cm2 and m2.
Volume
15
Class Activity
Complete the table that shows surface area, volume and surface area : volume
ratios of different sized cubes. One column has been completed for you. Use the
following to help you:
- The formula for calculating the surface area of a cube is 6s2 (6 x s x s), where s
is the length of one side.
- The formula for calculating the volume of a cube is s3 (s x s x s), where s is the
length of one side.
Calculation of surface area : volume ratios of cubes
Length of one side Surface area/ Volume/cm3 Surface area : volume ratio
of cube/ cm cm2
2
4 96 64 1.5:1
6
8
10
16
time year y
day d
hour h
minute min
second s (not sec)
temperature degree Celsius oC
Recommended units for area, volume and density area listed below
area hectare = 104 m2 ha
square metre m2
cubic metre m3
17
Specific objective: explain and use sub-multiple prefixes for units (kilo, deci,
centi, milli, micro)
Standard notation is the normal way of writing large and small numbers.
Scientific notation is a special way of writing numbers.
Scientific notation is sometimes called standard notation.
Scientific notation is represented in the form:
A x 10n, where A is a number between 1 and 10 inclusively and n is an
integer (positive or negative whole number).
e.g.(a) 900 000 = 9 x 105
(b) 35 000 = 3.5 x 104
(c) 0.00000054 = 5.4 x 10-7
18
Specific objective: use acceptable methods of stating units, e.g. metres per
second or m per s, or m/s or ms-1
Example:
- A young bull at full speed can run 6.7 metres per second, while a gazelle
can run 20 metres per second.
- Metres per second or m per second can be written as m/s or m/s -1.
Human error can occur when tools or instruments are used or read
incorrectly.
For example, a temperature reading from a thermometer in a liquid
should be taken after stirring the liquid and whilst the bulb of
thermometer is still in the liquid.
Never report the following as human error. They are mistakes that
should not have happened.
- Spilling or sloppiness, dropping the equipment, etc.
- Bad calculations, doing math incorrectly or using the wrong formula
- Reading a measuring device incorrectly (thermometer, balance, etc.)
- Not cleaning the equipment
- Using the wrong chemical
- Not following the planned procedure
Instrumental errors
Can occur when the tools are not functioning exactly as they should be.
An example is when a thermometer is not calibrated correctly, can cause
an error in the reading shown.
19
Observational error
Can occur if the experimenter did not read the instrument e.g.
thermometer or measuring cylinder correctly when recording results.
Systematic errors
These are errors caused by the way in which the experiment was
conducted.
They are caused by an inaccuracy in the design of the system or faulty
equipment.
Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking more measurements and
using averages.
Random errors
- Anomalous results are those which deviate from what is usual, normal or
expected.
- These are results which are not in line with the rest of the results or which
do not follow any of the connections between results.
- If you repeat the experiment several times, you will usually find fewer
anomalous results than if you carry it out only once.
- Anomalous results can be excluded when drawing up a conclusion, as
they may make your conclusion unreliable, especially when you are using
numbers.
20
Specific objective: evaluate presented results or experimental data by applying
scientific knowledge and interpret and draw appropriate conclusions from
practical observations and data in relation to hypotheses
- When you interpret results, you look for trends and patterns in the data,
drawing comparisons between two or more sets of data, and writing about
these trends.
- Look for relationship between the independent and the dependent
variables.
- A conclusion is a statement, supported by data and based on sound
reasoning about the results of an appropriate investigation.
- The conclusion must refer to the hypothesis you set out to test.
- Make sure you know how to operate the measuring instruments correctly
before you begin taking measurements.
- Repeat the data collection or observations many times and always state
the number of observations or repeats of your experiment.
- Make sure that the measuring equipment are working correctly before
using them in an experiment.
- Use instruments that allow you to measure accuracy rather than
estimating.
21
1.2.6 Experimental techniques
22
Apparatus for measuring mass
23
Laboratory apparatus
24
Specific objective: recall familiar techniques to record observations and make
deductions from them
Specific objective: recall of simple chemical tests, e.g. for food substances and the
use of hydrogen carbonate indicator, litmus and universal indicator paper
Food tests
Test and reagent What it tests Initial What happens to show
used for colour of positive result
reagent
Benedict’s test Reducing blue - Solution changes from blue
(uses Benedict’s sugars, e.g. to green, yellow and
solution) glucose, orange-red (brick –red)
maltose - Remains blue when
reducing sugars are absent
25
Iodine test Starch Brown / - Solution changes from
(uses iodine solution) yellow- brown to blue-black
brown - Stays brown when starch is
absent
Ethanol test (uses Lipids (fats Clear Solution becomes cloudy
ethanol and water) and oils)
The most effective way to test for carbon dioxide (CO2) is to bubble the gas
through clear limewater.
The clear limewater turns milky or cloudy white in presence of CO2.
Hydrogen carbonate indicator is a pH indicator solution used to show carbon
dioxide concentration in a solution.
It becomes orange / yellow with increased carbon dioxide levels (acidic
conditions), it changes from red to purple if carbon dioxide is removed
(alkaline conditions) and stays red at atmospheric carbon dioxide (neutral
conditions).
Blue litmus paper is used to test an acid, the litmus paper turns from blue to red
in acids.
Red litmus paper is used to test an alkali (base), red litmus paper turns from red
to blue in alkaline.
Universal indicator paper or solution is used to ascertain the pH of a solution
by comparing the colour of the solution to it.
26
Test for water
Specific objective: draw an appropriate conclusion, and justify it in line with the data
using an appropriate explanation
During practical and investigations, observations are recorded as data.
Specific objective: recognise, observe, record and measure images of familiar, and
unfamiliar, biological specimens
Record temperature from a thermometer
27
Recording the volume of a measuring cylinder
If the grasshopper is drawn to scale of x1, the real measuremet would be 5 cm.
28
Specific objective: make a clear line drawing from an image of a specimen,
calculating the magnification and adding labels as required
Calculating magnification
Magnification is how much larger or smaller a drawing is than the real thing.
To calculate magnification:
Measure and record the size of the specimen and that of your drawing
including units of measurement.
Use the formula:
Magnification = size (length) of drawing (image) ÷ actual size of object
Always put X before you write down your answer or after your answer, without
any unit.
29
Specific objective: record readings from diagrams of apparatus, including reading a
scale with accuracy and precision and taking repeated measurements, where
appropriate, to obtain an average value
30
Topic 2: Classification and diversity of organisms
2.1 Classification of living organisms
Specific objective: state that organisms can be classified into groups by features that
they share
Organisms can be classified into groups by features that they share for an example:
Specific objective: describe the binomial system of naming species as a system in which
the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and species
31
Specific objective: outline the use of hierarchical classification system for living
organisms
Hierarchical system of classification
Is when larger groups are progressively divided into smaller groups starting from
the most inclusive group to the smallest least inclusive / more specific group and
each group has a set of distinguished features.
The groups in classification are known as taxa (singular taxon).
The science of classification is called taxonomy. It is a branch of biology that deals
with identification and classification of living organisms.
The taxon at the very top is the kingdom which is the broadest category, followed by
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Way to remember: King Peter Came Over For Ginger Snacks
Classification of the human
32
Specific objective: construct and use simple dichotomous keys based on easily
identifiable features
A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items
in the natural world.
It consists of a series of two choices that leads the user to the correct name of a
given item.
The identification of organisms based on a series of choices between alternative
characters is described as dichotomous keys.
How to use dichotomous keys
33
Construction of dichotomous keys
What to consider when constructing dichotomous keys:
34
Activity 2.1
Fig. 2.1 shows different variations of the termites, found in the Kalahari Desert.
Fig. 2.1
Use Fig. 2.1 to construct a dichotomous key to identify the different variations.
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35
Activity2.2
Use the dichotomous key which would distinguish between the seven organisms in Fig.
2.2. Only use features that are visible in the drawings
Fig. 2.2
36
2.2 Diversity of living organisms
Specific objective: outline the structure of a virus, limited to protein coat and genetic
material, and consider the arguments for and against the classification of viruses as living
organisms.
Structure of a virus
Viruses are non-cellular and have no cell contents (no cytoplasm and no
organelles like nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane and ribosomes)
The core of a virus is a strand of genetic material which can either be DNA or RNA.
The core of genetic material is enclosed in a protein coat or shell known as the
capsid.
HIV has RNA as genetic material.
37
Arguments For the classification of viruses as living organisms
Viruses are capable of reproduction (though only within the cells of host
organisms).
Viruses also have genetic material (DNA or RNA) which means that they can
evolve.
Arguments Against the classification of viruses as living organisms
Specific objective: list the main features used in the classification of the following
groups, using visible, external characteristics only: flowering plants (monocotyledons
and dicotyledons using seeds, flowers, leaves and roots).
Flowering plants
Flowering plants produce flowers and fruits that contain and protect the seeds.
The phylum of flowering plants is divided into two classes: Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons
38
Specific objective: list the main features used in the classification of the following
groups, using visible, external characteristics only and their adaptation to the
environment: Molluscs; Annelids; Arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustacean and
myriapods).
39
Adaptations of annelids to the environment
40
External diagnostic features of Molluscs
A long, rough tongue (radula) helps with the scraping off pieces of food.
The head has two pairs of tentacles which are used for smell, taste and sight.
The slimy muscular foot that projects from the shell enables them to move easily.
Glands in the foot secrete sticky mucus for easy movement.
The skin is permanently moist and retraction into the shell protects it from drying
out in dry weather.
Arthropods
Classes of phylum Arthropoda
Insecta
Crustacea
Arachnida
Myriapoda
41
Visible external diagnostic features of all Arthropods
Body divided into three sections namely the head, thorax and abdomen.
Three pairs of jointed legs
Most have one or two pairs of wings and others have no wings.
One pair of compound eyes.
One pair of antennae on the head.
Compound eyes that can see nearly in every direction when objects are close
Wings to allow flight to avoid predators and to find food and detection of vibrations
Antennae to detect odours, tastes, wind speed, wind direction, heat, moisture and
touch
Hairs on feet or abdomen or antennae for taste
A hard, rigid exoskeleton protects insects against harsh environmental conditions
Exoskeleton covered with waterproof cuticle that prevents water loss from insect’s
body
Different colours camouflage them against their predators
42
Class Crustacea (the Crustaceans)
External diagnostic features of Crustacea
Body divided into two sections – the cephalothorax (head and thorax fused) and
abdomen
Five pairs of legs (or more)
Two pairs of antennae
A hard exoskeleton hardened by calcium salts
Compound eyes on stalks
Cray fish
43
Class Arachnida (the arachnids)
External diagnostic features of Arachnida
Body is divided into two sections, namely the cephalothorax (head and thorax
fused) and abdomen.
Have four pairs of legs attached to cephalothorax
No antennae are present
Some have chelicerae to seize and poison their prey
Arachnids have eight simple eyes
They have a leathery exoskeleton
A spider
Chelicerae carry poison fangs to seize and inject venom into prey which paralyses
it, especially in spiders.
Some (like scorpions) have strong pincers to catch and hold prey firmly
The eight legs are made up of seven segments each, therefore spiders can move
quickly.
Most spiders spin sticky webs which they use to trap and capture insects.
44
Class Myriapoda (the myriapods)
This is a class of arthropods containing the Millipedes and Centipedes
Have bodies divided into two parts – the head and trunk
Have many jointed legs
Have one pair of antennae
Have a long segmented trunk which can be flattened (in centipedes) or cylindrical
(in millipedes)
Their body is divided into segments, most of which are completely identical
45
Adaptations of myriapods to their environment
Specific objective: list the main features used in the classification of the following
groups, using visible, external characteristics only and their adaptation to the
environment: vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).
Vertebrates
Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of phylum chordata.
Fish / Osteichthyes
Amphibia
Reptilia
Birds /Aves
Mammalia
46
Class osteichthyes (the bony fish)
External diagnostic features of fish (the bony fish) / osteichthyes
Have streamlined bodies which makes it easier to move and cut through water
Scales overlap and face backwards to reduce friction in water
Have fins for moving forward and backward and to help them turn in water
Have a swim bladder which helps keep fish buoyant and to be weightless in water
Have a flexible vertebral column which allows fish to manoeuvre from side to side
The lateral line helps fish to sense vibrations and water pressure
The operculum covers and protects the gills
47
Class Amphibia (the amphibians)
External diagnostic features of amphibians
A frog
48
Class Reptilia (the reptiles)
The class Reptilia comprises of turtles, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, tortoises, etc.
External diagnostic features of reptiles
49
A bird
Adaptations of Aves / birds to their environment
Forelimbs modified into wings which enables flight (for most species)
Toothless beak is used to peck and tear food
Feathers trap air for insulation to keep them warm during winter
Have light weight, hollow bones that make them lighter for flying
Streamlined bodies to cut through air with minimum resistance when flying
50
Adaptations of mammals to their environment
Bodies covered with hair or fur which traps air for insulation
Mammary gland with milk to feed young before they are able to eat an adult diet
Sweat glands in skin produce sweat to lower body temperature
Some have big ears for losing heat from body, e.g. elephants
Activity
- Look for any organism of any class covered in this unit. It can be a plant or an
animal.
- You do not need to catch the organism, it is better to observe it in its natural
environment.
- Give your diagram a title.
- Draw the organism, following instructions for drawing.
- Label the diagnostic features of the organism.
- Decide which phylum and/ or class your organism belongs to
51
Topic 3: Organisation and maintenance of the organism
3.1. The microscope
A microscope is
An apparatus used to enlarge very small objects that cannot be seen with a naked eye.
There are two types of microscopes:
- A light microscope
- An electron microscope
Light microscope
52
Functions of the parts of a light microscope
Body tube/body
It connects the ocular (eyepiece) to the objective lenses.
The part through which an image is viewed with the aid of an eyepiece
Eyepiece (ocular lens)
The image projected by the objective lenses is further magnified when viewed
through the eyepiece lens. Allows us to observe the specimen in a microscope
more clearly
Arm
The central part of the microscope that supports the body tube and it is the part
to hold when carrying the microscope
Base / foot/ stand
Act as a stand for a microscope and gives it a steady support
Objective lens
Forms a magnified image of the object in the intermediate image plane.
There are three objective lenses to choose from (low power objective, medium
power and high power objective)
Revolving nose piece
It contains the objective lenses. It rotates to allow the user to examine the
specimen on the slide at different magnifications
Stage /stage large
Supports the slide. Stage has a hole that allows light to pass through
Stage clips
Holds the slide in position
Coarse adjustment knob
Moves the tube and lenses up and down faster so that the specimen is in focus.
This knob is used only with the low power objective lens
Fine adjustment knob
Moves the tube and lenses up and down slower to put the specimen at the right
position until image is perfectly focused. It gives fine focus with the high power
and medium power objectives
Light source
Bulb supplies light on to the stage
Iris diaphragm (condenser)
A hole under the stage that regulates the amount of light that goes through the
specimen on the stage
Mirror
It is flat on one side and concave on the other side in order to reflect light up
through the specimen on the stage
53
Specific objective: Calculating the magnification and size of biological
specimens (in millimetres and micrometres)
Magnification
The number of times an object or image is increased in size by a lens system
NB: answer shows how many times the drawing is magnified hence, an X is put
in front of the answer.
Example:
54
Calculating the actual size of a specimen
- When a drawing or specimen has already been magnified, we can work out the
actual size of the specimen.
Formula used:
Actual size = size of image (drawing or photograph) ÷ magnification
Biological drawings
When making biological drawings:
Specific objective: describe and compare the structure of a plant cell (palisade cell)
and animal cell (liver cell) as seen under a light microscope, limited to the location of
the cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles and chloroplasts
A cell is the smallest biological unit that possess all the characteristics of a living
organism
The size and shape of a cell ranges from millimetres to microns depending on its
function
An individual cell have one or more cells performing several functions
55
Cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cell is a cell that lack a nucleus
Eukaryotic cell is a cell that possess a clearly defined nucleus
Living organisms can be made up of a single cell (unicellular) or many cells
(multicellular)
Cells contains structures called organelles
An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a
cell
56
Functions of the parts of a plant and animal cell
57
Comparing the structures of a plant (palisade) cell and animal (liver) cell
Specific objective: Making temporary slides of plant cells (e.g. epidermal cells from a
leaf or onion), make observations and draw cells as seen under a light microscope
Apparatus set up:
With clean hands and a clean working surface, cut a small piece from the onion
bulb with a scalpel
Use forceps to peel off a small piece of thin skin from the inside (do not let it get
dry)
Put a drop of distilled water on the centre of a slide and place the peeled piece of
epidermis onto it and spread it flat
Gently lower a cover slip on top of the piece using a sharp pencil. Clean the slide
using the tissue or blotting paper
Use a pipette to take up a small amount of the Methylene blue or Iodine solution
and drop it carefully next to the edge of the cover slip
Soak up excess solution using a filter paper
Place the prepared slide on the stage of the microscope and secure the slide
using the stage clips
Start viewing the specimen starting with the low objective lens before moving
onto a higher magnification
58
Image of the onion cells seen under the microscope
59
Specific objective: draw prepared slides of animal tissues (for example: epithelium of
mammalian trachea, human cheek cells and muscle tissue)
60
Muscle tissue
As seen under the microscope: Drawing the muscle tissue
Specific objective: state the functions and structures in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic
cell limited to rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vesicles and mitochondria (from
diagrams and images)
Eukaryotic cell:
- A cell with a clearly defined nucleus.
- It has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus containing chromosomes.
- These are large cells containing numerous specialised organelles enclosed
within membranes e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vesicles and
mitochondria
- Examples of eukaryotic cells include plant, animal cells and fungi
61
Animal eukaryotic cell
62
Cell organelles found in eukaryotic cells
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
The human body has many cellular types performing a variety of functions and thus
require an abundant supply of energy
some cells have many mitochondria compared to other cells, depending on the
energy required
skeletal and heart muscle cells, liver cells and brain cells are examples of cells
containing more mitochondria
cells requiring less energy like nerve cells or skin cells have less mitochondria
more mitochondria is produced if a cell is not getting enough energy
63
Specific objective: identify different levels of organisation in drawings and diagrams
of familiar and unfamiliar material
64
A cell
The smallest basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. Each cell
type has different structure and function
Tissues
A group of similar cells working together to perform a particular function.
Plant tissue examples: Phloem tubes, Xylem vessels, Epidermis etc.
Animal tissue examples: Liver tissue, Bone tissue, Nerve tissue, Red blood cells
Nerve tissue Muscle tissue
65
Red blood cells Ciliated cells
Organs
Are groups of different tissues working together to perform a particular function.
- Organs are comprised of two or more tissues
Examples of animal organs
Organ systems
A group or organs performing several closely related functions
Animal organ systems examples:
66
The organism
A complex, functioning whole that is the sum of all its component parts.
- Some organisms have only one cell (unicellular) e.g. a Bacterium cell, Amoeba
species
- Other organisms consist only of tissues e.g. Jelly fish
- Other organisms have many cells (multi cellular)
Example of diffusion:
- Adding potassium permanganate crystals to pure water
- The crystals start to dissolve in water and start to spread out until evenly
distributed and water becomes blue
Specific objective: state that the energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy
of random movements of molecules and ions
- Diffusion does not require energy therefore there is a small amount of kinetic
energy involved
- Particles always move randomly because they have kinetic energy
- Particles in the air collide (bump) against each other and are pushed around by
other particles
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Structure of a cell surface membrane
Specific objective: describe the factors that influence diffusion, limited to surface
area, temperature, concentration gradient and distance
Surface area
- Refers to the total area of the surface of an object
- The greater the surface area of the cell, the faster the rate of diffusion. As the
surface area increases, more particles can spread out faster on the large surface
area
Temperature
- High temperature means molecules have more kinetic energy, and thus
increases rate of diffusion.
- Temperature is directly proportional to rate of diffusion
Concentration gradient
- The greater the difference in the concentration of molecules, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
- Concentration gradient is directly proportional to rate of diffusion.
Distance
- The shorter the travel distance for molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.
- Gas diffuses faster through a thin wall than a thick wall.
- This is an inversely proportional relationship
68
Specific objective: describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes
69
Specific objective: investigating diffusion, for example, the rate at which
ammonia diffuses along a glass tube containing pieces of red litmus paper
Rate at which ammonia diffuses along a glass tube containing pieces of red
litmus paper
70
Specific objective: investigate the factors that influence diffusion, limited to
surface area, temperature, concentration gradients and distance
- Using two large beakers of equal size, fill one beaker with the same amount of
cold tap water while pouring hot water in the second beaker
- Use a dropper to add one drop of food colouring into each beaker at the same
time
- Do not stir the mixtures to allow the food colourant to spread on its own
throughout the water
- Observe the time taken for the food colourant to be distributed in the water
- Notice that the food colouring diffuses faster in hot water as the molecules have
more kinetic energy at high temperature
3.3.2. Osmosis
Specific objective: describe the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues
(include reference to hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions)
Definition of osmosis
The movement of water molecules from a high water potential to a low water
potential through a partially permeable membrane down a water potential
gradient
- Partially permeable membrane refers to a membrane that allows small molecules
to pass through but not larger molecules
- Water potential is the force responsible for movement of water from one area to
another and is symbolised as ᴪ
- A solution is made up of a solute (e.g. sugar or salt) mixed in a solvent (like
water)
- A dilute solution has more water molecules and few solutes, therefore a high
water potential
- A concentrated solution has few water molecules and more solutes, therefore a
low water potential
- A visking tubing is a manufactured membrane that act like a cell membrane
- Small atoms and molecules like water and gases can pass through the
membrane but large molecules like proteins and sugar cannot pass through
71
High water potential low water potential
- Isotonic solution
A solution where the water potential is the same inside and outside the cell,
water will than move across the membrane in both directions maintaining cell
size.
- the solution has a high water pontential than the plant and animal cell, water
molecules move from the solution into the cells
- the cells swells and become turgid
- the animal cell will become turgid and eventually burst because it does not have
a protective cell wall like the plant cell
72
a plant cell: an animal cell:
- the water potential is the same outside the cells as well as inside the cells, hence
water molecules moves in both directions and both cells maintain their shapes.
- the solution have a higher water potential then the cells, hence water leaves the
plant and animal cells
- this causes the cell membrane to shrink and the cell become flaccid and
plasmoysed
73
plant cell: animal cell:
Specific objective: investigate and explain the effects of immersing plant tissues
in solutions of diferent concentrations by using the terms turgor pressure, turgid,
flaccid and plasmolysis
74
Specific objective: explain the importance of water potential and osmosis in the
uptake of water by plants
osmosis facilitates the movement of water molecules into and out of the cells
living cells need water all the time for many biological processes and osmosis
controls how much water to be kept in a cell
root hair cells on plant roots absorb water from the soil through osmosis
water potential between the soil particles and root hair cells makes plants to
absorb water
absorbing water to replace water used and lost by plants prevents plants from
wilting
Specific objective: outline how plants are supported by turgor pressure in cells, in
terms of water pressure acting against a cell wall
- as water enters a cell, the vacuole swells and pushes the cytoplasm and cell
membrane up against the cell wall, the cell becomes turgid
- turgor in plants cells is maintained because of a protective cell wall, that prevents
plant cells from bursting
- turgor helps to support the stem (of unligified), leaves and flowers and keep them
firm
- the leaves are well exposed to trap maximum sunlight for photosynthesis
75
3.3.3 Active transport
Specific objective: define active transport as:
mineral ions like phosphates and nitrates are absorbed by root hair cell from the
soil through active transport
these ions are often in higher concentration in the root hair cell than in the soil,
hence cannot easily diffuse across
the nutrients are absorbed from a low concentration in the soil against a
concentration gradient
active transport requires energy in the form of ATP which is used by carrier
proteins in the cell membrane to take the ions from a low concentration
In the uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of villi and kidney tubules:
glucose is absorbed from the epithelial cells of the villi in the small intestines and
transported to the body cells and tissues through the blood stream
cells may need glucose which is already in higher concentration in the cell
compared to the outside surrounding
hence, glucose moves against the concentration gradient by active transport
energy released during respiration is used by carrier proteins in the membrane to
absorb the glucose against the concentration gradient
Uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of kidney tubules
kidneys reabsorb useful substances such as glucose from the blood during
filtration
glucose is transported from the kidney tubules into the epithelial walls of
capillaries against a concentration gradient
76
Specific objective: how protein molecules move particles across a membrane
during active transport
the carrier proteins bind to the solute molecule, change shape and carry the
molecule across the membrane
it then reverts back to its original position
Specific objective: describe the synthesis of large molecules from smaller basic
units, i.e. simple sugars to starch and glycogen; amino acids to proteins; fatty
acids and glycerol to fats and oils
77
a large molecule called a polymer is formed by bonding together many smaller
basic units called monomers
there are four major types of polymers:
- polysaccharides that are made from many glucose molecules bonded together
by glycosidic bonds
- lipids (fats and oil) made from many three fatty acids and glycerol bonded
together by ester bonds
- polypeptide (protein) made from many amino acids bonded together by peptide
bonds
- deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) made from nucleotides bonded together by
hydrogen bonds
larger molecules called polymers are made from smaller basic units called
monomers
Carbohydrates
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
78
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
- these are large complex insoluble and non-sweet tasting carbohydrates made up
of many monosaccharides bonded together
- polysaccharides are a result of polymerisation
- examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose
79
Synthesis of proteins
- protein molecules contain the chemical elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen (CHON)
- sometimes Sulphur can be added to the CHO to make proteins
- amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
- proteins are assembled from only about 20 different naturally occurring amino
acids
- one protein molecule can consist of many amino acids bonded together by
peptide bonds
80
Specific objective: outline role of carbohydrates, fats/oils and proteins in living
organisms
Role of carbohydrates
carbohydrates like glucose are broken down during respiration to release energy
sucrose is a transport form of carbohydrates from the leaves to other plant parts
in the phloem tubes
glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates in animals
starch is storage form in plants
cellulose is a carbohydrate mainly used in the formation of cell walls
Role of proteins
Specific objective: describe the role of water as a solvent, in living organisms with
respect to digestion, excretion and transport
81
Specific objective: explain that different sequences of amino acids give different
shapes to protein molecules
Specific objective: describe the structure of DNA as: two strands coiled together to
form a double helix; each strand contains chemicals called bases; bases always pair up
in the same way: A with T, and C with G (no references to full names is required)
82
The DNA molecule is made up of subunits called nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of three chemical groups
o Group one: is a sugar molecule called deoxyribose sugar
o Group two: is a nitrogenous base and
o Group three: is a phosphate part
There are four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C)
The nitrogenous bases have complementary pairing (adenine combines with
thymine while guanine combines with cytosine)
Between the complimentary base pairs are weak Hydrogen bonds
There are two Hydrogen bonds between A and T while there are three Hydrogen
bonds between G and C
Adenine and guanine are called purines (large bases) while cytosine and thymine
are called pyrimidines (small bases)
DNA is made up of many nucleotides joined together, hence it is a polynucleotide
83
Benedict’s test
Result interpretation:
- An orange-red precipitate indicates a large amount of sugar present
- A greenish-yellow colour indicates a small amount of glucose present
- It the solution remains blue, there is no reducing sugar present
Iodine test
84
Biuret test
Ethanol test
- Crush the food to be tested into small pieces and place it in a test tube
- Dissolve the crushed food sample in 10cm³ of ethanol (alcohol)
- Shake the mixture thoroughly and allow it to settle for 10 minutes for the food to
dissolve in the ethanol
- Pour the clear liquid into another test tube and add 2cm³ of distilled water to it
Result interpretation:
- If the sample contains fat, tiny globules will float in the water
- A milky/white suspension indicates the presence of a lipid
- If it stays clear, there is no fat present in the sample
DCPIP (dichlorophenolindolphenol)
85
Procedure followed:
- Place 5cm³ of blue DCPIP solution in a test tube
- Use a dropper or graduated pipette to add the sample drop by drop to the DCPIP
test tube
- Shake the tube gently after adding each drop
- Record the number of food sample drops that are added to the DCPIP
Result interpretation:
- The lesser the drops taken to change the blue DCPIP to clear means the sample
contains a lot of vitamin C
- If the DCPIP remains blue, there is no vitamin C present
- Follow the procedure for each test as described in the notes and test all various
food sources for starch, reducing sugar, fats and protein content separately
- Draw a well labeled table and record your observations for each test
- Make conclusion by comparing the various results for each test
3.5 Enzymes
Specific objective: Define the term catalyst as:
A substance that increase (speeds up) the rate of a chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction.
Metabolic reactions
Metabolic reactions are all chemical reactions that occur in cells. They include
reactions that are catalysed by enzymes.
86
Types of chemical reactions:
Specific objective: explain enzyme action with reference to the active site,
enzyme-substrate complex, substrates and product.
Properties of enzyme.
Enzyme action
Only molecules with the correct shape can fit into the enzyme. Just like one key
can open a lock. Only one type of enzyme that can speed up a specific reaction.
This is called a lock and key model.
87
Substrate: is the molecule or substance the enzyme acts on
Active site: the ‘dent’ on the enzyme which is exactly the correct shape for the
substrate to fit into
Enzyme-substrate complex: the substrates bonds with the enzyme’s active site
and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed
Products: ‘new’ molecules that leave the active site after the enzyme acts on the
substrate
Each enzyme has a temperature at which the rate of reaction is greatest this is
called an optimum (best) temperature.
The optimum temperature of an enzyme is the level where enzyme works most
effectively by forming
88
The effect of low temperature on enzyme activity.
High temperature gives more kinetic energy, which cause the enzyme to vibrate
too much.
This breaks the bonds of the enzyme and its structure changes
The active site changes shape
The substrate will not fit into the active site and no enzyme-substrate complex
(ESC) will form.
The enzyme will be denatured and the reaction rate will decrease or stop.
When enzyme denature it is a permanent change and the enzyme will not work
again.
89
The effect of change in pH on Enzyme activity
90
2. Add amylase to the starch solution
To make an amylase solution:
- Weigh out 0.5g of the enzyme and add to 80ml of distilled water at room
temperature in a beaker
- Stir gently to dissolve and add water to a final volume of 100ml
- Store at 4°C (fridge) for a short period of time or on ice during use
3. Put the three test tubes with the mixture into a water bath for 30 minutes at
temperatures 15°C (use ice cubes), 35°C and 65°C
4. Use a dropper pipette to put a small sample of the mixture (of what is in each
test tube after 30 minutes) onto a white tile and add iodine solution to it
In seed germination
Enzymes become activated when the seed absorb water during germination
A plant growth substance is formed in the embryo and it activates the enzymes to
digest insoluble nutrients into soluble forms
Enzyme amylase change the starch in the seed into maltose while protease
digests proteins into polypeptides and amino acids
Enzyme lipase digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
The soluble nutrients are used by the embryo plant during germination as a
source of energy for growth
91
In biological washing powders
In food industry
92
Specific objective: Investigate the uses of biological powders that contain
enzymes.
Requirements
3.6 Nutrition
Definition of nutrition:
Nutrition (feeding) is the intake of inorganic and organic substances from which
organisms obtain energy and raw materials for growth and development.
Autotrophic nutrition
Is a process where organisms use inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water),
an external source of energy (sunlight) and chlorophyll to build organic molecules
during photosynthesis
- Examples of organic molecules are: glucose, starch, fats and proteins
93
Heterotrophic nutrition
94
3.6.1 Plant nutrition
3.6.1. 1 Leaf Structure
95
Specific objective: state the significance of these structures in terms of function,
i.e. distribution of chloroplasts for photosynthesis; stomata, (opening and closure)
and mesophyll cells for gaseous exchange and vascular bundles for transport.
96
Specific objective: explain how the internal structure is adapted for photosynthesis
A leaf has a very large surface area that can be exposed to absorb the
greatest (maximum) amount of light.
It is thin to allow light to penetrate to all cells.
It is thin to reduce the distance for diffusion.
A leaf is supported by a stem and petiole to expose as much of it as possible
to light and air.
The upper and lower epidermis are transparent to allow light through to the
mesophyll layer.
The palisade mesophyll cells are closely packed to absorb more incidental
light.
The palisade mesophyll cells are near the leaf surface to maximise light
interception.
Palisade mesophyll cells are arranged at right angles to the leaf surface to
reduce the number of cell walls for light to pass through.
Palisade mesophyll cells have large numbers of chloroplasts to maximise
light absorption.
Spongy mesophyll cells are round and loosely arranged to accommodate air
spaces, which act as reservoirs for gases and to assist in gaseous exchange.
Mesophyll cells have large vacuoles to push chloroplasts to the edge of the
cells.
Mesophyll cells have thin cell walls so there is a short diffusion pathway.
Chloroplasts can move within mesophyll cells towards light.
Chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage.
There are stomata in the lower epidermis for gases to enter and leave during
gaseous exchange.
Xylem vessels is present for the transport of water to the chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells.
Phloem tube is there to translocate the products of photosynthesis away
from the leaf.
97
Specific objective: make temporary mounts of the upper and lower epidermis
(using nail varnish) with emphasis on the distribution of stomata.
Making temporary slides of the epidermis
- Stomatal density varies between monocots and dicots, between plants species
and between the underside and top side of the leaves on a plant.
- use clear nail varnish to make an impression of the epidermis
Materials needed:
Procedure:
1. Obtain a leaf from a plant, generally any plant will work for this procedure.
2. Paint a chick patch of clear nail polish on the leaf surface being studied. Make
the patch at least one square centimetre (cm2). Try not to paint on the large
veins, as this makes it difficult to remove the dried nail polish.
98
5. Gently peel the nail polish patch from the leaf by pulling on a corner of the tape
and “peeling” the fingernail polish off the leaf. This is the leaf impression you will
examine.
6. Tape your peeled impression to a very clean microscope slide. Use scissors to
trim away any excess tape.
7. Scan the slide until you find a good area where you can see the stomata.
Examine the leaf impression under a light microscope at X 400. Search for areas
where there are numerous stomata and where there are no dirt, thumbprints,
damaged areas or large leaf veins.
8. Draw the leaf surface with stomata. Each stoma is bordered by two sausage-
shaped cells that are usually smaller than chloroplasts. Sketch this. Label the
stoma, guard cells, epidermal cells and chloroplasts.
9. Count all the stomata in one microscopic field. Record the number in your data
table.
10. Repeat counts for at least three other distinct microscopic fields. Record all the
counts. Determine an average number per microscopic field.
11. From the average number / X 400 microscopic field, calculate the stomata per
mm2 by multiplying by 8.
99
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of transverse sections
through a leaf.
Specific objective: state the importance and explain the effects of iron,
magnesium, phosphate and nitrate ions on plant growth.
Mineral requirements
The metabolites that plants require for growth, development and repair come
from photosynthesis and respiration. However, there are other ingredients
needed for the production of these essential metabolites. They are called
mineral ions
100
Importance of magnesium and effects on Deficiency effects on plant growth
plant growth
a macro nutrient needed in relatively large
amounts
Magnesium ions are required for the Yellowing of the older (lower)
synthesis of chlorophyll in plants. leaves will occur first as they
Magnesium also acts as an enzyme become yellow between the veins
activator. and around the edges.
It forms part of the middle lamellae Eventually the leaf and the plant will
in plant cells. die.
101
Phosphate ions affects plant growth Have weak root systems or a bright
by increasing early growth and root green or purplish
formation.
Phosphorus also improves the plant’s
ability to absorb water and other
nutrients from the soil.
Phosphorus encourages flower or
fruit production.
102
Specific objective: Investigate the effect of mineral deficiency on the plant growth
Materials needed:
103
Results
The greater the concentration of nitrate, the more the plants will grow
(average heights of 12, 18 and 23 cm have been measured for plants given
low, medium and high concentrations respectively)
3.6.1.3 Photosynthesis
Specific objective: state the word and balanced chemical equation for
photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
104
Specific objective: Investigate the need for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis, using appropriate controls
Use a green leaf which was exposed to sunlight for a few hours (glucose is
produced which is converted into starch for storage).
Step one: Boil the leaf in water for about a minute till it is flabby (cell walls
and membranes are broken down and enzymes and cytoplasm destroyed for
iodine solution to penetrate)
Step two: Place the leaf in a test tube with alcohol (ethanol) and place the
test tube in a beaker with boiling water (water bath) till the leaf is decolourised
(for chlorophyll to be dissolved and extracted).
Step three: Rinse the yellow – white coloured leaf in hot water (to soften it
after it was hardened by the alcohol).
Step four: spread the leaf in a shallow petri dish or on a white tile and cover it
with yellow – brown Iodine solution for a few minutes.
If the leaf turns blue- black, starch is present and photosynthesis took place.
105
Removal of starch from a plant
106
Investigation set up to show if light is essential for photosynthesis
107
To investigate if carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis
Destarch a potted geranium plant which has variegated leaves (leaves with
parts that have chlorophyll and non- green parts without chlorophyll).
Expose the plant to sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
Remove a leaf and make a careful drawing of its green and non- green parts.
Then test the leaf for starch.
The green parts (containing chlorophyll) turn blue- black to show that (starch is
present).
The non- green parts (lacking chlorophyll) stains brown (starch is absent).
Since starch is present only in the parts which originally contained chlorophyll, it
seems reasonable to assume that photosynthesis has taken place.
108
To show that oxygen is released during photosynthesis
109
Specific objective: describe the effects of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
At low light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is lowered, because the energy
that the light provides is less and the reaction rate is slowed down.
A higher light intensity will enable photosynthesis to happen faster.
Carbon dioxide concentration
When there is insufficient carbon dioxide concentration, a plant will not be able to
photosynthesise to its full potential. Because there is less carbon dioxide
concentration – less reactant – fewer products are made.
Temperature
110
Requirements for the synthesis of carbohydrates
111
Storage of carbohydrates (glucose)
112
Graphical presentation of light intensity is a limiting factor
113
Carbon dioxide is a limiting factor even though there is sufficient light
Most plants function best at optimum temperatures between 20°C and 35°C
As the temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
Any further increase in the temperature above the optimum temperature can
cause a drop in the rate of photosynthesis, because the enzymes become
denatured.
If the temperature is low, the enzymes become less active and even inactive and
the rate of photosynthesis is slowed down
114
Specific objective: describe the use of CO2 enrichment, optimum light and optimum
temperatures in greenhouse systems and their importance to increase plant
productivity.
Greenhouse systems and plant productivity
- A greenhouse, also called a “glasshouse”, is a structure with walls and roof made
chiefly of transparent materials, such as glass, where the environment of plants
can be controlled and optimum conditions can be maintained to maximise growth
and yields.
Control of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration
115
Control of temperature
Sprinkler irrigation systems can be used to control water and give continuous
supply of water to plants.
Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in
water, without soil. Terrestrial plants are grown with their roots in the solution
only.
Humidifiers can control the humidity to keep the air around plants humid, to
reduce transpiration and evaporation of water.
Greenhouse (glasshouse)
116
Specific objective: investigate the effect of gas exchange on an aquatic plant
kept in the light and in the dark (use hydrogen carbonate indicators solution).
Procedure
What would be the colour of the hydrogen carbonate indicator in the two tubes after four
hours?
Tube P: When the carbon dioxide level falls, the hydrogen carbonate indicator changes
from red to purple (the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration).
Tube Q: It changes from red to yellow as the carbon dioxide concentration increases
(the rate of respiration exceeds the rate of photosynthesis).
Conclusion: Tube P absorb light and carbon dioxide that will enable photosynthesis to
take place while Tube Q did not received light thus photosynthesis did not take place
and carbon dioxide accumulate.
117
3.6.2 Human nutrition
3.6.2.1 Diet and nutrients
Vitamins
Vitamins are a group of organic compounds that are required in small quantities
in the diet.
118
Vitamin C (also known to as ascorbic acid)
- Vitamin C is water soluble (your body doesn’t make or store it and you flush out
the excess daily via urine)
- Thus, we need to eat vitamin C daily.
- Food sources rich in vitamin C include mainly fruits and vegetables like
tomatoes
Vitamin D
- Sometimes called the “sunshine vitamin” because it is produced in response to
sunlight.
- It is fat- soluble vitamin
- Our bodies can make most of what we need when we are directly exposed to
sun.
- Vitamin D is stored in the liver and fatty tissue.
- Sources of food rich in vitamin D include fortified foods, salmon, sardines, fish
liver oil, liver, raw milk, butter, cheese, margarine and eggs and few minutes of
exposure to the sun daily
119
Effects of vitamin D deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin D cause Rickets in children
Deficiency of vitamin D in adults cause Osteomalacia and Osteoporosis (weak
bones that can break easily)
Mineral salts
Mineral salts are naturally occurring inorganic substances
Iodine
- Iodine is an essential mineral that is crucial for the thyroid of function properly.
- Sources include some sea food like fish, lobster, shell fish, table salt and
vegetables grown on iodine rich soils
120
Iron
- Iron is a mineral that is naturally present in many foods or added to some food
products and available as a dietary supplement.
- Iron is a mineral found in every cell of the body.
- Foods (dietary sources) that contain iron include red meat, pork, liver, kidneys,
eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, cabbage, broccoli and
lettuce.
- Dried fruits such as raisins and apricots, as well as iron fortified cereals and
bread are also good sources of iron
General objective
Know the importance of a balanced diet for every person and understand their
different needs
Know the effects of malnutrition and understand the problems related to famine
.
Specific objective: describe the role of a balanced diet with reference to:
children, adult/workers, nursing mothers, athletes and people with HIV/ AIDS
In children
o Breast milk provide antibodies to strengthen their immune system
o Vitamin D promote calcium absorption for the development of strong
bones
o More protein promotes rapid growth
o Children need more carbohydrates and fats for more energy.
121
Adults/workers
o Balanced diet will help them maintain healthy weight and a strong immune
system
o Men need more energy than women because they have faster metabolism
o Minerals such as calcium will maintain their bone strength
o High energy intake and less activity will lead to weight gain and problems
associated with being overweight
Athletes
o They need more energy-rich food for their physical activities
o More protein is required to build the muscle mass
Specific objective: explain how age, gender and activity affect the dietary needs of
humans, including during pregnancy and whilst breast-feeding
122
Puberty and adolescence (11- 19 years).
Energy and protein requirements may be higher than in adults.
Females have an increased requirement for iron because of menstruation.
Males have an increased requirement for calcium for thickening bones.
Elderly persons
An older person’s energy needs decline due to decreased physical activity and
basic metabolic rate thus needs less energy giving food.
The ageing body replaces muscle with fat, which burns fewer kilojoules than
muscle does. Loss of muscle mass can also be due to inactivity therefore, they
need less fat-rich food intake.
Elderly persons may also need less protein, or even more if they have very
inactive lifestyles.
Elderly people, especially women, may be at risk of osteoporosis, so
supplementation of calcium and vitamin D is recommended.
A reduction in foods like fruits and vegetables can lead to an insufficient intake of
Vitamin C, so supplements can benefit them.
123
Pregnancy
The extra protein is needed for growth of the foetus.
Calcium is used to build a baby’s bones and teeth
Calcium is needed for the production of breast- milk.
Extra iron can prevent anaemia in the mother and essential for formation of foetal
haemoglobin in the blood.
Vitamin C assists in the absorption of iron and is necessary to make collagen, a
structural protein that is a component of cartilage, tendons and skin of the foetus.
Vitamin A is important for the baby’s embryonic growth, including the
development of the heart, lungs, kidneys and formation of the retina and visual
pigments of the eyes.
Vitamin D assists in the absorption of calcium for the formation of bones and
teeth.
Fibre is important of prevent constipation in the pregnant mother.
Reduced sugar intake is advised, because the mother is less active so less
energy is used. Eating sugar during pregnancy causes weight gain.
Folic acid (a B vitamin) supplements help to prevent birth defects in this foetal
brain and spinal cord, known as neural tube defects.
Starvation
Is when there is a severe lack of food or under nutrition e.g. Kwashiorkor and
marasmus
Cause Effects
During the first stage of starvation, the body uses up all
Poverty available carbohydrates for energy followed by all fat
Famine reserves
After all the fats are exhausted, the body start using
protein, including the muscles
Once all the muscle have been used up, the organs start
breaking down, which lead to death
124
Constipation
A condition where faeces or stool is hard and egestion becomes difficult and
infrequent
Cause
Lack of fibre (roughage)
Effects
Difficult and infrequent egestion
Colon cancer
Obesity
Cause
Eating too much sugary food, refined and fatty food
Effects
Can lead to diabetes
Can lead to coronary heart disease
Scurvy
Cause
Lack of vitamin C (diet lacking fresh fruits and vegetable)
Effects
Wall of blood vessels become weak and bruising on the skin can occur easily.
Bleeding gums
Poor healing of wounds
Anaemia
125
Specific objective: investigate health problems particular to Namibia associated
with the over-consumption of sugar, fat, meat and salt
126
Specific objective: discuss the problems that contribute to famine (unequal
distribution of food, drought and flooding, increasing population).
Increasing population
When the population increase, the availability of food resources fall
This leads to an inability to grow sufficient food
Ingestion- the taking in of substances into the body through the mouth
Digestion- the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to
the food molecules (mechanical digestion) and the breakdown of large, insoluble
molecules into smaller, soluble molecules (chemical digestion)
Absorption- the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of
the intestine into the blood
Egestion- the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed
through the anus
127
Specific objective: describe the functions of the various parts of the alimentary
canal in relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion of food.
- The mouth, bounded by two lips, is the anterior (front) opening of the alimentary
canal.
- The mouth cavity contains the tongue, teeth, and duct openings of the salivary
glands.
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Pharynx
- The region at the back of the mouth cavity where the windpipe, crosses the
oesophagus.
The tongue pushes masticated food into it and the pharynx then contracts by
muscular action to push the bolus into the oesophagus.
Oesophagus
- The oesophagus is the part that starts in the pharynx and ends with an opening
in the stomach.
It allows the food bolus to move from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis
(rhythmical contractions).
A sphincter muscle (cardiac sphincter) between the stomach and the
oesophagus stops food from passing back into the oesophagus.
Epiglottis
It closes the trachea (windpipe) during swallowing to ensure that the food
passes into the oesophagus.
Stomach
- It is the part between the oesophagus and the duodenum. At the entry point of
the oesophagus into the stomach is the cardiac sphincter muscle and at the exit
point of the stomach, where the duodenum is connected, is the pyloric sphincter
muscles
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The small intestine
The first part is the duodenum
The end products of chemical digestion by enzymes end up here and are called
chyle.
Amino acids, glucose, fructose, water- soluble vitamins and minerals are
absorbed into the bloodstream by the villi of the small intestine.
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The large intestine
The last part of the alimentary canal consisting of the caecum, appendix, colon,
rectum and anus.
It receives indigestible materials from the ileum
Minerals and some vitamins (like vitamin K and B) are absorbed from the large
intestine.
The colon is responsible for absorption of water from the undigested food.
The colon compacts the indigestible residue into semi- solid faeces, which moves
on to the rectum.
To be as released faeces during defecation through the anus, which is controlled
by the anal sphincter muscle.
The caecum is a pouch-like structure that receives the chyle from the ileum.
The appendix is a finger-like tube attached to the caecum that has no proven
function in humans
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Specific objective: describe cholera as a disease caused by a bacterium.
vomiting
severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to dehydration and loss of salts
Death, if untreated.
Specific objective: explain that cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing osmotic movement of
water into the gut, causing diarrhea, dehydration and loss of salts from blood.
The cholera bacteria are ingested, live, and breed in the small intestine.
Cholera bacteria produce and release a toxic (poison) into the small intestine.
The toxin causes the epithelial cells of the small intestine to secrete chloride
(salt) ions, which diffuse into the lumen of the small intestine.
The presence of these chlorine ions results in an increased amount of water to
be released from epithelial cells of the small intestines.
This is because water moves by osmosis into the lumen of the intestine (as the
salt level is now higher and the water potential is lower in the lumen).
This increase in water causes watery faeces. It is discharged from the bowels
frequently and in a liquid form, resulting in diarrhea and dehydration.
However, as long as enough fluids are given to replace these water losses, a
person will eventually recover from cholera.
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3.6.2.3 Digestion
Enzymes are protein that function as biological catalysts to speed the rate of
reactions such as digestion.
Enzymes are necessary for digesting food nutrients
Enzymes works best at optimum temperature, which is around 37°C in human.
Each enzyme work best at its optimum pH.
Deviations in pH outside their range can cause the enzymes to denature
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The diagram and graph showing pH requirements of different enzymes
Specific objective: state the importance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal
Types of digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chemical digestion begins in the mouth where enzyme amylase breaks down
starch into maltose.
Food containing proteins are digested chemically by enzymes
Chemical digestion breaks large, complex, insoluble nutrients in food into small,
simple, soluble nutrient molecules that can be taken in by cells.
Acids, made by the stomach, and enzymes, secreted by the stomach, chemically
digest nutrients.
Enzymes from the pancreas further digest the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
found in food in the duodenum into soluble form.
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Structures in the digestive system and types of digestion
- Saliva, which is secreted by the salivary glands into the mouth, contains salivary
amylase.
Amylase digests (hydrolyses) insoluble starch into soluble maltose. The digestion
of starch to maltose is the first stage of starch digestion.
Salivary amylase in the mouth starts the breakdown process and further
breakdown occurs in the small intestine, where the remaining starch is digested
by pancreatic amylase.
Once starch has been broken down to maltose, the maltase enzyme (which is
produced in the wall of the small intestine) continues the chemical digestion and
breaks the maltose down to glucose, i.e. a soluble, smaller molecule that can
easily be absorbed.
Maltase is responsible for the final stage of starch digestion.
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Specific objective: describe the functions of a typical amylase, protease and lipase,
listing the substrate and end- products.
Specific objective: state the functions of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to
killing bacteria in food and giving an acid pH environment for enzymes.
The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice kills bacteria that enter the stomach,
protecting us from harm.
The hydrochloric acid also creates acidic conditions below (pH 2-3) in the
stomach.
These acidic conditions activate inactive pepsinogen into the digestive enzyme
pepsin, which begins protein digestion into polypeptides.
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Specific objective: outline the role of bile in neutralising acidic mixtures and in
emulsifying fats in food
Bile
Emulsification of fats
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Specific objective: investigate the effects of bile on fats
Effects of bile salts on fats
Bile is first used to emulsify fats entering the small intestine and lipase is used
afterwards to break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Materials needed
Procedure
1. Label 4 test tubes A, B, C and D. Divide the fat solution equally into the 4 tubes.
2. In tube B, add about 2 cm3 of bile solution.
3. In tube C, add about 2 cm3 of lipase solution.
4. In tube D, add the 2 cm3 of bile and 2 cm3 of lipase solution.
5. Mix well until everything looks settled.
6. Tube A is your control
- Compare the 3 other tubes to the control and write down your observations.
- You should be able to make conclusions about the role of bile in digesting a fatty
solution and the extent of digestion with and without the addition of lipase.
3.6.2.4 Absorption
Specific objective: identify the small intestine as the region for the absorption of
digested food.
The small intestine
- The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of nutrients. It is
responsible for the absorption of over 90% of nutrients from the food.
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Specific objective: describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface
area of the small intestine.
Significance of villi
The primary function of the villi in the small intestine is to increase the
absorption of nutrients from food passing through the small intestine.
Intestinal villi (singular villus) are small, finger-like projections that extend into the
lumen of the small intestine.
Millions of villi increase the surface area.
Micro-villi further increase the surface area.
Specific objective: describe the structure of a villus, including the role of capillaries
and lacteals in it.
Structure of a villus
Villi are finger-like projections that increases surface area for absorption.
Each villus is surrounded by a single layer of epithelium cells. One layer of
epithelial cells minimizes the distance for nutrients to travel. The epithelial cells
contain many mitochondria for active transport.
Each epithelial cells has micro-villi (a brush border) to further increase the
surface area and absorption of nutrients.
Between epithelial cells are goblets, which secrete mucus to keep the gut moist
and dissolve nutrients.
Inside each villus is a single central lacteal (lymph vessel) for absorption of fats,
fatty acid, glycerol and fat-soluble and vitamins.
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Inside each villus is a dense network of blood capillaries for the absorption of
digested nutrients, e.g. glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins and
minerals.
Structure of a villus
Specific objective: state the role of the hepatic portal vein in the transport of
absorbed food to the liver.
Role of the hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein is a major blood vessel in the abdomen, transport
blood from the spleen, stomach, pancreas and intestines to the liver.
All capillaries and venules from these organs join together to form the hepatic
portal vein and transport nutrient-rich blood to the liver.
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The position of hepatic portal vein in the digestive system
Specific objective: describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of excess
glucose and in the breakdown of excess amino acids.
It lowers the level of blood glucose by converting excess glucose into glycogen.
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Specific objective: describe the role of fats as a storage substance
Fats (a lipid) has many uses in the body.
Fat serves as the storage substance for the body’s extra kilojoules.
Fat act as a storage substance that fills the fat cells in adipose tissue
(subcutaneous fat) underneath the skin to help insulate the body.
Fats are important to store certain fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and
K, which are insoluble in water.
Fats are stored around some organs (visceral fat) in the abdominal cavity. It
helps protect vital organs such as the pancreas, kidney and liver against physical
trauma to the body.
Specific objective: state that water is absorbed in the small intestine and colon.
Water is absorbed in the small intestine and colon into the blood stream
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3.7 Transport in plants
Dicotyledonous root
Main functions of roots
Roots are responsible for the absorption of water and mineral salts/ions (inorganic
substances).
Roots firmly anchor the plant in the soil.
The epidermis is a single-celled layer which surrounds the outer part of the root.
The epidermis protects the underlying tissues.
The root hairs are finger-like outgrowths of some epidermal cells. They increase
the absorption surface area for water and mineral salts.
An epidermal cell plus its root hair outgrowth is called a root hair cell.
The first layer of cells directly inside the epidermis is the broad cortex. The cortex
allows water and mineral ions to pass through to the xylem and it stores starch.
The innermost layer of the cortex is a single-celled layer called the endodermis.
The endodermis regulates the passage of water from the cortex to the xylem.
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The vascular bundle is a central column in the very centre of the root.
The endodermis is found around the central vascular bundle.
Inside the vascular bundle are the xylem vessels and the phloem sieve tubes.
The xylem is located in the centre of the vascular bundle and is arranged in the
form of a cross. The xylem transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the
rest of the plant.
The phloem is found closer to the endodermis between the “arms’ of the xylem
cross. The phloem transports manufactured organic substances from the
photosynthesizing part to the rest to the plant (during translocation).
Between the xylem and phloem is the cambium tissue.
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of roots and stems, including
the structure of xylem and phloem tissue
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Outline (drawing) of a cross section through the structure of a dicotyledonous root
145
Structure of a dicotyledonous stem
Main functions of stems
Stems expose the leaves in a favourable position for the absorption of light for
photosynthesis.
They bear the flowers in a favourable position for pollination.
They bear fruits in a favourable position for the dispersal and distribution of seeds.
They transport water and mineral salts from roots to the rest of the plant.
They transport organic substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
They store reserve nutrients and water.
The epidermis is a single-celled layer which surrounds the outer part of the stem.
Some epidermal cells are modified to form lenticels (stomata).
The epidermis protects the underlying tissues. The lenticels allow gaseous
exchange.
The region directly under the epidermis is the broad cortex. Intracellular spaces in
the cortex allow gaseous exchange.
The vascular bundles are mostly arranged towards the outside of the stem and
organised into a circle in the cortex,
The reason for this is so that the xylem can give support to the herbaceous stems.
The xylem is always located more on the inside of the vascular bundle, while the
phloem tissue is located on the outside of the vascular bundle.
The xylem and phloem are separated by the cambium.
The region internal to the cortex is called the pith.
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Outline drawing of a cross section through the structure of a dicotyledonous stem
147
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of roots and stems, including
the structure of xylem and phloem tissue.
Diagrams of prepared slides of roots showing the xylem and phloem tissue
When making an outline drawing of the above slides, it must look like this:
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Diagrams of prepared slides of stem showing the xylem and phloem tissue
When making an outline drawing of the above slides, it must look like this:
Water is absorbed from the soil into the root hairs by osmosis.
Water moves from a high water potential (Ψ) in the soil to a low water potential (Ψ)
in the root hair cells.
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Root hair cells are adapted for this by having a large surface area to speed up
osmosis.
Root hair cells have a partially permeable membrane that permits water molecules
(and minerals) to enter but not to leave.
A root hair cell has a large vacuole to increase the concentration of salts and
sugars, thus increasing the rate of absorption.
Water moves by osmosis from the soil into the root hairs, from where it moves
through the epidermis of the root to the cortex cells.
From the cortex cells, water moves through the endodermis into the xylem vessels.
150
Water moves through the root by following three pathways.
The apoplast pathway is where most water travels from cell to cell via the cell walls.
Most water moves this way because of little obstruction and it is the fastest way.
The symplast pathway is where water travels from cell to cell via the cytoplasm
and through the plasmodesmata. This is a slower way of movement.
The vacuolar pathway is where little water passes via vacuoles located in the cells.
This is a very slow movement of water and very little water flow occurs this way
Water can move up the stem xylem vessel because of different forces.
Water which is absorbed from the soil into the roots creates a force known as root
pressure, which forces water up the xylem. (If a stem is cut near the roots, water
will seep from the cut surface).
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Demonstration of capillarity Demonstration of root pressure and transpiration pull
Water moves by osmosis from the stem xylem into the leaf xylem.
From the leaf xylem, water moves to the mesophyll (palisade and spongy) cells by
osmosis.
Water evaporates from the mesophyll cell walls into the air spaces as water
vapour.
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Xylem
Phloem transports sucrose and amino acid upwards and downwards in plants.
Phloem consists of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells.
Have living cells and contain cytoplasm and organelles.
The tubes are connected end to end for easy flow of sucrose and amino acids.
They contain very little cytoplasm and few organelles to transport sucrose and
amino acids with little resistance.
Organelles are at the edges to give more space for movement of sucrose and
amino acids.
Have end walls with sieve plates (plates with pores) to permit continuous
movement form cell to cell.
Specific objective: investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water through
the above-ground parts of a plant.
For this experiment, you will need:
Three stalks of celery, water, food coloring, three clear plastic or glass cups/beakers
and a knife or scalpel.
Cut the base (non-leafy end) of each of the fresh celery stalks under water.
Place the cut ends into the cups/beakers of water containing red, green and blue
food dye.
Leave the celery stalks in bright light at room temperature in a breeze (wind).
After a few hours, cut across the stalk with a sharp knife or scalpel and observe
the cut end.
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- If you leave the celery stalks in the coloured water for a day, the leaves will turn
green, red and blue.
- As leaves transpire and lose water to the air, the coloured water is sucked in at the
cut end of celery into the xylem vessel and appears as coloured dots.
- The coloured water, which moves from the stem xylem into the xylem of the leaves
makes the leaves to appear green, red and blue.
A cross and longitudinal cut section of celery stalks showing the position of the xylem
(celery left standing in food colouring, causing leaves to turn green, red and blue as seen
below)
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Specific objective: define transpiration as:
Loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of
mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the stomata.
- Transpiration occurs through the stomata of leaves and through lenticels of green
stems
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Wind speed
Wind (air movement) will increase the rate of transpiration and water loss through
the leaves.
In the absence of any wind, the water vapour which diffuses out of the stomata
accumulates near the leaf surface.
The faster the wind speed, the more rapidly the moist air is removed and the
greater the rate of transpiration. This creates a water potential gradient between
the moist air on the leaf and outside the leaf.
Humidity
Low humidity increases the rate of transpiration because there is less water vapour
outside the leaf and more water vapour inside the leaf.
This creates a water potential gradient between the moist air in the leaf and dry air
outside the leaf.
When the external air has a high humidity, the gradient is reduced and less water
is transpired.
Light intensity
Specific objective: investigate and compare the relative number of stomata on the
upper and lower epidermis of a leaf using clear nail varnish or water-based varnish
(Refer to previous chapter on procedure)
Another method is to use cobalt chloride paper to show that transpiration occurs
through the stomata
Materials needed:
- Cobalt chloride paper (special paper that is blue when dry but turns pink when wet)
- A healthy tree around the school yard
- Tape/rubber band to hold the cobalt paper against the leaf
- Stop watch
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Procedure:
- Take the blue cobalt chloride paper and attach it on the lower surface of three
leaves
- Take another cobalt chloride paper and attach it on the upper surface of three
identical leaves on the same tree
- Use the rubber band or tape to keep the paper attached onto the leaf while
observing changes
Observation:
- The paper attached on the lower leaf surface will turn pink faster than the one
attached to the upper leaf surface
Suggest a reason for the results observed in terms of stomata distribution
- The more water is lost during transpiration, the faster the uptake of water occurs.
- Transpiration speed in a cut leafy shoot can be measured by means of a
potometer.
- To be strictly accurate, the potometer measures the rate of water uptake of a shoot,
but in practice, this is almost the same as the rate of transpiration.
- A little of the water taken up can be used by the plant for photosynthesis and other
metabolic processes, but most water is transpired.
What is a potometer?
157
Precautions when setting up a potometer
A bubble potometer
Variation of temperature affects transpiration rate
158
Using a heater to show the effect of temperature on transpiration
Wilting occurs when the rate at which plant leaves lose moisture into air, in a process
called transpiration, exceeds the ability of plant roots to supply enough water.
This occurs when the turgor pressure in non- lignified plant cells falls towards zero.
Wilting is one of the first signs of plant stress and most often indicates a lack of soil
moisture.
Mild wilting typically does not permanently harm a plant if it is corrected immediately.
159
Why wilting occurs in plants
When the rate of water loss from the plant is greater than absorption of water in
the plant, wilting occurs.
If the soil around the roots of a plant lacks water, the rate of water loss is faster
than the rate of absorption of water.
A plant wilts because of shortage of water, or because there is no water in the
central vacuole over a period of time when the plant really needs water.
Specific objective: discuss ways in which xerophytes can reduce water loss, with
reference to two locally occurring examples (e.g. Aloe; Euphorbia; Quiver tree).
Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that need very little water and are adapted for growing in very
dry (arid) places, where water is very scarce.
Xerophyte plants
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Adaptations of xerophytes to reduce water loss (xeromorphic features)
Some xerophytes have thick succulent stems to store water, e.g. Euphorbia and
quiver tree.
Some xerophytes have thick succulent leaves to store water, e.g. Aloe.
Xerophytes have a reduced number of stomata, so there are fewer openings to
cause loss of water.
The stomata are situated in pits (sunken)
The surface (epidermis) of the leaf has a layer of hairs that can trap water vapour
to reduce water loss.
Leaves may be rolled up (curled) to expose the outer waterproof cuticle while
stomata are hidden inside.
Leaves may be reduced in size (smaller leaves) to have less surface area for loss
of water. Smaller leaves have fewer stomata.
Leaves may be reduced to spines (thorns), so there is less surface area for loss
of water
Some plants lose their leaves during the winter (deciduous)
The movement of sucrose and amino acids from the region of production or of storage
to the region of utilisation or demand in respiration or growth.
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Figure above shows an aphid feeding on plant stem by inserting its tube-like mouthpart
(proboscis) into phloem sieve tubes and sucking out plant sap with sucrose and amino
acids:
Specific objective: describe the heart in terms of its gross structure and the
functions of the parts
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Gross structure of the heart
- The major part of the heart is made up of cardiac muscles called the
myocardium.
The heart has four chambers –two atria and two ventricles.
The atria are the receiving chambers
The ventricles are the discharging chambers.
The upper, thin-walled chambers are the left and right atria (singular-atrium).
The two atria are separated by the septum.
Each of the atria opens into a thick-walled chamber, the ventricle, below.
The left and right ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum
The blood is prevented from flowing backwards by four sets of valves.
Between the right atrium and left ventricle is the bicuspid or mitral (two-flap)
valve.
The bicuspid (mitral) valve prevents backflow of oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle to the left atrium.
The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are known as atrioventricular valves.
The flaps of these valves have strings called tendons or cords.
These tendons link the valves to little bumps of muscle protruding from the inner
surface of the ventricles, called papillae. The tendons prevent valves from turning
inside out.
At the start of the aorta is the aortic semi-lunar valve.
At the start of the pulmonary artery is the pulmonic semi-lunar valve.
The heart muscle is supplied with blood from coronary blood vessels.
The coronary arteries provide the heart muscle with glucose and oxygen from the
aorta.
163
Internal structure of the heart and direction of blood flow
The heart pumps blood through the circulatory system all around the body. Blood
enters the atria from large veins and leaves via the ventricles into arteries.
The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps
it through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle.
The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it
through the semi-lunar valve (aortic valve) into the aorta.
The aortic valve (semi-lunar valve) prevents backflow of blood from the aorta to
the left ventricle.
The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
The vena cava inferior carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the
right atrium.
The vena cava superior carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the
right atrium.
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The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava and pumps it
through the tricuspid valve into the pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs.
The pulmonic valve (semi-lunar valve) prevents backflow of blood from the
pulmonary artery to the right ventricle.
Class activity
Observe the heart on the photograph above and label the parts A to G below
165
Drawing the external structure of the heart should look like this:
Specific objective: outline how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries are
adapted for their functions.
- Blood vessels are tubular structures that transport blood throughout the human
body.
- There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins.
Arteries
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An artery
Veins
Veins have a diameter up to 2.5 cm (vena cava inferior) and are not permeable.
Small veins are known as venules.
Blood flows through veins under low pressure (1 kPa).
There are no pulses in veins and blood flows slowly.
Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood to the heart from the body.
All veins transport deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein and the
umbilical vein (in the umbilical cord) which transport oxygenated blood.
A vein
167
Valves in veins
Capillaries
A capillary
168
The table Shows adaptations of blood vessels.
169
Numerous (many-100 000 km of Provide large surface area and are close
capillaries) to all body cells
Very, very thin walls – one cell layer thick To provide short pathway for easy and
fast diffusion of different materials to and
from the blood
Small endothelial gaps between cells of For exchange of materials to and from
wall blood, for white blood cells to squeeze
out and tissue fluid to leak out
Smooth inner endothelial surface Reduces friction inside
Blood pressure is the pressure, which the blood exerts against the wall of the blood
vessel through which it flows. Arteries have the highest blood pressure and veins have
the lowest.
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Specific objective: describe the double circulatory system of a mammal.
- The deoxygenated blood arrives at the heart from the body, is then first pumped
into the lungs where it becomes oxygenated and then goes back into the heart,
before it is finally pumped into the rest of the body.
- The advantage of a double circulation is that oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood is separated.
Follow the blood flow from the kidney back to the kidney, showing how blood travels
through the heart twice:
Remember: In blood flow around the body there is no short-cut, blood must flow
through the heart twice!
171
Double circulatory system
Specific objective: Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on the
pulse rate
Your pulse is the rate at which your heart beats. As your heart pumps blood
through your body, you can feel a pulsing in some of the arteries close to the
skin’s surface.
The usual resting pulse for an adult is 60 to 100 beats per minute.
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Checking your pulse in the radial artery (radial pulse).
Find a watch that shows seconds or a digital watch and put it on the table next to
you.
Turn your left hand so that your palm is face-up.
Find your pulse by placing the index finger, middle finger and sometimes even
the ring finger of your right hand in the dent at the wrist on the radial artery. Do
not press too hard, that will make the pulse go away. Use pressure. It can take
several seconds and several micro-adjustments in the placement of your fingers
on wrist to find your pulse.
Keep moving your fingers down or up your wrist in small increments (and
pausing a few seconds) until you find it.
After finding your pulse, count the number of beats for 20 seconds.
Multiply by 3 to get your pulse rate in beats per minute, e.g. 26 x 3 = 78
beats/min (or just count for 60 seconds for a math-free option).
Do not use your thumb if you take someone else’s pulse rate, because the thumb
has its own pulse that you may feel.
173
Investigate the effect of exercise on pulse rate of a human
TAKE NOTE: Do not attempt this activity if you have a health problem or if you are
recovering from an illness.
Materials
A stopwatch
Procedure
Read through and familiarize yourself with all procedures before starting.
Sit down comfortably on a chair. Take 5 minutes to settle. Locate your pulse.
Count the number of pulses per minute and record. Count the number of pulses
in 20 seconds and multiply this value by 3 to convert it to beats/ min (bpm).
Repeat twice and calculate the average number of pulses per minute and record.
This is called the resting pulse rate.
Stand up. Immediately measure your pulse rate and record. Do not count for
longer than 20 seconds, because your heart rate begins to slow down as soon as
you stop exercising.
Walk briskly for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record. Do
not count your pulse rate for longer than 20 seconds.
Walk briskly for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record.
Again, count for only 20 seconds.
Run for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record. Remember,
count only for 20 seconds.
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Specific objective: describe the likely causes of a heart attack limited to diet,
smoking, stress, age and gender.
Heart attack (cardiac arrest)
The terms “cardiac arrest” and “heart attack” are often used interchangeable, but
they are actually two distinct conditions.
Eating a diet with a high level of saturated animal fat results in high cholesterol in
the blood and body.
It can cause damage of the endothelium layer lining the inside of the artery walls.
Cholesterol is also deposited inside the walls in coronary arteries, which narrow
and eventually become blocked, leading to heart attacks.
Too much salt can raise blood pressure, which can increase a person’s risk of a
heart attack.
Obesity (being overweight) is also linked to heart attacks. The increased flow
often leads to high blood pressure (hypertension).
Stress (tension, anxiety, fear)
High levels of stress make other risk factors (such as high cholesterol or high
blood pressure) worse.
Intense anger and grief can cause a heart attack. It probably occurs from a
sudden increase in heart rate and blood pressure triggered by the emotion
Chronic stress that causes an increase in heart rate and blood pressure may
damage the artery walls.
During moments of high stress, your body releases stress hormones and if your
body is constantly exposed to stress hormones, it can contribute to heart attacks.
People may drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarettes to “manage” their chronic
stress however, these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage
artery walls.
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Smoking (cigarettes, other tobacco products and passive smokers
Follow a low cholesterol diet (less food rich in saturated animal fats)
Avoid being obese (overweight).
Reduce stress levels.
Do not smoke.
Exercise regularly (walking cycling, swimming – active sports).
Reduce salt intake.
Avoid excessive sugar intake.
Reduce alcohol consumption.
Specific objective: state ways of treating coronary heart disease limited to drug
treatment with aspirin and surgery (stents, angioplasty and bypass).
Treating coronary heart disease
Your heart’s coronary arteries can become narrowed or blocked by the build-up of
the cholesterol-laden plaques that form due to atherosclerosis.
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Treating coronary heart disease: Drug treatment with aspirin
People at high risk of a heart attack should take a daily low dose of Aspirin (if told
to by their doctor). Heart attack survivors also regularly take a low dose of
Aspirin.
Aspirin also helps prevent blood clots. Aspirin works by “thinning” the blood and
preventing the formation of clots. Some chemicals in the blood trigger events that
cause blood clots.
When Aspirin stops those chemicals, it helps slow the formation of the clots.
Treating coronary heart disease: Angioplasty
In heart bypass surgery, a surgeon takes blood vessels from another part of the
patient’s body to go around, or bypass, a blocked artery.
The result is that more blood and oxygen can flow to the heart muscle again,
lowering the risk of a heart attack.
The type of bypass surgery depends on how many of the arteries are blocked. A
single bypass (only one artery is blocked), a double bypass (two arteries are
blocked), a triple bypass (three arteries are blocked)
177
Specific objective: state that the lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels
and lymphatic nodes
The lymphatic system
- The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and is a vital part of the
immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic nodes and lymphatic
vessels throughout the body.
- The tonsils, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.
Specific objective: describe the functions of the lymphatic system limited to the
protection of the body from infection and circulation of body fluids.
Functions of the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system collects and returns tissue fluid to the blood circulation.
This prevents oedema (accumulation of too much tissue fluid).
Lymph nodes are the major site of lymphocyte production, which produces
antibodies to defend the body against infectious diseases.
The lymphatic system also absorbs and transports fats, fatty acids and
glycerol from the ileum (lacteals in ileum) to the blood circulation.
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3.8.2 Blood
Specific objective: identify red and white blood cells, as seen under the light
microscope, on prepared slides, in diagrams and photomicrographs.
179
Specific objective: state the functions of the components of blood limited to red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
Blood is made up of different types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
All of these cells are floating in a liquid called plasma.
Functions of red blood cells
To transport oxygen to all the tissues from the lungs. Red blood cells contain
haemoglobin, which binds with the oxygen to form oxyheamoglobin, enabling the
transport of oxygen.
Red blood cells also transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
- Some carbon dioxide produced in the tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma.
The largest fraction of carbon dioxide diffuses into the red blood cells and
combines with haemoglobin.
Functions of white blood cells
The primary function of platelets is to aid in the blood clotting process (or
coagulation), by gathering at the site of an injury and forming a scab, which
covers the wound and prevents blood from leaking out
Plasma
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Functions of plasma
The plasma transport blood cells (white blood cells, platelets and red blood cells
suspended within it) throughout the body.
Plasma is the main transporter of nutrients to the cells. The soluble products of
digestion, e.g. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, ions (salts) and
vitamins are transported in the blood plasma.
Plasma also transports waste products like urea from the liver to the kidneys,
where they are excreted from the body in urine.
Plasma also transports waste products like carbon dioxide from the cells to the
lungs to be excreted during exhalation.
Plasma transports chemical messengers such as hormones from endocrine
glands to target organs.
Plasma also transports antibodies and blood clotting proteins (fibrinogen) around
the body.
Phagocytes (Neutrophils) are white blood cells forming an essential part of the
body’s defense system by carrying out phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is ingestion
and digestion of pathogens
Lymphocytes are white blood cells that functions as part of the immune system
by producing antibodies, which are proteins that specifically target bacteria
viruses and other foreign materials.
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Specific objective: describe the process of clotting limited to the conversion of
fibrinogen to fibrin only.
Process of blood clotting
A blood vessel is cut or damaged. blood plasma, blood cells and platelets flow
from a cut vessel.
Platelets in the blood are activated by vitamin K and calcium ions.
Platelets release an enzyme which acts on soluble fibrinogen in the blood
plasma.
Soluble fibrinogen becomes insoluble threads of fibrin.
Red blood cells become trapped in the mesh of fibrin and dry out.
This causes a scab to form and blood is stopped from flowing out
How different parts of the blood help to form a clot when a tissue is damaged
If the blood vessels in the skin are damaged (cuts or extensive burns), the way is
open for bacteria, other pathogens and outside particles to enter the blood
stream, which could cause infectious diseases and infection.
Damaged blood vessels in the skin could endanger life due to extensive blood
loss, so clotting prevents blood loss after an injury to keep a person from
bleeding to death.
Blood clotting helps to seal wounds rapidly until a more permanent repair is
produced.
182
Specific objective: describe the transfer of nutrients between capillaries and tissue
fluid (details of roles of water potential and hydrostatic pressure are not required).
The transfer of nutrients between capillaries and tissue fluid
- Tissue fluid is formed when blood plasma, the liquid part of blood inside blood
vessels, leaks out and escapes from capillaries to surround and bathe the cells
by filling the spaces between the cells.
- Some of the tissue fluid returns directly back to the capillaries. The rest of the
tissue fluid returns to the circulation as lymphoma in the lymphatic vessels, to
become tissue fluid again.
The tissue fluid which leaks out of the capillaries contains amino acids, glucose,
minerals, vitamins and oxygen. It is the medium through which substances are
exchanged between the blood and the cells.
The fluid leaks from capillaries through tiny gaps between the cells of the wall of
the capillaries.
The gaps allow small molecules to pass through, but keep back red blood cells
and large plasma proteins.
Tissue fluid contains carbon dioxide and other waste products from cells which
are carried away in the bloodstream.
Tissue fluid maintains a relatively constant environment around body cells,
helping them to function efficiently.
Not all tissue fluid returns to the blood in the capillaries. Excess fluid is returned
to the blood via the lymphatic system as lymph.
The lymphatic system is a network of vessels called lymphatic or lymph vessels
which are spread all over the body.
It does to form a continuous circulatory system and lymph is carried in one
direction only, namely away from the tissues.
Lymph vessels contain one-way valves to prevent backflow of lymph.
Lymph moves because of muscle contractions which compress lymph vessels,
exerting pressure to move lymph forward.
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Lymphatic vessels
184
3.8.3 Defence against Diseases
Immunity
Immunity is the state in which the human body is protected from the invasion of
pathogens and therefore infectious diseases.
The skin, when intact, is a very effective physical or mechanical barrier to block
the entry of pathogens into the body.
The mucous membrane of various body systems such as the respiratory, urinary,
digestive tracts and eyes prevent invasion by microorganisms with the help of
their epithelium and mucous secretions, which form a protective covering.
The conjunctiva of the eyes lines the interior surface of each eyelid and the
exposed surface of the eyeball.
The respiratory system also forms part of the mechanical barriers against
pathogens. The respiratory epithelium traps the microorganism less than 10 µm
in diameter and transports them by ciliary action away from the lungs.
Coughing and sneezing also help with the removal of microorganisms from the
respiratory tract.
185
Chemical barriers
Pathogens may manage to reach the stomach but many of them are
destroyed by the gastric juice of the stomach.
Kidneys, ureters and urinary bladder are sterile under normal conditions. The
lower urinary tract is flushed with urine which eliminates potential pathogens.
The acidic environment (pH3 to 5) of the vagina also provides defence, as it is
unfavourable and inhospitable for many pathogens.
Lysozyme, an enzyme produced in tears, perspiration (sweat) and saliva can
break down peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria and thus acts as an antibiotic
(kills bacteria).
White blood cells
- Cells of the immune system that originate from bone marrow, where stem cells
divide by mitosis to produce cells that differentiate into different white blood cells
called lymphocytes and phagocytes (neutrophils).
- Some lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow (B lymphocytes) and some
mature in the thymus gland (T lymphocytes)
Antibody production
When lymphocytes come in contact with pathogens, e.g. bacteria and viruses,
some B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies.
Pathogens have antigens which cause an immune response in the host
organism.
- Antigens are substances on pathogens that cause an immune system to produce
antibodies against it.
Antibodies combine with the antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex which
makes the pathogen harmless or inactivates it.
Antibodies have a Y–shaped molecule with a receptor site to bind a specific
antigen (like a lock and key).
Antibodies are specific to each antigen.
186
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
Phagocytosis
187
Phagocytosis
Specific objective: describe the events leading to passive and active immunity.
Passive immunity:
During pregnancy, antibodies cross the placenta from the mother to the foetus.
These antibodies are present in the mother’s blood from previous infections and
immunisations she had.
After birth, the baby also gets antibodies when feeding on breast milk.
Babies acquire immunity from their mothers by getting ready-made antibodies.
The borrowed antibodies eventually disappear, so it gives a person only
temporary protection against diseases.
Event two
Horses are injected with small doses of snake venom, as they can withstand high
doses of these venoms.
The horses then produce antibodies against the snake venom. These antibodies
are then extracted (it is now known as antiserum).
Snakebite victims can be injected with these antibodies to give them temporary
immunity and time for their own immune system to respond to the venom.
The borrowed antibodies eventually disappear, so it gives a person only
temporary protection against venom.
189
Active immunity
190
Specific objective: State that memory cells are not produced in passive immunity.
Specific objective: explain the importance of passive immunity for breast-fed infants.
Passive immunity is useful, because the baby’s immune system is not yet well
developed for the first few months of its life, the mother’s antibodies can protect
the baby against any disease she is immune to.
The bulk of antibodies in breast milk the infant consumes adhere to the gut wall,
where they form a strong line of defence against a range of pathogens.
Antibodies can move throughout the body, searching for any pathogens that may
harm the body.
191
3.9. Gas exchange in humans
Specific objective: list the features of gas exchange surfaces in humans limited to
large surface area, thin surface, good blood supply and good ventilation with air
Alveoli structure
192
Respiratory system in humans
Contract to move the rib cage upwards and outwards in order to allow oxygen-
rich air to flow into the lungs.
It relax to move the rib cage inwards and downwards in order to allow carbon
dioxide-rich air to flow out of the lungs.
Internal intercostal muscles
Relax to move the rib cage upwards and outwards in order to allow oxygen rich-
air to flow into the lungs.
It contracts to move the rib cage inwards and downwards in order to allow carbon
dioxide rich-air to flow out of the lungs.
Diaphragm
Contract and flattens to increase the volume of the chest cavity in order to allow
oxygen-rich air to flow into the lungs.
It relaxes and forms a dome-shape to decrease the volume of the chest cavity in
order to allow carbon dioxide-rich air to flow out of the lungs.
193
Cartilage in the trachea (cartilage ring in the trachea)
Keep the trachea (windpipe) open to prevent it from collapsing during breathing.
194
Water vapour variable saturated It is a product of
respiration which
evaporates from the
surface of the alveoli
Practical procedure
1. Put 50ml of clear lime water into two 100ml beakers
2. Bubble room air through one beaker using a pipette and pipette pump
3. Observe and record the results
4. With the other beaker, bubble exhaled air through the solution for one minute
5. After one minute, record your results
Findings:
Bubbling carbon dioxide into lime water calcium carbonate is produced which makes the
clear lime water appear cloudy or milky
195
Specific objective: explain the effects of physical activity on the rate and depth of
breathing.
Breathing rate is the number of times a person inhale or exhale per minute.
During vigorous exercise, muscles need more energy which increases the
breathing rate and depth.
The breathing rate and depth increases to allow more oxygen to be supplied to
the active muscle cells
More carbon dioxide to be breathed out of the body through the breathing
system.
Practical Activity (Investigate the effects of exercise on the rate and depth of
breathing)
You will need:
A stopwatch
Procedure
196
Specific objective: describe the effects of tobacco smoke on the gas exchange system
with reference to carbon monoxide, nicotine and tar
Tobacco smoke contains tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide, which are harmful to
gas exchange system.
Tar is a sticky substance that stimulates the production of extra mucus, which
narrows the air passages and restricts the flow of air.
Tar contains chemicals that are carcinogenic, which causes lung cancer in
smokers.
Tar damages the alveoli which results into emphysema (people who suffer from
emphysema are usually short of breathe and they lack oxygen in the blood since
the alveoli are broken down)
Nicotine is an addictive substance in tobacco smoke.
Nicotine can cause narrowing of arteries, causing high blood pressure
Nicotine increases chances of stickiness of platelets which may cause blood
clots
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas since it combines with haemoglobin in the
red blood cells to prevent oxygen from being transported in the body, this makes
the smoker to sometimes be short of breath.
Specific objective: state that tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)
197
3.10. Respiration
There are two types of respiration
i. Aerobic respiration
ii. Anaerobic respiration
A chemical reaction in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to
release energy.
Energy is used for muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
transport, transmission (passage) of nerve impulses and homeostasis.
198
Methods
1. Label the two jars A and B. line the bottom of the two jars with some cotton wool,
and moisten it with a little water.
2. Place the live seeds in jar A and dead seeds in jar B. seal each jar tightly with its
lid.
3. Leave the seeds in a sunny spot to germinate for 24 hours to a week.
4. After the seeds have been germinating for a day, loosen the lid of jar A (but do
not remove it). Light the tea candle with a match.
5. Remove the lid of jar A and, working as quickly as possible, lower the lit candle
into the jar, making sure that the deflagrating spoon cover seals the jar opening.
6. Use the stopwatch to time how many seconds pass before the flame goes out.
Record your observation.
7. Repeat steps 4-6 with jar B.
Questions
199
Methods
1. Moisten the cotton wool and wrap five beans in each piece of cotton wool. Place
the wrapped bean ‘packages’ in each of the petri dishes.
2. Place one petri dish in the fridge, leave another in the classroom (at room
temperature) and place the third petri dish next to a heater or under a lamp.
3. Ensure that you keep the cotton wool in each petri dish equally moist throughout
the investigation.
4. Check on the petri dishes every day at the same time until germination starts.
Note the day that germination started at each of the three temperatures.
Questions
1. Complete the following table:
Specific objective: State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles
during strenuous physical activity and a balanced chemical equation for yeast
Word equation in muscles:
Glucose lactic acid
Balanced chemical equation for yeast.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
200
Specific objective: describe the production of lactic muscles during exercise and
outline how lactic acid is removed during recovery
Production of lactic acid
Lactic acid is produced during strenuous exercise when muscle cells use energy
fast that the circulatory system cannot supply enough oxygen to meet the
demand
Muscle cells start to break down glucose in the absence of oxygen by lactic acid
fermentation to form lactic acid.
This results in a built up of an oxygen debt as the body takes up insufficient
oxygen
Lactic acid causes stiffness in the muscles during and after exercise, therefore it
needs to be removed.
Blood becomes more acidic contributing to muscle fatigue and cramps
After exercise a person continues to breathe quickly and deeply to supply the
body with extra oxygen to repay the oxygen debt
The extra oxygen is transported to the liver with lactic acid
In the liver, lactic acid is oxidized (broken down) into glucose, carbon dioxide and
water
Specific objective: describe the role of anaerobic respiration in brewing and bread-
making
The role of anaerobic respiration in brewing
Yeast breaks down the sugars firstly aerobically until oxygen runs out
Then sugars are broken down anaerobically to release alcohol (ethanol) and
carbon dioxide
This is called anaerobic fermentation
The role of anaerobic respiration in bread-making
Bread is made from dough (mixture of flour, salt, water, sugar and yeast)
The yeast ferments the sugar to produce alcohol and bubbles of carbon dioxide.
Baking the bread causes the bubbles of carbon dioxide to expand, making the
bread to rise and give it a light porous texture
The alcohol evaporates during baking
201
Specific objective: compare aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration in terms of
relative amounts of energy released
3. Add two drops of oil to ensure that oxygen cannot interfere with the reaction. The oil
prevent oxygen entering the solution, making the yeast respire anaerobically
4. Put the test tube in a water bath and heat the water to vary the temperature
5. Use a rubber bung and delivery tube to connect the test tube, with glucose and yeast,
to a test tube with clear lime water
Conclusions:
- What changes happen to the lime water after carbon dioxide is passed through it
202
Apparatus set to test for anaerobic respiration in yeast
Excretion is the removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and
substances in excess of requirement from organisms.
Specific objective: describe the formation of urea and the breakdown of alcohol, drugs
and hormones in the liver
Formation of urea
The amino group is removed from excess amino acids (deamination) and
ammonia is formed.
Then, ammonia combines (react) with carbon dioxide to form urea.
Breaking down of alcohol
Alcohol is broken down by the liver into water and carbon dioxide.
The breaking down of alcohol by the liver is known as detoxification.
Breaking down of drugs
Drugs are broken down by the liver to less harmful substances and the end
products pass out of the body in urine.
203
Breaking down of hormones
Excess hormones are broken down by the liver and the end products are
expelled from the body in urine.
Hormones are broken-down (metabolised) into inactive molecules to prevent
accumulation in the tissues.
Specific objective: identify on drawings, diagrams and images the relative positions of
the ureter, bladder and urethra
Specific objective: describe the functions of the kidney simply in terms of the removal
of urea and excess water and the re-absorption of glucose and some salts (details of
kidney structure and nephron are not required)
Removal of urea and excess water
The renal artery carries blood with urea, excess water and excess salts to the
kidney.
Blood is filtered as it passes through the kidneys to remove urea, excess water
and excess salts to form a solution called urine.
Water is passively re-absorbed by osmosis
204
Re-absorption of glucose and some salts.
During the filtration of urea and excess water, some useful substances like
glucose, amino acids and vitamins filtrate out of the blood.
As the filtrates moves through the kidneys, any glucose in it must be re-absorbed
back into the blood.
Most of the water, along with some of the salts is also re-absorbed and need to
be kept in the blood.
Glucose is re-absorbed by diffusion and active transport.
Specific objective: outline dialysis and discuss its application in kidney machines
Kidney failure can be caused by:
a) Dialysis
b) Kidney transplant
Dialysis
It is the process of removing waste products and excess fluid from the body,
when the kidneys are not able to adequately filter the blood.
205
The diagram shows a kidney machine
206
Specific objective: discuss the advantage and disadvantage of kidney transplants
compared with dialysis
207
Specific objective: use dialysis or Visking tubing to separate and identify
mixtures of glucose and starch or sodium chloride and starch.
- After 20 minutes have passed, the solution inside the dialysis tubing and the
solution in the beaker will be tested for glucose and starch.
- The presence of glucose will be tested with Benedict’s solution, the presence of
starch will be tested using the iodine solution
- Sodium chloride will be tested using silver nitrate.
- Which molecules or ions do you think were able to diffuse through the bag and
into the distilled water?
- Therefore, the starch will not pass through the distilled water, whereas the
glucose and salt will.
- This is why a patient is given additional glucose while on a dialysis machine, as
the machine is unable to reabsorb the glucose in a way that the kidney can.
208
3.12 Co-ordination in plants
Co-ordination
Is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to internal and external stimuli.
Stimuli
Plants respond to light, gravity, water, and chemicals sound, touch, temperature
etc.
209
Tropism is a growth response of a part of a plant to stimuli (light, water, gravity,
chemical and touch)
Positive tropism
Negative tropism
Phototropism
Gravitropism (geotropism)
As a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction
from which light is coming.
Positive phototropism
Shoots (coleoptiles), the stem and leaves that they develop into, always grow
upwards towards light
210
Negative phototropism
Radicles and the roots they develop into, always grow away from light
Are plant growth substances, which control response in plants or that cause
differential growth
Auxin diffuse to the nearby cells where they cause differential growth.
Differential growth
In roots:
211
The chemical control of plant growth by Auxins in Phototropism
NB: when shoot receive light from both side, auxin diffuse and is distributed equally
thus the shoot grows upwards
NB: shoots are also referred to as coleoptiles
212
Specific objective: describe the effects of synthetic plant growth substances used as
weed killer
These are synthetic hormones sprayed onto weeds to encourage rapid growth that
cause the weed to die. This hormone is selective because it affect only some plants.
213
Specific objective: distinguish between gravitropism and phototropism
Gravitropism Phototropism
Growth of a part of a plant to the Growth of a part of a plant to the stimulus
stimulus of gravity of light
Auxin inhibits cell growth in roots if in high Auxin stimulates cell growth in stems if in
concentrations high concentrations
Roots always grow towards gravity Roots always grow away from light
(positive gravitropism) (negative phototropism)
Stems always grow away from gravity Stems always grow towards light (positive
(negative gravitropism) phototropism)
Differential growth can occur during Differential growth can occur during
gravitropism phototropism
- Differential growth is when one part of a plant grow at a different rate (faster)
than the other side.
Phototropism
Gravitropism
Auxin likes to settle at the bottom of the root due to the pulling force of gravity
High concentration of auxin at the tip of the root slows down the growth
This causes the root to bend and grow down towards gravity into the soil causing
top side to grow different from the lower side.
This happens because of differential growth.
214
Specific objective: observe and interpret the appearance of seedlings grown in
uniform light, one-sided light and no light
Practical procedure:
Plant about 20 seeds in each pot and leave to germinate and grow.
Then place one pot in normal growth conditions, leave another pot in a dark
cupboard for several days and put the third pot in a place with light only entering
from one side (a box opened on one side)
A B C
Plants under normal conditions will grow slower, stronger and will be green (A)
Plants in the dark will have under developed smaller leaves which will lack
chlorophyll and will appear more yellow, pale and white (B)
Stems in the dark will be longer, thinner and weaker, have longer internodes and
grow faster.
Plants in light will bend and grow towards the light because of positive phototropism
(C)
215
Specific objective: investigate gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots
Gravity will act on one side of the root and shoot only
More auxin will concentrate on lower side of the shoot and root tip
Stimulating cells to elongate faster in shoots and inhibit cell growth in roots
Shoots respond away from gravity due to negative gravitropism and roots
respond to gravity due to positive gravitropism
216
Rotating clinostat stationary clinostat
The tip of the shoot is the sensitive region of the shoot where the receptors that
detect light are found.
The parts of the shoot that respond to the stimulus is the part below the tip called
the effectors.
When auxins is produced at tip of the shoots, it diffuse downward causing the
cells behind the tip to get longer.
If there is no auxins present, the cells will not elongate and grow.
217
Tips of coleoptiles is cut off, and separated from the rest of the coleoptiles by a
piece of gelatin/agar jelly:
If the gelatin block/ jelly jar with auxin is placed on one side of the tip
Auxin diffuse from the jelly block and cell growth occurs on that side only.
Growth stops
Tip covered
The shoot still grows because auxin is still produced at the tip
218
Class activity
The figure above shows the coleoptiles A, B and C after a certain experiment.
a) Suggest the aim of the experiment?
219
The human brain
Specific objective: Identify motor, relay and sensory neurones from diagrams
Neurones/nerve cells
Three types of neurones (nerve cells):
Sensory
Inter (relay/connector)
Motor
Sensory neurone
220
Motor neurone
Conduct electrical impulses from the receptors (sense organs) to the CNS (brain
& spinal cord).
Conduct electrical impulses inside the CNS from sensory to motor neurons
Motor neurons
Conduct electrical impulses from CNS to the effector (muscles and glands)
221
Specific objective: define a synapse as:
A junction between two neurones or between a neurone and an effector.
It consist of the
presynaptic neuron,
synaptic gap
Specific objective: describe how nerve impulses are transmitted across the
synapse
A nerve impulse arrives at the end of the presynaptic neurone at the presynaptic
knob.
The calcium channels open and calcium ions enter the presynaptic neuron
knob
This causes the vesicles which contain neurotransmitter to move towards and
fuse with presynaptic membrane.
The vesicles release the neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the post synaptic membrane
The neurotransmitter attach itself to the receptor site on the postsynaptic
membrane
The sodium channel open
Then sodium ions enter the postsynaptic neurone
222
Specific objective: describe the effects of alcohol on the release of the
neurotransmitter
A voluntary action can be controlled for example kicking the ball, bending the
arm
It involves a decision or thought-process
It is not automatic
Actions are made deliberately and consciously
Involuntary actions
Specific objective: describe a simple reflex arc in terms of sensory, relay and motor
neurons
Reflex Arc
Is the pathway a nerve impulse travels along from the receptor to the effector to
bring about a correct reflex action.
223
Reflex arc
The impulse is conducted from the sensory neuron along the inter neurone to
the motor neurone.
The motor neurone conducts the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector.
The effector makes the correct response (reaction) to the original stimuli.
224
Specific objective: draw the structure of the transverse section of the spinal
cord, from photo micrographs and diagrams
225
Specific objective: define a reflex action as:
A means of integrating and coordinating stimuli with responses of effectors
An inborn response
Examples:
when you accidentally step on a pin/thorn and automatically jerk your foot
Swallowing, sneezing, constriction and dilation of pupil are all reflex actions
226
Specific objective: identify the structure of the eye, limited to the cornea, iris,
pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve and blind spot and state the function of each part
Lens
227
Iris
Control the amount of light entering the eye, by changing the size of the pupil
through contraction and relaxation of radial and circular muscles
Pupil
Retina
The light-sensitive cells that releases impulses when stimulated by light. The
rods are concerned with black and white vision and cones with colour vision
Optic nerve
Transmit impulses from the retina to the visual cortex where they are interpreted
Blind spot
Blood vessels enter and leave at this point and no image formed
Specific objective: explain the pupil reflex in terms of light intensity and
antagonistic action of circular and radial muscles in the iris
The pupil reflex is the changing of the size of the pupil of the eye in dim or bright
light.
Pupil reflex in bright light
228
Pupil reflex in dim light
Antagonistic muscles are those that work in pairs but in opposite direction.
The iris has radial and circular muscles which act as involuntary antagonistic
muscles.
When the radial muscles of the iris contract, the circular muscles of the iris relax.
This causes the pupil to dilate.
When the radial muscles of iris relax, the circular muscles of the iris contract.
This causes the pupil constrict.
229
Specific objective: explain accommodation to view near and distant objects in
terms of the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles, tension in the
suspensory ligament, shape of the lens and refraction of light.
Is the change in the shape of the lens to focus light coming from different distances
object (far or near).
Parts of the eye involved Light rays from a near-by Light rays from a distant
in focusing of light rays object object
Ciliary muscle Contracts Relaxes
Suspensory ligaments Becomes slackened/loose Becomes taut/tight
Lens Becomes more rounder of Becomes less
fatter/more convex to convex/flatter/less round
refract the light rays more as light rays do not need
more bending
230
Specific objective: distinguish between rods and cones, in terms of function and
distribution in the retina of a human eye
Function of cones
Distribution of cones
Cones are found in the centre of the retina, mainly in the fovea centralis (yellow
spot)
There are no cones in the blind spot
Function of rods
Distribution of rods
231
Specific objective: compare nervous and hormonal control systems in terms of
speed and longevity of action
3.13.2 Drugs
Specific objective: define a drug as:
A substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
body
Legal drugs are prescribed to a patient by their doctor or bought over the counter
Illegal drugs include prescription drugs that have been dangerously modified and
substances that are banned by law.
232
Specific objective: describe the use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial
infection
Antibiotics are drugs that are used to kill or stop the growth of disease-causing
bacteria.
Bacteria cause bacterial diseases like tuberculosis, syphilis, gonorrhea and
pneumonia.
Many bacterial diseases of humans and other animals can be successfully
treated with antibiotics
Use of antibiotics
Antibiotics weaken the cell walls of bacteria so that when substances enter the
bacterium, it cannot resist internal pressure that will lead to bursting of the
bacterium cell.
Antibiotics are used to damage the cell surface membrane of the bacterium
cell, which causes the cell contents to leak out, thus killing the cell
Antibiotics can also inhibit bacterial growth by binding to the ribosome of some
bacteria.
This stops protein synthesis therefore no proteins and enzymes can be
produced for the bacteria.
Specific objective: explain why antibiotics kill bacteria but do not affect viruses
Antibiotics cannot kill viruses because viruses have different structures and
replicate in a different way from bacteria.
Antibiotics weaken or prevent cell wall production and damage the cell surface
membranes.
Viruses do not have cell walls or cell surface membranes, they are surrounded
by a capsid (protein coat) which is unaffected by antibiotics.
Viruses also do not have cytoplasm therefore there is no internal pressure
which can cause the virus to burst
233
Specific objective: describe the effects of excessive alcohol consumption and
heroin, limited to:
- Powerful depressant drugs
- Effect on reaction time and self-control
- Liver damage
- Negative social implications, e.g. crime, rape etc.
- Cause infections such as HIV
Alcohol is a depressant which in low doses can cause euphoria, sociability and
reduce anxiety.
in higher doses, alcohol causes intoxication and unconsciousness
Alcohol slows down the functions of the central nervous system.
Consuming alcohol prior to driving increases the risk of vehicle accidents and
deaths.
Alcohol affects safe driving skills such as judgements, concentration,
comprehension, coordination, visual acuity, and reaction time become impaired.
Reaction time and self-control
Alcohol related liver disease is caused by damage to the liver from excessive
drinking for many years.
Years of alcohol abuse can cause the liver to become inflamed and swollen that
can also cause cirrhosis.
234
Cirrhosis is a disease in which normal liver cells are replaced by scar tissue
which interferes with all of the liver’s important functions
Cirrhosis is the final stage of liver disease.
Addictions and withdrawal symptoms
Occurs when heavy drinkers suddenly stop or reduce their alcohol intake.
They may experience a combination of physical and emotional symptoms.
Moderate withdrawal symptoms include physical reactions like headache,
excessive sweating and increased heart rate.
Some symptoms are as severe as hallucinations.
People who abuse alcohol are more likely to engage in behaviour that puts them
at risk of contracting HIV.
Alcoholics have a high rate of injection drug use.
Alcohol abusers have high tendency toward high-risk sexual behaviour,
including unprotected sexual intercourse.
Too much alcohol can weaken the immune system.
Effects of heroin
Is the most dangerous drug that reduces nervous activity and slows down brain
activity
Heroin also lowers neurotransmission levels
Abusers typically report feeling a surge of pleasurable sensation
Reaction time
235
Liver damage
Heroin has little effect on the liver. The major problems that result from its use
are not from the heroin, but from contaminants in the drug which can severely
damage the liver.
When someone has a heroin dependency, they will feel uncomfortable and sick
without the substance in their system.
This occurs because the body has become so accustomed to the heroin that its
absence is unusual and may results in withdrawal symptoms.
Withdrawal symptoms of heroin include: restlessness and discomfort racing
heartbeat, anxiety, sweating, shivering, pain in the muscles and bones,
diarrhoea, vomiting and inability to sleep.
Using heroin increases the risk of a person being exposed to HIV infection,
through contacting with infected blood or body fluids (e.g. semen, saliva)
resulting from the sharing of syringes
or through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
A chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters
the activity of one or more specific target organs
Endocrine glands: Are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream and not into a duct
Target organs: are organs or cells in the body which are affected by hormones
236
Specific objective: Identify specific endocrine glands and their secretions, limited to
adrenal glands and adrenaline, pancreas and insulin, testes and testosterone,
ovaries and oestrogen
237
Specific objective: discuss the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical
control of metabolic activity, including increasing the blood glucose concentration
and pulse rate
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each
kidney in the abdominal area.
Adrenaline prepares the body to cope with stress and to meet danger and deal
with emergencies
Fear or anger cause adrenaline to be released into the bloodstream.
Promote the release of glucose from the locations in the body where it is stored.
Adrenaline stimulates the breakdown and conversion of glycogen into glucose
in the liver, which sends it via the bloodstream to the muscles.
Stimulates the breakdown and conversion of glycogen into glucose in the
muscles, instead of releasing that glucose, the muscles hold on to it to use for
immediate release of energy.
This results in an increased glucose concentration in the blood and muscles and
can be used for energy to either combat or flee dangerous situation
238
3.14 Homeostasis
- Our body is equipped with a self-regulatory system that monitor and regulate
changes of factor in our body.
2. Internal environment: the space inside your body. I.e. the space between the
cells filled with tissue fluid.
239
This is followed by feedback to the receptor cells about the effector’s corrective
action
If the factor is within its normal range, nothing more happens.
If the factor is still out of limits, the receptor cells send another message to the
brain and the effector responds again.
Another message, (a negative one) is now sent from the receptor to the effector
to stop its corrective action from going too far (to prevent overcorrection).
This is known as negative feedback, getting the body environment back to an
ideal balance
240
Endothermic Animals (warm-blooded animals)
In warm weather:
Cellular respiration which takes place in each living cell, is the main heat
generator. An increase in adrenaline causes an increase in metabolic rate,
which results in faster and more heat released
By consuming hot drinks and food or
By exposing the body to heat from the sun.
241
When temperature is high
Endotherms lose heat by radiation (when heat is lost from a warm body to a cold
environment)
Through Evaporation (when fluids absorb energy and change into gas therefore,
sweat evaporates, heat is lost)
Through Convection (when heat is lost in fluids)
Through Conduction (when heat is lost from touching warm objects to cold
objects)
Insulation
242
Fats underneath the skin provide humans with insulation by creating a fatty layer
in their bodies which stops internal body heat from escaping.
Wearing of more clothes when it is cold slow down the heat loss from your body
to the air around you.
When the external temperature is low (cold) hair erector muscle contracts, hairs
stand upright and trap a layer of air that acts as insulation against the cold
When the external temperature is high (hot) hair erector muscle relaxes, hairs
lies flat on skin surface and does not trap a layer of air and thus prevent
insulation
Sweating
When temperatures are high, the arterioles, which supply the sweat glands with
blood dilate
This causes more blood to flow to the sweat glands
More sweat is produced
More evaporation of sweat from the skin surface occurs.
More heat is lost through evaporation
When temperatures are low, the arterioles which supply the sweat glands with
blood constricts
Less blood flows to the sweat glands
Less sweat is therefore produced and secreted
Less evaporation of sweat from the skin surface occurs.
Less heat is lost by evaporation
243
A section through the skin
Shivering
When the external temperatures are low, the muscles in the skin start to
contract and relax uncontrollably.
This twitching exercise produces heat, which helps to raise body temperature
More heat is generated through respiration in the muscle cells during shivering
Vasoconstriction
When the external temperature is low and the body temperature falls below 37°C
the muscles around the arterioles contract.
The arterioles in the skin constrict and reduce in diameter resulting in less blood
flowing in the skin capillaries.
This makes the skin turn pale because less blood reaches the surface, so less
heat is lost through radiation from the skin.
244
Vasodilation
Vasodilation refers to the widening of the blood vessels, in particular arterioles.
When the external temperature is very high and your body temperature rises too
much above 37°C, the muscles around the arterioles in the skin relax.
The arterioles in the skin dilate and increase in diameter resulting in more blood
flowing in the skin capillaries.
This makes the skin turn darker because more blood reaches the surface, so
more heat is lost through radiation and convection from the skin.
Specific objective: describe the control of the glucose content of the blood by the
liver, and the roles of insulin and glucagon from pancreas
245
Control of blood glucose level in the body
The beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone
insulin into the bloodstream.
This stimulates cells all over the body to uptake glucose especially the skeletal
muscles
The bloodstream transports the insulin to the liver
The insulin instructs the liver cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen
Insulin can also increase the rate of respiration
Glycogen can be stored in the liver and the muscles
The alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone
glucagon into the bloodstream.
The bloodstream transports the glucagon to the liver
The glucagon instructs the liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose
Glucagon can also decrease the rate of respiration
Adrenaline can also be secreted from the adrenal glands to stimulate the
conversion of glycogen to glucose
The entire activity is controlled by homeostasis.
246
Diagrammatic presentation of blood glucose control
247
Treatment of Type 1 diabetes
There is no cure for diabetes. Frequent blood sugar monitoring involves regular
measurement of blood glucose levels.
Too high blood glucose can be controlled by daily administrations of insulin
injection
Sufferers must change their diet by avoiding eating too much sugary food
(carbohydrates)
Exercise regularly and maintain a healthy weight
- Hot water
- 4 glass beakers
- 4 rubber bands
- 4 thermometers
- Stop watch
- Piece of newspaper
- Woolen sock (to represent feathers or fur)
- Piece of cotton cloth
- Piece of tinfoil
Procedure
2. Pour the same amount of very hot water into each glass beaker.
3. Cover each glass beaker with one of the four materials from above (foil, cotton
cloth, woolen sock and newspaper)
4. Secure the materials over the top of each glass beaker with a rubber band.
7. Place a thermometer into each glass beaker. Leave it for two minutes and read the
temperature in °C. The one which has the warmest water had the best insulator as
a cover.
248
For our experiment a good insulator is a kind of material which keeps things warm for
longer, it help to stop heat from escaping.
Question
Which material do you think would make the best insulator? Foil, cotton cloth,
newspaper or a woolen sock? Can you explain why?
During mitosis, the cell nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei.
Each contain exactly the same number of chromosomes.
Before division, the nucleus makes copy of the chromosomes.
Mitosis form two daughter nuclei of identical cells with the full set of
chromosomes (diploid).
249
Simple presentation of the process of mitosis
Specific objective: State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damage tissues,
replacement of cell and sexual reproduction.
Role of mitosis
Growth
- Mitosis occur where new cells are needed for growth
- Mitosis is the basic component of growth
- A zygote will develop into a functioning multicellular organism because of mitosis
Repair of tissues
- Mitosis multiply cells for the repair of damaged cells of multicellular organism
- Skin cells go through many mitotic division during the repair of the epidermis
after an injury
- Repair can also occur during regeneration of missing parts in some multicellular
organisms
Replacement of cells
- Skin cells are shed daily and they are replaced by mitosis.
- Red blood cells that are lost are replaced by mitosis
- Cells lost in donated blood gets replaced by mitosis
Asexual reproduction
- Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction
- Simple organisms make copies of themselves and split by binary fission during
mitosis
- A wide range of organisms reproduce by asexual method involving Mitosis.
250
Specific objective: observe, and interpret from diagrams and photomicrographs,
mitosis in root tips.
Specific objective: prepare and stain temporary slides of root tip squashes to show
mitosis
(Refer to page 337 NAMCOL Biology learner’s book for procedure)
The reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid resulting in genetically different cells (details of stages are not required)
251
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides showing meiosis in animal and
plant tissues.
Meiosis result in the formation of four daughter cells, each with the half number
of chromosomes of the parents. This form the basis of sexual reproduction.
Reduction division reduces the diploid chromosome to a haploid number.
Gametes are formed during meiosis.
At fertilization, haploid male gametes fuse with female haploid gametes to form a
diploid zygote.
Genetic variation occurs because meiosis provide opportunity for new
combination of genes to occur in gametes.
252
The diagram shows the process of meiosis
- Maternal chromosomes are the ones received from the mother and paternal ones
are received from the father.
- Chromatids exchange genetic materials and different sections of chromosomes
are exchanged.
- This major genes reshuffling take place during cross over.
Meiosis causes genetic variation (due to crossing over and reshuffling of genes)
253
Specific objective: distinguish between mitosis and meiosis
The table below shows the distinction between mitosis and meiosis
Features mitosis meiosis
4.2 Reproduction
4.2.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
254
Specific objective: define asexual reproduction as:
A process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.
255
Once these spores land on a favourable environment (moist and warm) they
geminate, grow and develop again
All these offspring are genetically identical.
256
Asexual reproduction in Irish potatoes
257
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
A process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote
and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Fertilization in animals
258
4.2.2 Sexual reproduction in plants
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or different flower on the same plant
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species
259
Specific objective: describe the different structural adaptations and functions of the
parts of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
260
Structure of a wind-pollinated flower
261
Stamen The male reproductive organs, each stamen consists of an
anther and a filament
Anther The tip of the stamen which contains pollen sacs to produce
pollen grains
Pollen sacs The chambers in the anther where the pollen grains are
produced
Pollen grains Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen
grains in which the male gametes are produced
Male gamete The haploid sex cell produced in the pollen grains which fuses
with the female gamete during fertilisation to form a haploid
zygote
Filament The stalk of the stamen which carries the anther and hold it to
be exposed to agents of pollination
Petals (corolla) The often conspicuous coloured and scented part of a flower
which attracts pollinators for pollination
Nectary gland and A gland-like swelling found on the receptacle or other parts of
nectar some flowers which produces nectar a sweet sugary fluid
collected by bees to make honey
262
Pollen grains are sticky and spiky to help Pollen grains are smooth, light and dry
it adhere to the body of the insects to aid wind transport
Pollen grains are larger in size compared Pollen grains are small in size
to wind-pollinated pollen grains
Specific objective: investigate and draw the anthers and stigmas of an insect-
pollinated flower using a hand lens
- A hand lens is a magnifying glass that is used to enlarge an object
Specific objective: observe, draw, interpret and compare the structure of wind-
pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers
Activity
Collect a flower from a wind pollinated plant like grass and from an insect pollinated
plant and make an enlarged labelled drawing of the flowers.
263
Specific objective: Name the agents of pollinated
Pollination:
Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower
Agents of pollination
Agent method
Wind Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by blowing wind
Insects Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by insects like bees,
flies, ants
Water Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by flowing water
Animals Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by animals
Humans Pollen is carried artificially from one flower to the next by humans
using a small brush
264
Specific objective: discuss the implications to a species of self-pollination and cross-
pollination in terms of variation and reliance on pollinators
there is less genetic variation in the offspring than if there was cross-pollination
variation allows species to have a better chance of survival, with self-pollination,
species become less adaptive to changing conditions
if plants become susceptible to a disease, their resistance can be reduced
Self-pollination creates less variation, but can be advantageous if there are no
other plants nearby. Pollination can still occur in areas with scarce pollinators
less pollen is wasted as pollen transfer is more precise
- plants like maize avoid self-pollination because anthers mature before the
stigma
Specific objective: describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule
followed by fertilisation (details of production of endosperm and development are not
required)
- Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10g sucrose and 10mg boric acid in
100ml distilled water
- Take a few drops of this solution on a clear slide and dust a few pollen grains
from the stamen of a flower in it
- Observe the slide under a microscope
Observations:
- After every half hour, observe the slide under a simple microscope
- Pollen grains with developing pollen tubes will be seen
266
- Most pollen grains germinate in a 10-20% sugar solution (you can use sugar
solution alone if there is no boric acid
The offspring (seedlings) do not compete with parents for resources such as
water, sunlight, space and minerals
Avoid overcrowding of plants in a small space
Risk of soil depletion of its resources is reduced
Risk of spreading of diseases in a plant species is reduced
A natural disaster cannot destroy a whole community
Dispersal reduces inbreeding and thus promote outbreeding
Increases chances of plants becoming established in new habitats and to
colonise new areas
267
4.3. Human reproductive system
4.3.1 Sex hormones in humans
Regular natural changes that occur in the female reproductive system and it makes
pregnancy possible
Hormone
Oestrogen Progesterone
Site of production: Site of production:
- produced and secreted by the - produced and secreted by the
Graafian follicle in the ovary corpus luteum (yellow body) in
the ovary
Hormone
Oestrogen Progesterone
Site of production: Site of production:
- produced by the placenta - produced by the placenta
268
Specific objective: explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle
and pregnancy limited to FSH, LH, progesterone and oestrogen
269
- a fall in progesterone levels on days 23-28
removes the maintaining effect and causes
the uterus lining to break down
- break down of the uterus lining leads to
menstruation
- if fertilization occurs progesterone levels
stays high during pregnancy and no
menstruation occurs
270
4.3.2. Sexual reproduction in humans
Specific objective: identify from diagrams the parts of the male and female
reproductive system and state the function of these parts
- narrow tube that extends from each ovary to the uterus through which the ovum
travels
- walls of the oviduct is lined with ciliated epithelium
271
Functions:
where the ovum is released into and travels down towards the uterus with the
help of the flicking movement of the cilia
where fertilisation occurs, the developing zygote and embryo are moved by
the cilia and peristaltic movements towards the uterus
Uterus (womb)
it dilates (widens) during labour and birth for the baby to pass out to the outside
passage through which sperms travels through to fertilise an egg cell after sexual
intercourse
a mucus plug forms in the cervix to close off the uterus during pregnancy
Vagina
- the outer part of the female genital, includes the opening of the vagina, the labia
and clitoris
272
Male reproductive system
- consist of a sack of skin and smooth muscle and is located under the penis
Functions:
contains and encloses the testes and the epididymis and part of the vas deferens
regulates the temperature of the testes by maintaining it at 2 degrees below the
normal body temperature
this ensures an optimum temperature for sperm production
Testes (testicles)
where the production of sperm (male sex cells) takes place (in the seminiferous
tubules in the testes)
has cells that are responsible for the production of testosterone
273
Epididymis
- two small glands that lie directly above the prostate gland, attached to the vas
deferens
Functions:
secrete the bulk of the seminal fluid, a combination of sperm and seminal fluid is
called semen
the fluid is rich in fructose an important source of energy for sperm to swim
the fluid also prevents sperm from drying out
Cowper’s gland
- secretes a sticky fluid before actual ejaculation of sperms and semen
Functions:
the fluids are alkaline to protect sperms from the acidic environment of the male
urethra
the fluids helps in penetration by providing lubrication
the fluids make the semen alkaline, to increase survival in the acidic conditions of
the vagina
274
Prostate gland
- located between the bladder and the penis just in front of the rectum
- the urethra runs through the centre of the prostate from the bladder to the penis
Functions:
secretes prostate fluid, one of the components of semen which energises the
sperm
secretes the alkaline fluid found in semen and makes the vaginal canal less
acidic
it squeezes fluid into the urethra as sperm move through during ejaculation
Urethra
carries semen from the sperm duct to the penis during ejaculation
urine also passes through the urethra from the bladder during urination
Penis
- external male organ that transfers semen from the male to the female and also
serves as the urinary duct
Functions:
it is the organ which is inserted into the vagina during sexual intercourse
contains erectile tissue (a collection of blood vessels separated by sheets of
connective tissue)
during an erection the blood vessels fill up with blood and causes the penis to
become erect
275
During fertilization:
the sperms propel themselves using its tail and swim through the cervix up to the
uterus and into the oviduct
egg cell released during ovulation has to be inside the oviduct for fertilization to
occur
when sperms reach the egg cell, only one sperm cell enters head first and loses
its tail in the process
the membrane around the egg cell becomes impermeable to other sperms that is
why only one sperm is capable of entering the egg cell
the haploid nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the haploid nucleus of the egg
cell in the oviduct and thus fertilization occurs
the fertilized egg becomes a diploid zygote
Specific objective: describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation
to exchange of gases dissolved nutrients and excretory products
- after fertilization the fertilized egg (zygote) divides by mitosis and develops into
an embryo
- the developing zygote and embryo are moved by the cilia in the oviduct towards
the uterus for implantation
- implantation is the attachment of the developing embryo in the thickened uterine
walls
- this thickened uterine walls is called the placenta
- the placenta has two arteries and one vein (making up the umbilical cord)
connecting it to the developing foetus
276
Functions of the placenta
consist of two arteries and one vein which forms the only connection between
the foetus and the placenta
One vein inside the cord takes substances to the foetus from the placenta
Two arteries in the cord take substances from the foetus to the placenta
277
The uterus, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
- provides a sterile
environment for the foetus
Specific objective: outline the growth and development of the foetus in terms of
increasing complexity in the early stages and increasing size towards the end of
pregnancy
- Growth refers to the permanent irreversible increase in size and number of cells
of an organism
- Growth is a result of cell division (mitosis)
- Development refers to the stage of growth which includes changes in structure
and appearance of cells (differentiation and cell specialization)
- The new cells forms new tissues and organs and the body becomes more
complicated and increases in complexity
278
Stage in pregnancy Developmental changes
279
Month 6 - foetal skin is reddish, wrinkled and veins can be seen
- finger and toe prints become visible
- foetus responds to sound by moving or increasing pulse
rate
- foetus born premature after week 23 can survive with
intensive care
- foetus is about 36cm in length
Month 7 - foetus continues to mature and develops reserves of
body fat
- foetus changes position frequently and responds to
stimuli like sound, pain and light
- fluid begins to diminish
- foetus is about 38cm in length
Month 8 - as foetus continue to mature, it starts kicking more
- brain develops rapidly and foetus can see and hear
- most internal systems are well developed, the lungs
may still be immature
- foetus is about 43cm in length
Month 9 - growth and maturity continues, with lungs nearly fully
developed
- reflexes are coordinated (blinking, closing eyes, turning
head and responding to touch n sound)
- foetus moves less due to tight space, position is
changed with head facing down
- foetus drops in the pelvis area, skin is smooth
- foetus is about 49cm in length and ready to be born
280
Specific objective: outline the processes involved in labour and birth
Contractions of the uterus occur (can be gentle at first with hourly intervals
between contractions)
As contractions become regular, the foetus’s head moves down into the
pelvis and cervix start to get thin and dilate
Mucus plug is pushed out, mucus near the cervix protects baby from bacteria
Next water will break (the amniotic sac ruptures and releases fluid as
contractions continue
The dilation of the cervix and position of the baby will be monitored
periodically
Contraction become longer, stronger and more frequent and the cervix
stretches the last few centimetres (cervix becomes fully dilated at ten
centimetres wide)
281
Stage two: birth or delivery of the baby
282
Advantages of bottle feeding or Disadvantages of breast feeding or
formula milk breast milk
- no pain because of cracked nipples, -breast-feeding comes with pain because
bite marks or mastitis of cracked nipples, bit marks or mastitis
- one can comfortable feed a baby - feeding in public can be uncomfortable
with a bottle any place
- entire family can share in the - only the mother can feed the baby
experience of feeding the baby
- mothers are not required to change - mothers are required to change their
their diet and can eat whatever they diet and cannot eat whatever they want
want
- the mother knows exactly how much - the mother does not know the exact
milk the baby has consumed quantity the baby has had resulting in
over or under feeding
Specific objective: outline the following methods of birth control: natural methods:
limited to abstinence, monitoring body temperature and cervical mucus; chemical
methods: IUD, contraceptive pill, implant and injection; barrier methods: limited to
condom, femidom and diaphragm; surgical methods: vasectomy and tubal ligation
- Natural methods
- Chemical methods
- Barrier methods
- Surgical methods
283
Natural methods
Birth control that rely on observations about the woman’s body and menstrual
cycle
Examples include:
Abstinence
- No sexual contact of any kind involved
- It is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.
Monitoring body temperature
- A woman’s temperature rises slightly around the time of ovulation and this can
alert a woman when she is most fertile and likely to fall pregnant
- A sustained increase in temperature that lasts for three days indicates that
ovulation has taken place
- A woman can therefore identify when ovulation has passed and the fertile stage
of her menstrual cycle has finished
Cervical mucus
- Cervical mucus changes in thickness throughout a woman’s menstrual cycle
- As egg develops in the ovary, oestrogen is released making the mucus thinner
and slippery (sperms can then swim easily to the egg)
- After the egg is released, an increase in progesterone causes mucus to thicken
and act as a barrier to other sperm
- A woman can track the state of their mucus to give them insight into their fertility
Chemical methods
Involves the use of chemical hormones to control the menstrual cycle or
ovulation
Examples include:
IUD (intrauterine device)
- A small, T-shaped device which is placed through the vagina directly in the
uterus by a doctor
- The device contains hormones which prevents implantation
- Some IUD releases copper ions which immobilise the sperm and makes it hard
for sperm to swim through the uterus
- Once inserted in the uterus, it can stay in place for 5-10 years
- After it is removed, the contraceptive wears off and one can become pregnant
fast
- A cost effective option that is effective against pregnancy but not against STIs
Contraceptive pill
- The 21 day pill is a birth control method designed to be taken orally every day, at
the same time of the day in order to prevent pregnancy
284
- It contains a combination of oestrogen and progesterone hormones
- The pill prevents the body from ovulating so no egg is available for fertilization to
occur
- It prevents ovulation by inhibiting the production of FSH
- The mini pill (28 day pill) contains progesterone only
- Contains 28 pills which are all active
- The progesterone thickens the mucus at the cervix, making it hard for sperm to
swim to an egg
- This prevents the entry of sperm through the cervix into the uterus
- The morning after pill is an emergency contraception used after unprotected
sexual intercourse has taken place
- The morning after pill delays ovulation as well as prevents implantation or
increase the cervical mucus to prevent sperm from accessing the egg cell
Implant
- Is a flexible plastic rod that is implanted under the skin (upper arm) by a health
care professional
- The implant prevents pregnancy by releasing low but steady dose of
progesterone hormone to thicken the cervical mucus
- The implant suppresses ovulation
- It offers effective long term contraception against pregnancy but not against STIs
Injection (the shot)
- A three-monthly contraceptive injection containing synthetic progesterone
hormone
- Patients returns every twelve weeks for an injection by a doctor
- The injection releases progesterone in to the blood stream which prevents
ovulation
- It also thickens the cervical mucus to make it difficult for sperm to swim through
the cervix and thins the uterus lining to prevent implantation
Barrier methods
Involves physical barriers designed to stop sperm from entering a woman’s
uterus
Examples include:
Male condom
- Tube of thin latex rubber material that is rolled onto an erect penis before sexual
intercourse
- Semen is captured at the tip of the condom so that no sperm cells reaches the
ovum therefore preventing fertilisation
- Condoms are very effective against pregnancy and STIs if used correctly
285
Female condom (femidom)
- A long pouch with flexible rings that is inserted into the vagina before intercourse
- The femidon covers the cervix, vaginal canal and semen is trapped inside the
femidom and thus sperms cannot reach the ovum and no fertilization can occur
- They are very reliable if used correctly
Diaphragm
- A soft, silicon rubber dome shaped device folded in half and inserted vaginally to
cover the cervix
- It is inserted no more than 3 hours before intercourse and should be removed 8-
24hours after intercourse
- Cervix is covered to prevent sperm from reaching the uterus and oviduct to avoid
fertilisation
- It works best with a spermicide (cream that kills sperm) and thus make them very
effective and reliable
- It gives no protection no protection against STIs
Surgical methods
Involves carrying out surgical procedures on the reproductive organs
Examples include:
Vasectomy (male sterilisation)
- A surgical procedure for sterilisation in which the woman’s fallopian tubes are
clamped and blocked or cut and sealed
- This prevents sperms from reaching the eggs
- Tubal ligation is considered a permanent birth control method
- It is effective at preventing pregnancy but not STIs
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Specific objective: outline the use of hormones in contraception and fertility treatments
In females In males
- Blocked oviducts - No sperm production
- No egg production - Produces defective sperm cells
- An irregular menstrual cycle that cannot swim
- Hormonal insufficiency that - Low sperm count
inhibits ovulation - Blocked sperm ducts
- Unsuitable uterine environment - Reduced testosterone levels
for implantation - Due to STIs like gonorrhoea
- No proper development of the
uterus lining
- Post menopause
- This involves the use of using substances like fertility drugs to treat women who
experience difficulty in becoming pregnant
- Fertility drugs causes the body to release hormones that trigger or regulate
ovulation
Fertility treatments are given to women because they don’t produce enough FSH
that allows their eggs to mature
The fertility drugs contain FSH and LH
A woman is injected with this drugs during the early stages of the menstrual cycle
FSH treatment will stimulate production, development and maturation of egg cells
LH stimulates ovulation
More eggs are then released which increases the chance of fertilization
287
Specific objective: discuss the social aspects of contraception and fertility treatments
Positive social implications and aspects of using fertility drugs
Being infertile and undergoing fertility treatments can be very stressful for
couples wanting to conceive
Fertility treatments are expensive especially when it is repeated before success
Sometimes fertility drugs do not work and so infertility will not be treated
Fertility drugs can result in multiple births while couples only wanted one child
Multiple births are often risky and babies can be born prematurely and this can
bring financial hardships on parents
Fertility treatments can increase the human population which is already over
populated
There are many religious objections to the use of fertility drugs
Unused embryo may die or used in research and this may be considered as
murder
Social problems may arise from the donation of embryo from one woman to the
other
Elderly parents may raise concern about the child’s welfare in childhood and
beyond if the elderly parents die
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Health workers getting stuck with an HIV contaminated needle or sharp object
During blood transfusions if given untested blood
An infected mother can pass it to the foetus during pregnancy if the placenta
is damaged
An infected mother can pass it on to the baby during labour and birth because
of blood contact
An infected mother can pass the virus to the baby during breast feeding
Through abstinence
Using barrier methods of contraception like condoms and femidom
Drug users to use sterilised needles and not share needles
Ensure blood is screened and tested before given to anyone else
Promote health education to create awareness of the dangers of HIV
The use of Antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to prevent the spread of the virus in the
body
People to know their status by being tested
HIV and AIDS lead to a weakened immune system and reduced immunity to
diseases because white blood cells are destroyed
HIV and AIDS reduces the action of phagocytes and lymphocytes
This results in less antibody production and less phagocytosis
B-lymphocyte response is low, so TB and pneumonia pathogens can multiply
faster and are not destroyed before it causes diseases
The immune system is unable to fight TB and other opportunistic diseases
AIDS is a syndrome and not a disease, it is opportunistic as it results in an
opportunity for other infections because of a weakened immune system
289
Specific objective: discuss the socio-economic consequences of the HIV and
AIDS pandemic for Namibia
Loss of young skilled workers affect the country’s economy negatively due
to reduced labour force
Lower productivity as people are too sick to work and thus absent from
work
Cost pressure for companies increases as they have to provide benefit
payments for sick workers
Increases costs on medical care, drugs and funeral expenses
Healthy family members may miss work or school to take care of AIDS
sufferers
Cost incurred to take care of orphans
Indirect costs incurred to train and recruit new members to replace absent
workers
Germination: the process by which an embryo plant grows from a seed after a
period of dormancy.
Environmental conditions needed for seeds to germinate:
Water
- Water starts the germination process by breaking the dormancy of the seed
- Water softens the seed coat and causes the seed to rupture for the embryo plant
parts to emerge
- Water enters the seed through the micropyle, and activate enzymes to break up
stored insoluble nutrients into smaller soluble parts
- Water acts as a solvent to transport soluble nutrients to the growing embryo
(radicle and plumule)
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Suitable temperature
- Suitable temperature provides an optimum temperature for enzymes to work
faster
- A suitable temperature increases the metabolic rate in the seed to digest and
break down stored nutrients
Oxygen
- Oxygen is needed for respiration of the embryo
- Stored nutrients like glucose, fats and oils are used to release energy for the
growth of the embryo plant
- That is why there is a decrease in dry mass during germination as some nutrients
are being used
- Five small paper cups - fifteen viable bean seeds - potting soil
- One black piece of felt - refrigerator or cooler - masking tape
- Pens - cotton balls - petroleum jelly
- Plastic wrap - rubber bands
Procedure:
1. Add potting soil to the cups so that each is about half full
2. Place 3 bean seeds in each cup at a depth equal to the length of the seeds.
Space seeds around the edge of the cup.
3. Label the cups 1 to 5:
Cup1: seeds deprived of water at room temperature
Cup 2: seeds watered at room temperature
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Cup 3: seeds watered at cold temperature
Cup 4: seeds watered at room temperature with no light
Cup 5: seeds watered at room temperature with no oxygen
4. Add the following:
Cup 1: don’t add anything to this cup during the experiment other than the seeds
Cup 2: add water until the soil is damp. Do not soak the soil, water this cup each
day for the next 2 days
Cup 3: add water until the soil is damp. Water this cup each day for the next 2
days. Place this cup in a refrigerator or in a cooler for the rest of the experiment
Cup 4: add water until the soil is damp. Water this cup each day for the next two
days. Place a piece of black felt over this cup except for when you are watering
it.
Cup 5: add water until the soil is damp. Place cotton balls that have been
covered with petroleum jelly so they completely cover the soil surface. Smear a
layer of petroleum jelly around the top rim of the cup. Place a piece of plastic
wrap on top of the petroleum jelly so that it completely covers the opening of the
cup. Use a rubber band to firmly hold the seal in place and keep out oxygen.
5. Place the cups in a location where they will not be disturbed for the next 3
days
6. Each day for the next 2-3 days, observe what is occurring in each cup and
record it in a data table
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7. Conclusion made from the data recorded.
Possible questions needing answers in the conclusion:
- In which cups did germination occur and why; is light required for germination;
- Is oxygen required for germination? Explain
- Is water required for germination? Explain
- Can seeds germination under cold conditions? Explain
- List the conditions necessary for the germination of a seed
- At what point in their development do you think plants must receive light to
survive and why?
- How could you manipulate the variables to design a new experimental trial
- Every plant species is adapted to certain conditions, thus its seeds are also
adapted to different storage conditions
- Storage conditions can affect its germination percentage
1. Take 20 quality seeds of the same species (maize, peas, beans) and store ten
seeds at 40C in a refrigerator and ten seeds at room temperature for the same
amount of time
2. Wash the seeds and soak in distilled water for 2-3 hours, rinse and remove
excess water with tissue paper. Allow seeds to dry
3. Sow the seeds kept in the refrigerator in a seed tray or pot labelled ‘’4 0C’’; and
saw the ones kept at room temperature in a seed tray or pot labelled ‘’room temp’’.
Use the same soil to plant the seeds in
4. Thoroughly water the seed trays or pots and place in the same conditions to
germinate. Supply the same amount of water regularly for 15 days
5. Find the rate of germination after 15 days. Calculate the percentage for both
treatments and compare them
293
Specific objective: describe methods of measuring growth in a herbaceous plant
and a mammal
Measuring growth in a herbaceous plant (measuring the height)
Using a ruler for smaller plants or measuring tapes for taller plants
- Place the ruler at the base of the plant to its highest point and record the
measurement
- Repeat measurements every two to three days
Calculate the average growth rate using the formula:
S2 – S1 ÷ T where S1 is the first measurement, S2 the second measurement
and T is the number of days between each
Dry mass is the mass of an organism (plant) excluding the fluctuating water
concentrations. It is a more reliable measure than fresh mass
Procedure:
Plant a large number of seeds of the same plant in identical conditions in a pot or
large tray
Conditions like temperature, water supply, humidity and nutrients must be the
same for all seedlings
Every week randomly remove a sub sample of about 5 seedlings from the pot
Wash and remove all soil from the roots
Heat the seedlings in an oven at a suitable temperature of about 60-1100C to
remove all water from the plants
Cool the plants in a dry environment
Then weigh the dry plants (the plants now contain no water but dry mass only)
Every week record the dry weight of the five plants and calculate the average
Compare mass for the different days, an increase in dry mass show growth
- Its height
- Its length
- Its width
- Its girth (measurement around something like a chest or waist)
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Various measuring instruments like rulers, measuring tapes can be used
When determining height, ensure the animal is standing straight on levelled
ground
Measurements can be taken weekly or monthly to determine growth
Specific objective: measure and record the growth of an annual herbaceous plant
from sowing to maturity, and use these results to construct and explain a growth
curve
Practical activity to measure growth in a mammal using live weight
An annual herbaceous plant dies completely at the end of the growing season or
after it has flowered and produced seeds or fruits
Growth can be measured using the dry mass procedure or height of the plant
starting from sowing stage until maturity
Draw a growth curve of the weekly measurements
295
Advantages of measuring dry mass of Disadvantages of measuring dry mass
organisms of organisms
- Gives accurate measurement - Time consuming process
- Not influenced by water content - It kills the organism
- Reflects permanent increase in - Two leaves of the same mass can
mass differ in length
- Not influenced by variation in
growth patterns
Advantages of measuring wet mass of Disadvantages of measuring wet mass
organisms of organisms
- quick process - plants need to be uprooted to get
- does not kill the organism measurement
- more accurate than height and - difficult to measure large organisms
length - water content in organism’s body is
variable
4.4 Inheritance
Specific objective: define inheritance as:
The transmission of genetic information from generation.
Chromosomes having the same genes at the same loci but not identical with
different alleles.
296
Specific objective: define the terms haploid nucleus and diploid nucleus:
Specific objective: explain the concept of genetic code with reference to the
sequence of bases in a gene to form amino acids in a correct order for a specific
protein
Specific objective: explain how DNA controls cell function by controlling the
production of proteins, antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters
- The nucleotide sequence that make-up DNA are a “code” for cell to make
hundreds of different type of proteins.
- It is these proteins that function to control, regulate cell growth, division,
communication with other cells and other cellular functions.
297
By controlling the production of antibodies
298
Specific objective: Calculate and predict the results of monohybrid crosses
involving 1:1 and 3:1 ratios (use a genetic diagram)
299
Monohybrid cross involving 3:1
There are two kinds of chromosomes: the autosomes and the sex chromosomes.
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans: 22 autosomal pairs and one pair
of sex chromosomes.
The autosomal pairs are numbered 1 to 22 according to their size, while the sex
chromosomes are called X and Y.
Males are determined by using X in combination with the second kind of sex
chromosome Y. Their genotype is XY.
300
The human karyotype
301
Specific objective: Describe how to use a test cross to identify an unknown
genotype.
The pattern of observed phenotypes in the offspring can determine the unknown
genotype of the parent.
E.g. in humans, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue eyes (b).
- When you look at someone who has a dominant trait, you cannot tell if they are
homozygous or heterozygous for that trait.
- For example, if someone has brown eyes and brown is the dominant trait, they could
be BB (homozygous) or Bb (heterozygous).
How can one use test cross to determine if the trait is BB or Bb?
Always start the test cross with a purebred homozygous (BB or bb) in the P1
generation.
Take a recessive (in this case blue eyes, or bb) and cross it with brown eyes
showing the dominant trait.
If in the F1 generation of offspring are all dominant, then the dominant parent is
probably a BB. If there are any recessives in the F1, then the dominant parent
has to be a Bb.
- If a known parent is homozygous recessive (bb) and an unknown parent is
homozygous dominant for a trait then all offspring will be heterozygous and show
the dominant trait.
- If a known parent is homozygous recessive (bb) and an unknown parent is
heterozygous dominant for a trait then 50% of the offspring will be dominant and
50% recessive.
302
Specific objective: Predict the results of monohybrid crosses involving co-
dominance or sex- linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios (use genetic diagrams).
Co- dominance is when the two alleles of a gene both have an effect when they are
present together (equally dominant).
Neither of the two alleles for a particular trait is more dominant over the other
(equally dominant).
Example: Dark skin is dominant in one parent. Light skin is dominant in the
other parent. Breeding results in the skin colour not dark or light, but in between”.
In some breed of cattle, two of the alleles for coat colour are co-dominant (red
coat and white coat give a roan coat). Roan is a colour produced by a mixture of
red and white hair.
Human blood groups A and B are co-dominant, that is why a child with alleles A
and B will have a blood group called AB
Blood group alleles are written as superscripts on the letter I e.g. IAIB
303
304
Specific objective: Investigate inheritance of one or more characteristics using for
example tomatoes or genetic maize to stimulate genetic crosses.
305
4.4.3. Variation
Specific objective: define variation as:
The differences between individuals of the same species
There are two types of variation:
Continuous variation
Discontinuous variation
Specific objective: state that phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and
environmental factors
306
Example of a histogram to present continuous variation
307
b) Use a measuring tape to measure the heights of 10 randomly selected girls in
the class and record the results a table
Discontinuous variation
Shows that there is no gradual change between two extremes
308
Activity on recording and presenting results of discontinuous variation
count the number of people in the class that can roll their tongues or whose ear
lobes are attached and loose
present the results on an appropriately labelled graph
gene mutation occurs when the sequence of basis (nucleotides) is not copied
precisely in replicating a strand of DNA
this results in a change in the instructions for the formation of proteins
this results in the formation of a faulty protein or even no protein at all
once this occurred, it is replicated in the formation of further strands of DNA
Examples of gene mutation
albinism (inheriting altered genes that do not make usual amounts of the skin
pigment melanin)
Specific objective: outline the effects of radiation and chemicals on the rate of
mutation
radiation such as UV rays, X rays, gamma rays, alpha and beta particles
chemicals such as tar in cigarette smoke
309
Specific objective: describe mutation as a source of variation, as shown by Down’s
syndrome
310
sickle cell anaemia is caused by a recessive allele represented as (Hbs)
normal haemoglobin allele is HbA
an individual with HbA HbA (homozygous dominant) have normal haemoglobin
an individual with HbA Hbs (heterozygous) is a carrier of the abnormal
haemoglobin but the individual does not have sickle cell anaemia
an individual with Hbs Hbs (homozygous recessive) have sickle cell anaemia
311
an HbA HbA person does not have sickle cell anaemia but will be susceptible to
malaria
a carrier HbA Hbs does not have sickle cell but is less susceptible to suffer from
malaria
an Hbs Hbs person have sickle cell anaemia but will not suffer from malaria
hence, it is a selective advantage to be heterozygous in a malaria area
this is because, the malaria parasite will not be able to survive and multiply on
sickle shaped red blood cells carrying less oxygen
312
Examples of hydrophytes Examples of xerophytes
Adaptations: Adaptations:
- large air spaces in the leaves to keep - thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
them close to the water surface for light and the shiny layer to reflect heat and
absorption lower temperature around the plant
- small roots to extract nutrients from the - sunken stomata in pits in the epidermis
surrounding water through tissues so that moist air is trapped and reduce
- stomata mainly found on the upper evaporation
epidermis and are usually open all the - rolled leaves with stomata inside to
time for easy gaseous exchange reduce surface area for transpiration
- lower leaves lack stomata to prevent - leaves covered with hairs to trap moist
water entering the air spaces air and reduce water loss
- small leaves or leaves reduced to thorns
to reduce transpiration
- thick leaves or stems which stores water
313
Specific objective: describe natural selection with reference to: production of many
offspring, variation within populations, struggle for survival, competition for resources
and reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment and
passing their genes to the next generation
Specific objective: outline the importance of natural selection as the mechanism for
evolution
314
organisms that are able to survive and adapt to environmental changes,
reproduce and pass on their adaptive genes to the next generation
hence, new organisms carry inheritable adaptive traits different from their
descents and thus evolve
Bacteria becomes resistant when the antibiotic loses its ability to effectively
control or kill the bacteria
This bacteria that could not be killed by the antibiotic becomes resistant and
continue to multiply in the presence of the antibiotic
Antibiotics are widely over used and also incorrectly prescribed
Patients most often do not complete the whole course of antibiotics as prescribed
and this results in bacteria becoming resistant
How natural selection occurs
315
Specific objective: define artificial selection as:
The modification of species by selective breeding
TOPIC 5
5. Relationships of organisms with one another and with their environment
5.1. Energy flow, food chains and food webs
Specific objective: Describe the flow of energy transferred as heat or light through
living organisms and its transfer to the environment
316
Specific objective: Define the following terms
Producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients usually using
energy from the sunlight, through photosynthesis
A food chain as showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next,
beginning with a producer
Decomposer as an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic
material
Trophic level as the position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramids
of numbers or pyramid of biomass.
317
Specific objective: construct simple food chains
Producers
318
Examples of producers
Consumers
Types of consumers
(a) Primary consumers
319
(c) Tertiary consumers
Examples: sharks eat carnivorous fish and hawks that eat owls.
Definition of omnivore
An omnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals and plants.
320
Decomposers
Examples of decomposers: fungi and putrifying (decomposition) bacteria.
The food web below shows seven food chains interlinked together.
The food web shows the feeding relationships between these living organisms.
This food web shows that most animals can have more than one food source,
e.g. the owls feed on frogs and mice, and mice feed on grasshoppers and plants.
A food web also shows the flow of energy in an ecosystem from the producers to
the consumers.
321
Specific objective: Describe how energy is transferred between trophic levels
Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, in the form of chemical
energy in food and lost from the food chain as heat.
The amount of available energy decreases from one trophic level to the next.
Only around 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
The rest of the energy lost in form of heat, life processes, faeces and remains
passed to decomposers.
Specific objective: explain why food chains have usually fewer than five trophic levels
Less energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next (only 10%)
The biomass gets smaller
The longer the food chain, the more energy is lost, the less energy will be
available for the organisms at the highest trophic level.
Due to a decrease of energy and biomass from the lower to higher trophic
levels, so the length of food chains is limited.
322
Specific objective: describe and interpret pyramids of biomass
A pyramid of biomass
Shows the dry mass of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain.
Measures the total mass (weight) of biological material at each trophic level.
Calculation of biomass
Number of individual organisms X mass of each organism.
323
Examples of pyramids of biomass
90% of energy is lost during transfer from one trophic level to the next.
More energy is available at the second trophic level than at the third trophic level,
More humans can be supported and fed.
Less land is needed for growing crops and there are fewer expenses involved.
More land must therefore be used as arable land to produce food.
324
5.2. Biochemical cycling
What is cycle?
Nitrogen cycle: is the continuous movement of nitrogen from the atmosphere through
living organisms and returning it back to the atmosphere.
Importance of nitrogen
For synthesis of amino acids, proteins and DNA.
Used for plant growth in form of nitrates.
For synthesis of chlorophyll in plants used during photosynthesis
325
Nitrogen cycle diagrams
326
Nitrogen cycle process occurs in the following ways
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrification
Denitrification
Decomposition (Ammonification)
1. Nitrogen fixation
A. By nitrogen fixing bacteria (rhizobium)
Bacteria live in the soil and in root nodules of leguminous plants like
peas, beans, Lucerne, clover, soya beans and vachellia sp.
Bacteria converts nitrogen (N2) into ammonia and ammonium
compounds into amino acids.
Some biological nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen into
ammonia and ammonium compounds or converted into nitrates.
2. Ammonification (decomposition)
plants and animal remains are decomposed by bacteria and fungi
by removing an amino group and hydrogen to make ammonia
during deamination
putrifying bacteria converts nitrogen containing compounds into
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+)
327
Nitrogenous waste like urea ,uric acid (excretory products of
animals ) are decomposed to form ammonia and ammonium
compounds
Faeces and animal manure are decomposed into ammonia and
ammonium compounds
3. Nitrification
Nitrifying bacteria oxidise ammonia and ammonium compounds
into nitrites and then into nitrates
4. Denitrification
Is a process that occurs in anaerobic conditions where denitrifying
bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen gas.
Denitrifying bacteria obtain their energy by breaking down nitrates
into nitrogen gas.
Specific objective: state the roles of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle limited to
decomposition, nitrification, nitrogen fixation and denitrification
purifying bacteria
Converts nitrogen containing compounds into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium ions (NH4+)
Denitrifying bacteria
Convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
Nitrifying bacteria
Oxidise ammonia and ammonium compounds into nitrites and then into
nitrates
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Converts nitrogen (N2) into ammonia and ammonium compounds.
Some biological nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen into
ammonia and ammonium compounds then into nitrates.
328
Specific objective: Describe the carbon cycle limited to photosynthesis, respiration,
feeding, decomposition, fossilisation and combustion
Photosynthesis
Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and trap it in organic
compounds (starch and glucose)
Respiration
Plants and animals break down glucose in the presence of oxygen to release
water and carbon dioxide in the air.
Feeding
Animals obtain carbon during nutrition of carbohydrates, fats, proteins
Decomposition
When animal and plants remains are broken down by decomposers and purifying
bacteria to release carbon dioxide in the air
Fossilization
When coals and oil from dead plants and animal remains are subjected to high
pressure and does not decompose completely, traps in the carbon
Combustion
Release of carbon dioxide in air when burning fossil fuels
329
Specific objective: discuss the effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting
down of forests on the balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
Effects of combustion of fossil fuels on balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
Burning of fossil fuels uses more oxygen and release more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere than which is removed
This leads to an increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.
Effects of cutting down of forests on the balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
The fewer the forests, the less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere
by photosynthesis
This Leads to an increase in carbon dioxide levels
This leads to a reduction in oxygen levels
Resulting in desertification and climate changes
330
5. 3. Population
Examples of populations:
Specific objective: state the factors affecting the rate of population growth for a
range of living organisms
food supply
availability of water
predators.
diseases.
size of the ecosystem and population
weather and climate
natural disaster/drought/flood
fertility rate
mortality (death rate) and natality rate (birth rate)
immigration and emigration
those factors above are limiting factors of the population because they control the
size of the population; either speed up or slow down or reduce the size of the
population
331
Specific objective: identify the phases of a sigmoid population growth curve for a
population growing in an environment with limited resources and explain the role of
limiting factors to each phase
Sigmoid curve
332
Description of three phases of the sigmoid growth curve
Lag phase:
333
Stationary/stabilization phase
Growth slow down/ is constant/stable
Zero population growth / reached its carrying capacity/maximum population the
environment can support
Increase in competition for food and space
Increase of predators/parasites
Increase in diseases/disease spreads faster
Birth rate is equal to death rate
Resources become scare
Specific objective: Describe the increase in human population size in the absence of
limiting factors and the social implications of current human survival rate on the
environment
2. Increase in food production and supply causes and increase in human population
due to the following reasons:
335
Columnar shape:
Even spread of ages, mostly for developed countries.
Stable shape:
zero growth or negative population growth
fewer young people than old people
low rate of immigration
same mortality and natality rate
Very good medical care
High life expectancy.
The shape of the population pyramid convey more information about a country as it is
influenced by:
336
5.4 Human influences on the ecosystem
5.4.1 Food supply, habitat destruction and pollution
Definitions
Monoculture is the practice of the production of a single crop in a given area year
after year.
Polyculture is where more than one crop is grown in the same space at the same
time, it is the alternative to monoculture.
337
Negative impacts of large-scale monoculture of crop plants
Monoculture increases the difficulty in nutrient recycling. All the plants are
removing the same minerals from the soil and because the crop is removed long
before the plants die and decompose, virtually nothing is returned to the soil.
Monoculture decreases crop yields, because plants use the same minerals from
the soil each year and the soil becomes depleted of those minerals.
- But it is very expensive and increases the overhead costs for farmers in the long-
run.
- Artificial fertiliser takes the place of compost, creating an increased risk for
environmental pollution.
Planting a single type of crop gives pests a chance to destroy the whole crop.
Farmers who practice monoculture are more vulnerable to natural disasters and
failed crops.
- A farmer who plants only maize may not be able to overcome a year of drought,
- But a farmer who plants maize, tomatoes, green beans and other vegetables may
be able to save one crop from failing.
338
Specific objective: Discuss the social, environmental and economic implications of
providing sufficient food for an increasing human global population
Rapid population growth has swelled the ranks of unemployed men and women at
an alarming rate.
Due to this, a large number of people are being pushed into ecologically sensitive
areas such as hillsides and tropical forests.
This leads to the cutting of forests for cultivation, causing several environmental
changes.
The increasing population growth leads to the migration of large numbers to urban
areas with industrialisation.
This results in polluted air, water, noise and large populations in big cities and
towns.
2. Increased population means more mouths to feed which, in turn, puts pressure on
available stock of food.
This is the reason why under-developed countries, with rapidly growing
populations, are generally faced with a problem of food shortage.
Despite all their efforts for raising agricultural production, they are not able to feed
their growing population.
339
Specific objective: explain the undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment
More soil erosion, mudslides and silting up of rivers due to a shortage of tree
roots to stabilise the soil.
Increased risk of flooding due to a shortage of trees and bushes to slow down
water flow.
Leaching of the soil increases, because minerals are washed down and cause
soils to become infertile.
Less decomposing of organic material also leads to infertile soils.
Less photosynthesis occurs, so less carbon dioxide is removed from the air
which results in global warming.
Less photosynthesis also causes a drop in oxygen levels in the atmosphere.
Fewer trees cause less transpiration which can result in a reduction in rainfall.
Reduction and destruction of habitats cause a decrease in animals and plant
numbers and biodiversity.
- Nesting sites for many species are reduced.
- Species are forced to settle in other species which cause food shortages.
These decreases can cause the extinction of species and a loss of biodiversity.
Extinction of species means the loss of genes.
Extinction of species means the loss of sources for medicine and other
substances.
Disruption of food chains and food webs is a direct result of deforestation.
More pollution can occur because of burning and smoke (combustion).
A loss of income can result because fewer tourists will visit the area.
Removal of rainforests leads to loss of certain cultures, because people who live
there eventually disappear.
Specific objective: Explain the problems that contribute to famine including unequal
distribution of food, drought and flooding, increasing population and poverty
340
Specific objective: state the sources and effects of pollution of water (rivers, lakes and
the sea) by chemical waste, discarded rubbish, untreated sewage and fertilisers
Pollution is the contamination of air, water or soil by substances that are harmful to
living things.
Main sources water pollution
Polluted water from kitchens, bathrooms and toilets which contains human
faeces, detergents, bacteria, urine, parasites and other disease-causing
organisms
Raw sewage can be discharged into lakes and rivers or allowed to soak into the
groundwater, which can cause this and drinking water to become contaminated
threaten the health of humans, wildlife
Specific objective: describe the undesirable effects of water pollution by sewage and
chemical waste (pesticides and herbicides), with reference to eutrophication
Sewage can be washed away into streams, lakes, rivers and dams.
Large amounts of this organic matter, e.g. faeces are decomposed by aerobic
bacteria.
Bacteria respire and reduced the amount of oxygen in the water
Other aquatic organisms die or move away, which reduces the biodiversity.
A high content of nitrates, phosphates and ammonia, which are very soluble, are
also released into the water.
These nitrates, phosphates and ammonia in sewage then cause algae bloom
when algae grow very fast.
These algae block or reduced light, preventing photosynthesis in submerged
aquatic plants.
The aquatic plants start to die.
Decomposers, e.g. bacteria, now increase rapidly to use the dead plants as food
during the process of decomposition.
The bacteria start using up the available oxygen during respiration.
Other aquatic organisms like fish and snails start to die or start to migrate.
This process is known as eutrophication.
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Specific objective: explore how recycling can reduce pollution and improve healthy
living conditions
Specific objective: Describe the overuse and dangers of fertilisers on the land (e.g.
nitrates)
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Decomposers, e.g. bacteria, now increase rapidly to use the dead plants as
food during the decomposition process.
The bacteria start using up the available oxygen during respiration
This process is known as eutrophication.
Other aquatic organisms like fish and snails start to die or to start migrate.
Use nitrogen-fixing crops (legumes like beans, peas, clover and Lucerne) to
add nitrates to the soil.
Use crop rotation by planting different crops, which need different nutrients,
each year.
Crop rotation will improve yield, soil structure and means fewer diseases and
pests of different plants and animals each year.
Fewer diseases mean we have to use fewer pesticides.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes put nitrates directly into the
soil which means no leaching, because the nitrates are directly available to the
plants.
The use of organic fertilisers like manure, fishmeal, bone meal, seaweed and
compost means less use of artificial inorganic fertilisers.
This is less expensive and one uses materials already available.
The use of green manure can also be a solution. Legumes are planted and the
entire plant is worked into the soil.
Green manure also improves the soil structure.
Responsible use of fertilisers is very important. Apply only the correct amount,
never apply when rain is forecasted, never spray near water sources and
never apply fertilisers to empty fields
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Specific objective: state the causes and effects of acid rain on the environment and
the measures that might be taken to reduce its incidence
Causes of acid rain
Caused by emissions of Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO2 / NO),
which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.
Most pollution by Sulphur dioxide is caused by large industries that burn coal,
such as power stations.
The major cause of nitrogen oxides is exhaust fumes from vehicles such as
cars and trucks.
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Effects of acid rain on soil and soil organisms
Soils become acidic which can cause leaching of minerals like magnesium and
calcium out of the soil. It, therefore, decreases soil fertility.
Acidic soils affect microorganisms, which cause less decomposition.
Acid rain dissolves and washes out poisonous aluminium and mercury from the
soil. It can end up in water sources and poison aquatic organisms.
Lakes and streams have a neutral pH level between 6 and 8. If the pH becomes
too acidic, it kills organisms like plankton, plant life, invertebrates and frogs,
which affect the entire food chain.
Damage is caused to groundwater and drinking water.
Acid rain dissolves nutrients like magnesium, calcium, and potassium from
leaves which cause the leaves to turn brown and fall off.
Aluminium also damages fine root hairs and they are not able to absorb water
and nutrients.
This reduces the productivity of farm and forest land, because crops do not
grow well.
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Acid rain impact on trees by causing leaves to fall, damaging bark, stunting
growth and increasing the possibility of diseases.
It destroys the waxy cuticle on the leaves of plants, which means more water
loss from leaves.
Emission (waste gases) from electricity-generating plants and power stations can
be passed through scrubbers to absorb and neutralise Sulfur dioxide.
Emissions from vehicle exhaust systems can be cleaned up by catalytic
converters, which convert nitrogen oxides into nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide and
water.
Lime or limestone can be added to neutralise acidic soils
Limestone or calcium carbonate can be added to paint on walls to neutralise
acids.
The use of fossil fuels must be limited, e.g. by using alternative fuel in cars or
electric cars.
Coal can be crushed and washed before it is burned. This can reduce Sulfur by
10%.
Using low Sulfur petrol and low Sulfur coal must be a priority. Oil can be treated
to remove Sulfur.
Biodegradable waste, e.g. food scraps and paper, will eventually become part of
the earth and soil, because bacteria and other microorganisms will break it down.
Biodegradable substances cause only short-term pollution problems.
Non-biodegradable waste, e.g. plastics, metal, glass, nylon, fibre glass, plastic
grocery bags and polystyrene cannot be broken down by bacteria and other
microorganisms and remain in the environment virtually forever.
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Plastic bags pose a serious danger to marine birds, turtles and mammals that
often mistake them for food.
Marine organisms like sea turtles, seabirds, shark and dolphins can get strangled
in nylon fishing lines and die.
Plastic bottles and containers are afloat all over the oceans of the world.
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5.4.2 Conservation
Sewage is waste matter such as faeces or dirty water from homes and
factories, which is carried away in sewers or drains for dumping or conversion
into a form that is not toxic.
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Specific objective: define sustainable development as
Specific objective: state how forests and fish stocks can be sustained using
education, legal quotas and restocking
Forest areas need to be turned into large reserved or protected forests, which
refer to certain forests being granted protection by governments.
Ecotourism must be implemented in these reserves. An international ban on
trade in endangered forest species is another way of how forests can be
maintained.
There must be quotas and international regulations on the use of wood from
rainforests.
Education of consumers is important so that they can choose not to buy wood
from forests as well as goods manufactured from forest wood.
International aid needs to be provided to countries with tropical rainforests.
Ways must be found on how to make sustainable use of forests.
Only selective felling of trees must be allowed.
There must be a limit on the quantity of timber felled per time period.
- As the human population has increased, so has the demand for fish.
- If fish are caught at a faster rate than the remaining fish can reproduce, the
numbers of fish (the fish stock) will decline
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Prevention of the disappearance of certain fish species in some areas is
by:
- Ensuring that fish populations remain at a sustainable level by
doing sustainable fishing.
- Setting fishing quotas can help to sustain fish stocks
- There must be regulations to conserve fish stocks.
- Setting fishing quotas for countries, individuals fishing vessels and
individuals fishermen limits the amount for fish which may be
caught, resulting in fewer fish being caught.
- These regulations and limits include the size of the fish one can
keep, total number of fish one can keep and time period when it is
legal to fish certain species.
- Education can help to sustain fish stocks
(Better information for fishermen and education about fishing
regulations is of utmost importance in sustaining fish numbers)
- Person, who catches fish for recreational purposes in Namibian
waters, must be in possession of a fishing permit.
- Fishing methods and fishing equipment must also not harm fish
populations.
- Legislation to limit the size of nets and increasing the size of the
holes in nets results that only mature, full sized fish can be caught
- Re-stocking of fish can help to sustain fish stocks (having
hatcheries to keep fish species)
Specific objective: outline how sewage is treated to make water safe for return to
the environment for human use
Sewage water treatment procedures
Raw sewage and water go into the sewage collecting and pumping area.
The sewage inlet takes it to the screening area so that large, solid rubbish and
objects like tyres, wood, stones and tins/cans can be removed.
The rest of the sewage goes to the grit removal area where the grit is
removed and used as landfill.
Sewage then goes to the primary sedimentation tanks where solid matter
forms sludge, which is allowed to settle and then separated from the liquid
effluent.
The sludge is digested by anaerobic bacteria in the anaerobic digester. This
produces methane, which can be burned to power the sewage plant. The solid
matter can be dried and used as garden fertiliser.
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The liquid effluent is sprayed onto stones where aerobic bacteria and
Protoctista feed on sewage and remove harmful substances. This aerobic
stage kills anaerobic bacteria.
Clear effluent is produced which can be returned to the environment. e.g. by
pumping it into a river, or it can be purified and disinfected by chlorination to
be used again as drinking water
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Specific objective: explain why organisms become endangered or extinct, limited
to climate change, habitat destruction, pollution and hunting with reference to
poaching
a. Climate change endangers species
- Every living organism needs a place to live, but a habitat is not just a residence, it
is also where an animal finds food, raises its young and allows the next generation
to take over.
Different ways in which humans destroy animal habitats:
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C. Pollution endangers species
When hunters ignore rules that regulate the number of animals that may be
hunted, they can reduce populations to the point that species become
endangered.
This is a practice known as poaching, done by illegal hunters. .
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Education
- Many people are unaware of species extinction and do not realise
how their actions might be harming others.
For many governments and nations, it is the revenue (taxes and visa fees)
generated through tourism that continues to support conservation and its
accompanying activities.
In many developing countries, protected areas like national parks rely heavily
on tourism fees (foreign exchange).Most of their income comes from tourism
revenue such as entrance fees, restaurants and accommodation fees.
Local inhabitants too have benefited from tourism. It has increased employment
opportunities (tour guides, hotel, lodge and restaurant workers) and in some
cases empower the entire community.
Tourism also drives changing attitudes towards conservation. Travelers
themselves might take on volunteer conservation tourism, communities can
help with reduction in poaching and governments can change legislation to
support sustainable tourism.
Tourism can help to maintain and increase wildlife in Namibia and can help to
prevent extinction of species and protect biodiversity.
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Tourism can raise awareness of poaching and even help in prevention of
poaching.
Disadvantages of tourism for conservation
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The loss of our country’s iconic wildlife directly reduces the number of
wildlife tourists visiting the region and reflects significant potential losses
to the GPD.
Namibia has prioritised tourism as a major sector for driving economic
growth, employment creation and poverty reduction.
Therefore, the poaching of rhinoceros robs the country and communities
of their natural assets.
It undermines sustainable economic development and has serious
economic and social consequences, threatening the livelihoods of
communities that are dependent on wildlife tourism and natural
resources
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A sample of exam based questions
Table 1.1
Solution Observation
D Yellow/orange
E Green
F Red
Determine the order of concentration of reducing sugar in the three solutions and
complete Table 1.2
Table 1.2
Concentration D,E or F
High
Medium
Low
(2)
(b) A learner carried out an investigation to determine the relative concentrations of
reducing sugar in potato and onion tissue.
The two tissues were tested for reducing sugar and it was found that the onion tissue
contained a higher concentration of reducing sugar than the potato.
Explain how you would make sure that the two tests were carried out to allow a fair
comparison (4)
[10]
2. Fig. 2.1 shows the experiment set up by a student to investigate the effect of osmosis.
Fig. 2.1
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The Visking tubing was filled with a strong sugar solution and its outer surface was rinsed
with distilled water. The Visking tubing was then dried and weighed. Then the Visking
tubing, containing the strong sugar solution, was placed in a test-tube containing distilled
water and left for two hours.
After the two hours, the Visking tubing was removed, dried and weighed again.
The following results were obtained.
- Mass before placing in distilled water: 34 g
- Mass after two hours in distilled water: 39.7 g
a) i) Suggest why Visking tubing allows water molecules to pass through more easily than
sugar molecules. (1)
ii) Identify the parts of plant and animal cells that have similar properties to Visking tubing.
(1)
iii) Explain why the Visking tubing was rinsed with distilled water after it was filled with the
strong sugar solution. (1)
iv) Explain why it was essential to dry the Visking tubing before it was weighed. (1)
b) Calculate
i) the exact change in mass. (1)
ii) the percentage change in mass. Show your working. (2)
1. Fig. 2.1 shows the appearance of a plant cell before and after it was immersed in
distilled water for 30 minutes.
Fig 2.1
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(a) Give three reasons, evident from Fig. 2.1, that demonstrate that the cell was placed
in distilled water. (3)
(b) Identify the parts labelled E, F and G. (3)
(c) Explain the process that has taken place in the plant cell when placed in the distilled
water. (3)
(d) The plant cell labelled before in Fig. 2.1 was then placed in a 20% sucrose solution.
In the space below, draw a diagram to show the appearance of this plant cell after 30
minutes in the sucrose solution. (4)
[13]
Fig 3.1
(a) Make a high power drawing of the whole cells of the part of the leaf shown in the
box in Fig. 3.1.
Label a palisade mesophyll cell and a cell wall. (5)
b) Describe how you would make temporary slides of the upper or lower epidermis of a
leaf. (4)
c) Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3 show pollen grains of insect and wind pollinated flowers as seen
with the aid of an electron microscope.
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Fig 3.2 Fig. 3.3
Three similar pieces of epidermis have been placed in different solutions and left
submerged for 30 minutes. One solution was pure water, another contained 1.5% sugar
solution and the third contained 5% sugar solution.
Figs. 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 show a cell from each of these three pieces of epidermis.
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a) Measure the width of the cell contents along the lines drawn across each cell.
(2)
b) Suggest in which solution each of the cells, in Figs. 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 was placed
and explain your choice. (6)
[8]
1. Fig. 1.1 shows the apparatus used to determine the rate of photosynthesis of water
weed at different light intensities.
The rate of photosynthesis was measured by counting the number of bubbles produced
per minute. The only source of light in the room was the lamp.
The light intensity was decreased by moving the lamp away from the plant.
Fig. 1.2 shows the results of this experiment.
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a) Describe the relationship shown by the graph. (1)
b) Using the graph, state how many bubbles/min you would expect to be produced with
the lamp at a distance of 50 cm from the plant. (1)
c) Sodium hydrogen carbonate was added to the water before the experiment began.
Explain why this was added. (1)
d) Name the gas produced by the plant. (1)
e) Describe the test for the gas named in d). (1)
f) Describe and explain the results you would expect if the experiment was repeated
with the temperature of the water 10°C higher. (2)
[7]
2. A potted plant with variegated leaves was destarched. Some of the leaves were
partially covered with tin foil and the whole plant was then left in the sunlight.
b) Fig. 2.1 shows one of the leaves at the beginning of the experiment.
After a few hours in the sunlight, the leaf was tested for starch with iodine solution.
Complete Table 2.1.
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(3)
c). When testing a leaf for starch, certain instructions need to be followed. The
instructions below are in the wrong order.
A Soften the leaf by dipping it into hot water for about 30 seconds.
B Place the leaf in alcohol and boil the tube in a beaker of hot water for about 5
minutes.
C Remove the leaf from the plant and dip it into boiling water for about one minute.
D Cover the leaf with iodine solution.
E Remove the leaf when it has lost its green colour.
F Observe and record the colour of the leaf.
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3. The apparatus shown in Fig. 3.1 was set up under bright light for a period of five
hours. At the start, the apparatus was completely full of water. During this time, a gas
collected at the top of the graduated tube.
Fig 3.1
c) Determine the volume of gas collected in five hours and the rate of gas production
per hour. (2)
d) How would you use this apparatus to obtain reliable results to show the effect of
differing light intensities on the production of oxygen? (2)
[6]
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1. Fig. 1.1 shows an enzyme controlled reaction at 37°C.
Fig 1.1
1. Fig. 1.1 shows an incomplete diagram of a vein transporting blood to the heart in
longitudinal section.
Fig 1.1
(a) (i) Complete Fig. 1.1 by drawing onto the diagram the valves. Show the direction of
blood flow through the vein using an arrow. (2)
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(ii) Describe the functions of the veins in the body and explain how the valves ensure
that the blood travels through them in one direction only. (2)
(4)
(c) Blood clotting is an important process that prevents excessive bleeding when a
blood vessel is damaged.
(i) State the component of blood and the plasma protein involved in blood clotting. (2)
(ii) Describe the sequence of events involved in blood clotting. (4)
[14]
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1. Fig. 1.1 shows the pulse rates of two students, A and B, before, during and after a
short period of vigorous exercise.
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2. Match the columns by writing the number of the term in Column A next to the correct
description.
(10)
[10]
Fig 1.1
(a) Study Fig. 1.1 and state two visible features that enable you to identify the bean
plant as a dicotyledonous plant. (2)
(b) Name two conditions that are always necessary for the successful germination of a
seed, other than the presence of water. (1)
(c) Describe an investigation that you could carry out to show the need in seed
germination for one of the conditions you named in (b). (3)
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(d) Fig. 1.3 shows seedlings that has been grown outside a cupboard and seedlings
that has been grown inside a cupboard.
Fig. 1.3
Record three visible differences between the seedlings grown outside and the
seedlings grown inside a cupboard.
(3)
[9]
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1. Table 1.1 show the mass of some of the different food substances present in 100 g
of different cereals.
Table 1.1
(i) On the grid, draw a bar graph of the amount of fibre in the different cereals.
(4)
(ii) 1 g of fat gives 37 kJ of energy. Use the data from Table 3.1 to find the energy in fat
in 100 g of maize. Show your working. (1)
(iii) Describe the importance of fibre in the diet. (2)
[7]
370
1 (a) Fig. 1.1 shows the apparatus that can be used to show the loss of water from a
plant.
(i) Explain why oil is placed on top of the water in the flask. (2)
(ii) Explain why the plant is added before the oil is carefully poured on top of the water.
(2)
(iii) Explain how you would use this apparatus to measure the rate of transpiration,
over seven days. (4)
(iv) Outline the results you would expect if the experiment was repeated when the
temperature is 10°C warmer. (1)
(v) Using the same apparatus, describe how you could show that there are more
stomata for water loss on the lower epidermis of the leaves than on the upper
epidermis. (5)
[14]
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1. Humans release carbon dioxide during respiration. This carbon dioxide enters the
atmosphere as part of the carbon cycle.
(a) (i) State one human activity that increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. (1)
(ii) During the carbon cycle, photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere, to
produce carbohydrates.
Name the form in which these carbohydrates are stored in a plant. (1)
(iii) Explain what happens to the carbon containing compounds in plants and animals
when they die. (2)
(b) Deforestation is one of the human activities that disrupt the process of
photosynthesis.
State three other undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment. (3)
[7]
1. An ecosystem is made up of organisms that interact with each other and the
environment in which they live.
(b) Explain why it is more efficient for humans to eat plants instead of feeding plants to
cattle, goats or sheep. (3)
(c) To survive, human beings need access to resources. Such resources need to be
conserved.
(i) Define the term conservation. (2)
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