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ENGLISH
STYLISTICS
A Cognitive Grammar Approach
ZEKI HAMAWAND
English Stylistics
Zeki Hamawand
English Stylistics
A Cognitive Grammar Approach
Zeki Hamawand
University of Kirkuk
Kirkuk, Iraq
ISBN 978-3-031-22555-0 ISBN 978-3-031-22556-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7
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To the souls of my parents
Prologue
English Stylistics: A Cognitive Grammar Approach proposes a new model for car-
rying out textual analysis in English, no matter whether the text is literary or non-
literary. Theoretically, the study hinges on the central assumptions of Cognitive
Linguistics and Cognitive Grammar. One assumption relates the structure of lan-
guage to human cognition. Applied to stylistics, the study shows that stylistic pat-
terns reflect fundamental properties of the human mind. Another assumption links
linguistic choices with cognitive preferences. Extended to stylistics, the study shows
that stylistic choices are the result of cognitive processes in the human brain. A
further assumption associates linguistic expressions with dimensions of construal.
Relevant to stylistics, the study shows that stylistic alternatives are not on an equal
footing. Each alternative serves a different communicative purpose. So, each alter-
native has a special function. Practically, the study builds on actual data, linking the
speaker’s knowledge of linguistic expressions to their situated instances of use. One
crucial dictum in the cognitive approach to language is that knowledge of language
arises out of language use and is influenced by context.
Topic
Speakers and writers have thoughts and emotions. To convey them, they use lan-
guage as it is the most powerful medium of communication. Language provides a
well-developed means of conveying information and expressing attitudes. It is a set
of symbols, spoken or written, combined into meaningful patterns to meet the grow-
ing needs of humans. When speakers and writers intend to convey a thought or
emotion to a listener or reader, a mental representation underlies the intention. The
intention to convey a thought or emotion is what determines the speaker’s or the
writer’s choice of expressions. One wonderful trait of humans is the capacity to
describe the same situation in different ways. This entails stylistic variation, that is,
different ways of speaking and writing. Variation is inherent in human language. It
means altering lexical items or syntactic structures to match discourse needs or to
vii
viii Prologue
adapt language use relative to the situation. It means making stylistic choices in
language use depending on one’s purpose in communication. The alternation in pat-
terns of language use equates with creativity, and not with ungrammaticality as
some people think.
An examination of some data shows that language users, speakers, and writers
use a variety of stylistic structures in describing a situation, as illustrated by the fol-
lowing expressions:
(1) a. Frank hitched a lift to Leeds from a passing car yesterday.
b. A lift, Frank hitched to Leeds from a passing car yesterday.
c. To Leeds, Frank hitched a lift from a passing car yesterday.
d. From a passing car, Frank hitched a lift to Leeds yesterday.
e. Yesterday, Frank hitched a lift to Leeds from a passing car.
The expressions cited in (1) have the same content, but they differ primarily in
the order in which the words appear. The information is the same, but the message
is expressed in different ways. The different forms of the expressions highlight dif-
ferent aspects of the message. The expressions are normally used to make state-
ments, but they take different word orders. The element which occupies the first
position in each expression is different. Since the first position is important for both
speaker and hearer, the element holding it becomes the focus of attention. It lays the
foundation for the hearer’s mental representation of how the message will unfold.
The (1a) expression has a typical word order, which is traditionally known as
canonical. In this unmarked form, the first position is occupied by Frank. The (1b–
e) expressions have an atypical word order, which is traditionally known as non-
canonical. In this marked form, the first position is occupied by different elements:
in (1b) it is a lift, in (1c) it is to Leeds, in (1d) it is from a passing car, and in (1e) it
is yesterday. The different arrangements of the words in the expressions thus serve
different needs of discourse.
From a cursory reading of the expressions in (1), one can conclude that there is a
difference in the message of the writer which is exhibited by different choices of
word order or different stylistic structures. The expressions demonstrate the phe-
nomenon of alternation, the case where two, or more, expressions share the same
content but exhibit semantic dissimilarity. In this regard, two questions are posed.
The first is: is the alternation between the expressions free or motivated? The second
is: if motivated, what factors lie behind the choice of one stylistic alternative over
another? To answer these questions, I propose a new approach to style that rests on
the tenets of Cognitive Linguistics in general and Cognitive Grammar in particular,
both of which give meaning a central position in language. The cognitive approach
is chosen because it provides powerful tools to study the intricacies of stylistic
structures coherently. It explains stylistic alternatives in terms of cognitive pro-
cesses. Alternations in style spell alternations in meaning. Each alternative has a
special discourse function.
Prologue ix
Aims
Stylistics enjoys prominence in modern scholarship. Stylistics is taught and

researched in university departments of language, literature, and linguistics the
world over. Within the broader discipline of stylistics, Cognitive Stylistics is an
essential development. It takes up the mind as the basis for stylistic analysis. It
views all forms of language as being rooted in human cognitive mechanisms. The
current study has specific aims to attain. It improves students’ general linguistic
performance and analytical skills. It increases students’ awareness of variations in
style and how they are related to mental operations and employed to achieve par-
ticular effects. The study is suitable for undergraduate students taking modules in
stylistics, English language, and linguistics. It provides essential reading for stu-
dents in a wide range of areas within linguistics, literary studies, and cognitive sci-
ence. It is suitable for postgraduates delving deeper into the field. In the same vein,
stylistics enjoys particular pride of place in language teaching and language learn-
ing. Moreover, it forms a core component of many writing courses due to its empha-
sis on techniques of creativity in language.
Acknowledgments
This textbook represents research into Cognitive Stylistics, which is the current
trend in contemporary stylistics. In the course of preparing the textbook, several
people have contributed directly or indirectly to its evolution. First and foremost, I
would like to thank the following linguists who have read and provided invaluable
feedback on individual parts of the work: Geoffrey Nathan, Margaret Nathan, Clay
Walker, Clara Neary, Billy Clark, and Mick Short. In spite of their help, I take full
responsibility for any errors. A special debt of gratitude goes to Cathy Scott, the
Executive Editor of Language and Linguistics, at Palgrave Macmillan, for her indis-
pensable advice and prudent guidance, which helped to make this a better book than
it would otherwise have been. Likewise, thanks are due to the staff of Macmillan
India Ltd. for the attentiveness and professionalism which they showed in the pro-
duction process of the work.
Zeki Hamawand
xi
Contents
1 Key Concepts�� 1

2 Historical Overview �� 15
3 The Cognitive Framework�� 31
4 The Idealization Theory�� 47
5 The Contextualization Theory�� 69
6 The Configuration Theory�� 91
7 The Experientialism Theory �� 117
8 The Conceptualization Theory �� 143
Epilogue �� 167

Index�� 175
xiii
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Expository versus persuasive writing styles�� 5

Table 1.2 Narrative versus descriptive writing styles�� 6
Table 2.1 Rhetoric Stylistics versus Poetic Stylistics�� 17
Table 2.2 Expressive Stylistics versus Psychological Stylistics�� 18
Table 2.3 Practical Criticism versus New Criticism�� 20
Table 2.4 Reader-response Stylistics versus Affective Stylistics�� 21
Table 2.5 Structural Stylistics versus Generative Stylistics�� 23
Table 2.6 Functional Stylistics versus Cognitive Stylistics�� 25
Table 2.7 Stylistic trends�� 27
Table 4.1 Realism versus Idealization�� 50
Table 4.2 Cognitive models�� 67
Table 5.1 Textualism versus contextualism�� 73
Table 5.2 Exophora versus Endophora�� 88
Table 5.3 Types of deixis�� 89
Table 6.1 Dictionary theory versus domain theory�� 96
Table 6.2 Stylistic devices�� 115
Table 7.1 Rationalism versus experientialism�� 122
Table 7.2 Forms of conceptual structure�� 140
Table 8.1 Reference theory versus construal theory�� 148
Table 8.2 Dimensions of construal�� 164
xv
Chapter 1
Key Concepts
Key Objectives
• Introduce students to the concept of style, touching upon its keystones, qualities,
and modes.
• Train students in the field of stylistics, bringing to light its axioms, goals,
and levels.
• Instruct students in the use of stylistic devices, covering their properties, advan-
tages, and types.
Introduction
Before dwelling on any linguistic discipline, it is important to introduce the primary

key concepts related to it. It is useful to define the key concepts to understand how
stylistics has emerged as an approach to the analysis of language. Each concept is
subject to different definitions. There is surprisingly little consensus over defini-
tions. The definitions apply to both literary and non-literary texts. Defining the key
concepts is important for two reasons. First, it shows that the writer knows what the
topic is about. Second, it ensures that the reader gets a better understanding of the
topic. Both writers and readers should be aware of these key concepts. By providing
concise and precise definitions, there will be no misunderstanding. The three fre-
quently encountered key concepts pertain to style, stylistics, and stylistic devices.
Style is the distinctive way of using language. A different style always yields a dif-
ferent effect. Stylistics is the study of style in language. It is the study of distinctive
expressions in language. Stylistic devices refer to a variety of techniques used in
language to create meaning. The use of these techniques is motivated by the writer
or inspired by the occasion.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_1
2 1 Key Concepts
Style
Communication is carried out via speaking, writing, and signing. Writing, our con-
cern here, serves to express thoughts and emotions clearly and effectively and keep
the reader attentive and interested. The quality of writing depends upon the style
adopted, which measures the strength of the argument. Style is the manner of writ-
ing; how a writer uses the resources of language to convey meaning to the reader.
The style involves a link between form and meaning. The form is motivated by
meaning. It subsumes choices that signal distinction in meaning. It includes the
choice of lexical items, grammatical structures, graphological signs, and figures of
speech in a text. It is the particular form of language used in a given context or a
particular situation. This implies that there are different styles in different situations
or the same situation can produce a stylistic variation. So, style can be seen as a
variation in language use. It is the sum of linguistic features peculiar to or charac-
teristic of a writer. It is the voice that comes across to the reader. Every writer has a
peculiar style. The writing style is then the determinant that sets one writer apart
from another. The science that studies style is referred to as Stylistics.
Keystones
1. Style is the manner in which language is used, so it is related to parole rather

than langue. It belongs to the plane of form and not to the plane of content. It is
how the form stands for the content. It is the mode in which a writer addresses a
matter. It is a product of social interactions and an outlet for the writer’s concep-
tualizations. The sentence I would get the operation if only I had the money
expresses a wish, with emotional content. It is used to wish that something was
true or something had happened. The sentence I would get the operation only if
I had the money expresses a strong condition, without emotional content. It is
used to state the only condition in which something can happen.
2. Style is unique to every writer. It is an individual manner of making use of lan-
guage. It is a mark of individuality: the quality that makes a writer different from
others. It can be used in the process of identifying a writer. It reveals a writer’s
personality. It is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one writer from
another. Writers’ styles often manifest in word choice, punctuation, sentence
structure, tone, sensory details, figurative language, and sound devices.
Developing a unique writing style will help a writer attract new readers as well
as improve the fan base. It can have a great impact on the readers.
3. Style consists of choices made from the repertoire of language. The choices
serve to communicate meaning. Writers make their choices in various ways and
for various reasons: based on personal preferences, discourse strategies, or con-
straints imposed by situations. A writer’s style is known by the choice of words,
patterns, and structures. An event involving an actor, action, and patient can be
coded by either an active or a passive style, as in She wrote a book and A book
Qualities 3
was written, respectively. Each stylistic choice gives a different impression of

the event. In the active, emphasis is placed on the actor. In the passive, it is
placed on the patient.
4. Style abounds in deviation. It is the use of language which violates grammatical
rules. It is a departure from what is taken as common practice. It is an intentional
selection of linguistic patterns outside of the range of normal language. The
writer deliberately departs from accepted norms to make a part of a text promi-
nent. In English, a canonical clause is linguistically simple, consisting of a sub-
ject, a verb, and a complement, as in A house stood on the hill. In On the hill
stood a house; however, there is a violation of a canonical clause as the comple-
ment, here the prepositional phrase, is placed at the beginning for emphasis.
5. Style contains stylistic devices which writers use to make their write-ups engag-
ing. Stylistic devices are various techniques that writers make use of to tell their
story in a very interesting way. They add variety, energy, and excitement to the
story, grip the reader’s imagination, convey information, and produce a special
effect in the writing. To make the meaning of a piece of writing richer, deeper,
and more significant, some writers employ the stylistic device of symbolism: the
use of an object, person, or situation to represent a concept, as in the word dove
which is a symbol of peace and love in most cultures.
Qualities
Writing has a goal that it intends to achieve. The goal might be to impart informa-
tion, persuade someone, entertain people or narrate a story. Although there are no
hard and fast rules about writing, there are essential qualities for a good piece of
writing. The qualities may vary depending on the writer and the context. The quali-
ties apply to all types of writing styles and are universally regarded as best practices.
They make writing powerful. They fit together neatly and lead the reader inescap-
ably toward the goal. That is, it responds to the interests and needs of its intended
audience and at the same time, reflects the writer’s competence. Below are the basic
qualities that are required in good writing:
1. For a piece of writing to be successful, it should focus on a central idea and avoid
going off on a tangent. The idea should be relevant and interesting, being the
heart of the text. This helps to maintain a sense of flow and unity in the writing.
Additionally, it makes sure that the reader follows along with ease; and does not
get lost in the details.
2. For a piece of writing to be considered well-crafted, it should have an elegant
and neat organization. The paragraphs should be arranged in an order that is
simple to follow, easy to understand, and fun to read. The paragraphs should
support or expand the central idea. The text flow should be a smooth sail rather
than a road full of bumps.
3. For a piece of writing to be effective, it should include accurate, appropriate, and
memorable word choices, producing a graceful text that keeps the reader’s atten-
4 1 Key Concepts
tion. A piece of writing avoids unnecessary words and fillers because they dis-
tract the reader. A good word choice greatly contributes to the clarity and
readability of a text.
4. For a piece of writing to be powerful, it should be grammatically correct. It has to
obey the essential rules of grammar and conform to the conventions of standard
written English. It should follow the basic standards of punctuation, capitalization,
spelling, and so on. It should be edited with care to ensure that the work is error-free.
5. For a piece of writing to be well-founded, it should be readable. Readability is
the ease with which a reader can understand a written text. The readability of a
text depends on its content and its presentation. A readable work is grammati-
cally sound and stylistically clear. It is the use of language in such a way as to
communicate facts and ideas.
Modes
A writing style is a manner of expressing thought in language characteristic of an

individual, period, school, or nation. A writing style is manifested in texts. A text is
the observable product of a writer’s or speaker’s discourse. A text has two meanings.
One is linguistic which is conveyed by the language patterns inside the text. The
other is non-linguistic which is conveyed by the world experiences outside the text.
Every text is marked by a particular form, content, or style. Form refers to the struc-
ture of a text used to organize information and suit its purpose. Content refers to the
topic that a text deals with. Style refers to the way a text is written. It can be seen as
the distinctive manner of using language to attain a purpose. The distinctiveness
resides in the motivated choice of items, along with their patterning in a text. It
involves variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary. One implication
of this distinctiveness is that there are different styles in different texts. Some texts
may explain how something works, persuade people to agree with certain view-
points, narrate a story, or describe a scene.
There are four fundamental modes of writing style: expository, persuasive, nar-
rative, and descriptive.
Expository
In the expository mode of writing style, the writer explains, clarifies, and illustrates
a particular topic to the readers. The main purpose is to provide insight and instruc-
tion that pertain to the topic. An expository text is meant to provide information.
The writer informs the readers of a specific topic, using words that clearly show
what the writer is talking about. It is impersonal and unbiased; the writer does not
voice his or her personal opinions. An expository writing style furnishes the readers
with a lucid, balanced, and fair explanation of a topic, equipped with facts and
Narrative 5
figures. The writer intends to inform the readers about a topic that they know little
about. It lists events in chronological order or a logical sequence. That is why it is
also called an informative writing style. An expository style of writing is more
formal and straightforward, so casual language is not acceptable. Common exam-
ples of expository writing include textbooks, essays, newspaper and magazine arti-
cles, how-to manuals, and assembly instructions.
Persuasive
In the persuasive mode of writing style, the writer attempts to persuade the readers
concerning his or her opinions. The purpose is to influence the thoughts and actions
of the readers. The writer takes a stand and asks the readers to align with his or her
point of view. To do so, the writer provides arguments, reasons, and justifications
that support his or her stated point of view or arguments that contradict the reader’s
point of view. It often asks readers to do something about the situation. This is
called a call to action. A persuasive writing style must be clear and concise, but it
can also be a bit more forceful to help convince the reader. It does not rely on facts
but specific details. That is why it is also called an argumentative writing style.
Common examples of persuasive writing include recommendation letters, com-
plaint letters, cover letters, political speeches, advertisements or commercials, mar-
keting brochures, newspaper opinions, and editorial pieces (Table 1.1).
Narrative
In the narrative mode of writing style, the writer tells a story, having a timeline or a
sequence of events. It has a plot with a setting, characters, point of view, theme, sym-
bolism, and conflict. It has definite and logical beginnings, intervals, and endings.
The purpose is to entertain the reader. The writer creates different characters and tells
the readers what happens to them. In some cases, the writer adopts the viewpoint of
one of the characters. This is known as first-person narration. By using imagery, the
writer wants the reader to imagine the characters, scenes, and setting to become part
of the story’s world. Common examples of narrative writing include short stories,
novels, poetry, (auto)biographies, myths, legends, fables, sagas, and screenplays.
Table 1.1 Expository versus persuasive writing styles

Expository Persuasive
1. It is a mode of style in which the writer 1. It is a mode of style in which the writer argues
tries to communicate information. for something, supported with specific details.
2. It is unbiased and objective. 2. It is biased and subjective.
3. It presents facts and figures. 3. It presents opinions, arguments, and justification.
6 1 Key Concepts
Descriptive
In the descriptive mode of writing style, the writer describes an event, a person, a
place, or a situation in great detail. The writer visualizes what he or she sees, hears,
tastes, smells, and feels. The purpose is to focus on communicating the details of a
character, event, or place, and so to bring the reader into the written work and expe-
rience it first-hand. Descriptive writing appeals to the senses. It involves paying
close attention to the details by using the five senses. The writer portrays a person,
place, or thing in such a way that the reader can form a picture about them in the
mind or share the experience. This style uses figurative language such as analogies,
similes, and metaphors to help the reader envision the scenery and events. Common
examples of descriptive writing include prose, diary, personal journals, lyrics in
music, and songwriting (Table 1.2).
Stylistics
As a term, Stylistics is a combination of three parts: style + −ist (adhering to a dis-

cipline) + −ics (naming a discipline). As a theory, Stylistics is a branch of linguistics
that studies style. It attempts to explore the language of a text, and explain how
language creates meaning. It provides the tools needed to interpret a text and make
a critical assessment. It focuses on the devices used in a text, which add diverse
effects to writing. It is the study of variation in language which is dependent on the
situation in which the language is used and on the effect a writer wishes to commu-
nicate to a reader. Namely, it is the study of linguistic choices a writer makes to
express ideas and feelings effectively. Every writer possesses his/her style of writ-
ing, and so makes specific use of the linguistic patterns to describe a situation. For
example, the expressions It is important to me to wear a tie and It is important for
me to wear a tie are different stylistic choices. Each expression is designed to impart
a distinct meaning. The first expression is an imposition from inside. The person
wears a tie because he feels comfortable or for decorative purposes. The second
expression is an imposition from outside. The person wears a tie because it is a
requirement, for example, at work, as a mark of respect.
Table 1.2 Narrative versus descriptive writing styles

Narrative Descriptive
1. It often employs the first-person point of view. 1. It does not.
2. It includes action. 2. It does not.
3. It narrates a series of events either real or 3. It describes things in a highly detailed
imaginary. manner.
Axioms 7
Axioms
1. Content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form. That is, content can be
characterized in myriad forms with a different impact every time. Each form
highlights a specific facet of the content, depending on the intention of the writer.
Each form imparts a distinct piece of information For example, the expression
on time means something is expected to happen at the planned time as in The
10.30 train left on time, whereas the expression in time means something is
expected to happen before the deadline as in The 10.30 train left in time. The
variation in style is reflected by the use of different prepositions.
2. No two writers have the same writing style. Nor do they have the same perspec-
tives. Each writer has his or her unique way of doing things. Each writing style
has a different purpose and characteristic features which distinguish one writer
from another. Style is what distinguishes one writer from the next. It is a window
to personality. Some writers may choose to write literally, as in She passed the
test successfully. Others may choose to write metaphorically, as in She passed
the test with flying colors. A difference in style makes a world of difference in
meaning.
3. Language is abundant in linguistic choices. It provides writers with more than
one choice in describing a given situation. The choices that writers make reflect
their understanding of a situation and their communicative ends. The varying use
of the linguistic resources made available by language is conditioned by a wide
range of language-external factors. For example, in a friend of mine the posses-
sive pronoun is chosen because the identity of the friend is not specified, whereas
in my friend the possessive determiner is chosen because the identity of the
friend is specified or known by the interlocutors.
4. A stylistic choice has a distinct effect on the reader. There is a causal relation
between a stylistic choice and the effect it has on the reader. Effects are discov-
ered by introspection: the examination of one’s thoughts and feelings. That is,
readers discover effects by looking inside themselves, and formulating a descrip-
tion of what they see there. For example, a person may be described as either
thrifty or stingy, both describe someone who wants to save money but differ in
terms of their emotional background. The first is a compliment, whereas the
second is an insult.
5. The selection of a particular choice by a writer is influenced by certain cognitive
principles, which are responsible for producing different linguistic structures.
Conceptualizations of the world are reflected in stylistic structures. Each struc-
ture serves a different communicative need. Stylistic options are motivated by
the needs of discourse. For example, in She arrived at the factory, the writer
conceptualizes an action and scans it sequentially, and so uses the verb arrive. In
her arrival at the factory, the writer conceptualizes a thing and scans it in sum-
mary, and so uses the noun arrival.
8 1 Key Concepts
Goals
1. Stylistics assists readers to understand the very language system in a given style.
It tells them about the rules of the language because it often explores texts where
those rules are applied. In this way, stylistics helps readers to increase knowl-
edge of language use, improve their literacy competence, and use language
effectively in oral and written communication. For example, some writers use
tautology, repeating the same thing in different words, as in They arrived one
after the other in succession. This style is not acceptable because one after the
other and in succession means the same.
2. Stylistics serves to explore creativity in the use of language. Creativity is charac-
terized by the ability to perceive the world in new ways. Creativity is the act of
turning novel ideas into reality. In this way, stylistics enriches ways of thinking
and enhances powers of understanding. It emphasizes connections between lan-
guage and conceptualization. For example, smog is a blend of smoke and fog.
This is called blending: the creative process of forming a word by combining
parts of two other words. The combination is based not on morpheme structure
but sound structure.
3. Stylistics aids readers to appreciate the significance of a text by analyzing the
interrelations between its linguistic items. It aims to identify the distinctive fea-
tures in a text together with their functions. In this way, the aim of stylistics is
not only to describe the formal features of a text, but it also takes into account
their functional significance. For example, in The sky weeps the writer uses per-
sonification: attributing human characteristics to something non-human. It adds
greater power in writing to convince the readers, or stir their emotions.
4. Stylistics encourages readers to develop their analytical skills in written dis-
course. In the stylistic analysis of a text, readers are required to learn the use of
linguistic and non-linguistic devices, enhancing thus their ability to interpret the
text. In this way, stylistics makes readers aware of the linguistic patterns and
language variation. For example, the expressions I don’t care and I don’t mind
are not the same. Each stylistic variant has its use. The first is a statement that
signals detachment and disinterest. The second is a statement that signals con-
sent and support.
5. Stylistics seeks to establish principles that are capable of explaining the choices
made by writers in their use of language. To do so, it uses insights from other
linguistic theories. One cognitive principle at work is perspective: the viewpoint
taken by a writer vis-à-vis a situation. An example is the word even combined
with the words though, when, and if. Even though is used when something is
always done. Even when is used when something is occasionally done. Even if is
used when something is rarely done or just imagined. Each expression repre-
sents a different perspective of the writer, which concerns the number of times
something occurs.
Properties 9
Levels
Human language is a multifaceted system made up of distinct levels. Stylistic analy-

sis involves examination of these levels. Each level plays a crucial role in the make-
up of language. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced in a language.
Phonology studies how speech sounds work in a language. Whereas phonetics deals
with the physical properties of sounds, phonology deals with their functions.
Morphology studies how word formation works: how prefixes and suffixes are
added to derive words. Syntax studies how words combine to make sentences.
Whereas morphology examines how morphemes are combined to form words, syn-
tax examines how words combine to form sentences. Semantics studies how mean-
ing is encoded in language. Pragmatics studies how context contributes to meaning.
Whereas semantics focuses on the meanings of linguistic expressions, pragmatics
focuses on their use in context. These levels are interrelated. They work together to
conduct a thorough stylistic analysis of a text.
Stylistic Devices
Stylistics is the study of how stylistic devices in a text act effectively to produce a
communicable message. A stylistic device, also called a rhetorical device or figure
of speech, is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give a text an additional
meaning or a particular significance. It is a technique used in a text to get a message
across successfully or help the reader understand it with greater depth. The primary
aim is to transform an ordinary piece of writing into a memorable one and make it
distinctive in some way. Stylistic devices are linguistic forms and properties that
have the potential to make the text forceful and expressive. The secondary aim is to
add clarity to a text to engage the reader. They not only beautify a text or provide
enjoyment, but also help the reader to visualize the content more clearly. They can
be found on all language levels: phonological, graphical, morphological, lexical, or
syntactic.
Properties
1. Stylistic devices cover all levels of language including phonology, morphology,

graphology, lexicology, and syntax. Writers have these devices at their disposal
to add emphasis to the conveyed information and make readers curious. They are
resources for creativity and attention-grabbing. For example, the effect behind
using hypophora, a stylistic device where the writer asks a question and then
immediately answers it is to create curiosity in the reader, as in Why is it better
not to risk? It is safer.
10 1 Key Concepts
2. Stylistic devices should not be taken literally even though they help readers
understand the literal world they live in. For example, the exaggerated statement
I’ve walked 1000 miles today is not to be taken literally. Literally, the statement
is concerned about the speaker saying it. Figuratively, the statement describes
the speaker who is exhausted. So, the stylistic device of hyperbole is used for
the sake of emphasizing and highlighting the writer’s emotion. It encourages the
reader to recognize the exhaustion.
3. Stylistic devices cluster in sets defined by two types of relation: one is similarity
vis-à-vis the overall concept of the set they form; the other is difference vis-à-vis
the specific functions they perform within the set. To understand the meaning of
any stylistic device, it is necessary to contrast it with its counterpart in the set.
For example, flashback and foreshadowing refer to events in a story, but they
have different functions. Flashback hints at events in the past, whereas foreshad-
owing hints at events yet to come. The two stylistic devices are used to create
tension or suspense, keeping the reader hungry for more.
4. Stylistic devices signal defamiliarization or foregrounding, presenting things in
an unfamiliar way to enhance the perception of the familiar. When things are
familiar, they receive less attention. When things are deviant, they attract more
attention. From a cognitive stance, stylistic devices are markers of construal: dif-
ferent ways of conceiving and expressing a situation. Examples of defamiliariza-
tion are deviation and parallelism. For example, parallelism, the repetition of
grammatical elements in discourse, is used as a means of adding rhythm as in the
use of the to-infinitive in To err is human, to forgive divine.
5. Stylistic devices are traditionally seen as a kind of linguistic embellishment.
Seen from a cognitive standpoint, stylistic devices are linguistic manifestations
of cognitive processes. They give a stamp of originality to a piece of writing.
They are brought into play for the creation of novel ideas. They serve to signal
emphasis, clarity, and importance. For example, allusion is an indirect reference
to another person, place, or event: real or imaginary. In Thanks, Romeo, a woman
alludes to a fictional romantic character in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet to
describe how wonderful her husband is.
Advantages
1. Stylistic devices can be used mainly to provide clarity though on rare occasions
they obfuscate things. In general, the qualities of good writing include a care-
fully defined purpose, clear organization, well-constructed sentences, precise
word choice, and proper use of grammar. Clarity serves to keep the reader’s
attention and to make sure the meaning is clear. In virtue and vice, the writer
uses juxtaposition, a stylistic device that involves placing two opposing ideas
side by side to highlight their differences. It creates a vivid picture of the com-
parison in the reader’s mind.
Types 11
2. Stylistic devices furnish connectivity, the situation in which they are used to con-
nect with the reader. They have the reader involved in the text; visualizing the
characters, setting, plot, conflict, and solution. They keep the reader passionate
about the text and develop empathy for the characters. They get the reader to feel
the content is real. By using imagery, a writer describes objects, actions, or
scenes in such a way that it appeals to our vision. It creates a visual representa-
tion of them in the mind. In The juicy orange is very cold, the word juicy affects
our sense of taste.
3. Stylistic devices create humor or provide amusement. They make writing power-
ful in effect, easy to understand, and fun to read. They can also help to hook the
reader. Without knowing stylistic devices, the reader would not be able to detect
many of the layers of meaning interwoven into the text. In Reading while sun-
bathing makes you well red, the writer uses a pun. A pun makes use of words
that have more than one meaning, or words that sound similar but have different
meanings. It has a humorous effect. The phrase well red can either mean knowl-
edgeable or sunburnt.
4. Stylistic devices create emphasis, the careful arrangement of words to give them
special weight. It refers to the placement of special attention on something to
give it importance. Emphasis is used in writing to attract the reader’s attention to
a particular area or object. This is typically the focal point or main subject of the
writing. In Honesty, I value most, the writer uses anastrophe for emphasis. It is
the deliberate change of syntactic word order used to achieve emphasis or bring
attention to a specific concept. The use of honesty at the beginning has much
more impact than its use at the end.
5. Stylistic devices reflect creativity, the ability to turn new ideas into reality using
vivid imagination. It is the ability to perceive the world in original ways, find
hidden patterns, find fresh perspectives, and come up with innovative solutions.
Creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal forms of
language. In Absence makes the heart grow fonder, the writer uses aphorism. It
is a short statement of general truth, wisdom, or good advice. It almost always
comes from life experience. Aphorisms often use creative imagery to get their
general point across.
Types
As already mentioned, stylistic devices are tools that writers use to improve their
writing and make it more interesting. They are means of linguistic expressiveness
which carry a vast amount of information. To decipher the information, one needs
to give a detailed and thorough analysis of the functions of all the linguistic means
used. To become cognizant of stylistic devices helps one comprehend the work of a
writer, understand the motivation behind the choices, and have a sense of the overall
meaning behind the text one comes across. As shown in Chap. 6, stylistic devices
can be classified into five types: phonological, graphological, morphological,
12 1 Key Concepts
lexical, and syntactic. The purpose of the classification is to break the subject into
smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. The smaller parts help readers make
sense of the world. Each device will be explored in depth. For each device, I will
explain what it is, the function it performs, and the types it includes, along with
illustrative examples. The function of each stylistic device is to give additional
meaning to texts, allow readers to think profoundly, and produce artistic effects on
their senses. In a nutshell, each stylistic device is used for something different.
Summary
In this chapter, I have introduced the three key concepts in the present study, namely
style, stylistics, and stylistic devices. I have defined them, underlined their tenets,
and demonstrated their benefits. The term style refers to how a writer uses language
peculiarly or characteristically in a text. The key assumption is that every writer has
a unique style, reflected in the conscious choice of words. Style has a practical
value; it aims at making and conveying meaning. The term stylistics studies the
devices used in language which affect the interpretation of a text. The key assump-
tion is that within the language system, the same content can be encoded in more
than one linguistic form. Stylistics has a practical value; it examines creativity in the
use of language. The term stylistic device refers to any of a variety of techniques
used by a writer to convey an additional and/or supplemental meaning. The key
assumption is that a stylistic device creates emphasis within a text. A stylistic device
has a practical value; it is a distinct tool used to make an existing argument more
compelling, and so engage the reader.
A look at the two terms of style and stylistics shows that they differ in the
following respects:
1. Style is the specific form of language. It refers to the perceived distinctive

manner of expression in writing or speaking. By contrast, stylistics is the process
of uncovering the anatomy of language. It is the skill of showing how texts
project meaning and how readers interact with them.
2. Style is the characteristic use of language in a text. It is the language habit of a
writer. It distinguishes one writer from another. By contrast, stylistics is a proce-
dure for the analysis of a text. It discovers how a writer’s philosophy is shaped in
a particular form.
3. Style consists in choices of linguistic devices taken from the repertoire of lan-
guage. The devices help make the writing more effective and powerful. By con-
trast, stylistics is interested in the function and significance of the linguistic
devices used in a text.
4. Style is subjective. It is based on personal feelings or opinions. By contrast,
stylistics is objective. It is based on facts or evidence which supports the interpre-
tation of a text. It studies how meaning is created through language in texts.
References 13
5. Style is seen as a variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary.

Variations in style meet the needs of communication in all its aspects. By con-
trast, stylistics uses linguistic frameworks as their analytical tools to account for
the variations.
Study Questions
1. What is meant by style? What are its keystones?
2. What ingredients of quality make writing effective?
3. What is the purpose of each mode of writing style?
4. What is stylistics? What axioms is it built on?
5. What do you consider to be the main goals of stylistics?
6. What levels of language does a stylistic analysis examine?
7. What is a stylistic device? What are its chief properties?
8. What advantages does stylistic devices offer to language?
9. What types are stylistic devices generally classified into?
10. What are the main differences between style and stylistics?
Further Reading
Useful dictionaries on key terms and concepts in stylistics are Greene and Cushman
(2016), Nørgaard et al. (2010), and Wales (2014). General introductions to the tools
and practices of stylistic analysis include Bradford (1997), Clark (1996), Hough
(1969), Haynes (1989), Jeffries and McIntyre (2010), Lambrou and Stockwell
(2018), Simpson (2004), Turner (1973), Verdonk (2002), and Watson (2008). Good
textbooks on stylistics as an academic discipline are Gavins (2007), Gibbons and
Whiteley (2018), Giovanelli and Harrison (2018), Hope and Wright (2002), Jeffries
(2010), Stockwell (2002), and Toolan (1998).
References
Bradford, Richard. 1997. Stylistics. London: Routledge.

Clark, Urszula. 1996. An Introduction to Stylistics. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
Gavins, Joanna. 2007. Text World Theory: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Gibbons, Alison, and Sara Whiteley. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics: Language, Cognition,
Interpretation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Giovanelli, Marcello, and Chloe Harrison. 2018. Cognitive Grammar in Stylistics: A Practical
Guide. London: Bloomsbury.
Greene, Roland, and Stephen Cushman, eds. 2016. The New Princeton Handbook of Poetic Terms.
Princeton University Press.
Haynes, John. 1989. Introducing Stylistics. London: Unwin Hyman.
Hope, Jonathan, and Laura Wright. 2002. Stylistics: A Practical Coursebook. London: Routledge.
Hough, Graham. 1969. Style and Stylistics. London: Routledge.
14 1 Key Concepts
Jeffries, Lesley. 2010. Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jeffries, Lesley, and Daniel McIntyre. 2010. Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lambrou, Marina, and Peter Stockwell, eds. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics. London: Continuum.
Nørgaard, Nina, Beatrix Busse, and Rocío Montoro. 2010. Key Terms in Stylistics. London:
Continuum.
Simpson, Paul. 2004. Stylistics: A resource Book for Students. London: Routledge.
Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Cognitive poetics: An introduction. London: Routledge.
Toolan, Michael. 1998. Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics. London: Routledge.
Turner, George. 1973. Stylistics. Harmondsworth: Penguins Books.
Verdonk, Peter. 2002. Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wales, Katie. 2014. A Dictionary of Stylistics. Harlow: Longman.
Watson, Greg, ed. 2008. The State of Stylistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Chapter 2
Historical Overview
Key Objectives
• Trace the distinct phases of development through which stylistics has gone
over time.
• Classify the literature into diverse trends, laying stress on their assumptions,
objectives, and methodology.
• Compare the trends in stylistics, noting the similarity or dissimilarity
between them.
Introduction
As a discipline, Stylistics started in the form of work on rhetoric and came into the
limelight in the second half of the twentieth century. In modern times, it is usually
seen as a part of Applied Linguistics. It is an interdisciplinary approach that inte-
grates theses and devices from literature, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and so
on. It is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to
language use. The language used in a text acts as a gateway to its interpretation. To
fully understand Stylistics, we need to survey its history. Although this survey is
short, it shows how diverse trends have been developed into modern stylistics. The
purpose behind the survey is twofold. First, it singles out the various theories which
feed stylistics with ideas on what a text means and how it becomes distinctive.
Second, it identifies the scholars who have had a major influence on the develop-
ment of modern stylistics. A solid understanding of such history enriches one’s
stylistic knowledge. In brief, the survey shows how ancient disciplines continue to
influence modern-day stylistics.
Stylistics has gone through distinct phases of development. Each phase has its
assumptions, objectives, and methodology.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 15

Switzerland AG 2023
Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_2
16 2 Historical Overview
Appropriacy-Centered Trends
Historically speaking, the study of style can be traced back to the literary scholar-
ships of the Greeks and Romans in the fifth century BC. In that period, the two
dominant arts were classical rhetoric and poetics. They followed a set of rules which
helped speakers and writers to speak and write effectively for a particular context.
The two arts are regarded as classical ancestors of modern stylistics. Reference to
such ancestry makes it clear that stylistics is not a latecomer on the linguistic land-
scape. Classical rhetoric and poetics are built on the assertions postulated by pre-
scriptivism, an approach that is based on a set of rules which govern how a language
should or should not be used. It is characterized by a concern for proper or correct
usage. The rules aim to preserve language by insisting on particular usages and
decrying any violation of them. There is just one way to say things. When there
appear to be two or more, the approach declares only one variant to be correct. To
achieve its aim, scholars followed Greek or Latin practices. In this sense, the
approach presents a rigid, subjective, and judgmental account of language.
Rhetorical Stylistics
Rhetorical Stylistics deals with the practice of using language persuasively. Rhetoric
is the art of using language, especially public oratory, as a means of persuasion. It is
the skill of using richly worded language to arouse feelings and win the opinions of
audiences. It is a tool for producing language that is intended to influence, convince,
or please an audience in a specific situation. It is the talent of composing and deliv-
ering a speech that is characterized by rhetorical devices of arrangement and stylis-
tic choices. A speech exploits figurative language and compositional techniques to
make a point more compelling. It focuses on the psychological effects of speakers’
words on the audience. Persuasive discourse typically involves non-literary texts
such as political, judicial, and ceremonial oratory. Rhetoric is built on five steps.
These include inventing arguments, organizing arguments, presenting arguments,
memorizing the speech, and delivering arguments.
Poetic Stylistics
Poetic Stylistics relates to the practice of writing poetry in which special intensity is
given to the expression of feelings and ideas. Poetics deals with beauty in eloquent
discourse, in which literary language is seen as an aesthetic aid for the transmission
of thought. It is the practice of using literary techniques in composing verse.
Importance is given to figurative language as a means of decorating a given piece of
Writer-Centered Trends 17
literary work. Poetic discourse is the most creative of discourses. It is brilliant in

ideas, inventive in forms, and elegant in style. It emphasized the aesthetic effects of
discourse on hearers. To achieve particular expressiveness, the poet uses artful word
order, distinctive model sentences, and various literary devices. Samuel Wesley sees
style as the dress of thought. Since it is ornamental in approach, this practice is
referred to as Aesthetic Stylistics. In Dryden’s view, the poet must possess the
qualities of invention, fancy, and elocution (Table 2.1).
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, no great shift took place. In the seven-
teenth century, literary critics urged adherence to the refinement tendency: the ten-
dency of refining the literary language according to classical norms modeled on
Greek and Latin masterpieces. Others called for restricting literary English to col-
loquial language which would be understood easily by ordinary people. In the eigh-
teenth century, scholars reiterated the belief that literary language should follow
classical norms. Two scholars were the pioneers of that trend. Jonathan Swift
insisted on avoiding vulgarism in literary language. He came up with his perception
of style as “proper words in proper places.” Samuel Johnson called for perfection in
style by emulating literary publications of great writers and by discarding colloquial
words of the time. In the early nineteenth century, the sense of purism was alive. The
language was made more regular, and the words chosen had to conform to good taste.
Writer-Centered Trends
In the early years of the nineteenth century, the interest in the study of literary lan-
guage took another direction. The use of language in literature was no longer seen
as a product of an established set of rules but as an orientation toward the writer. A
writer-centered trend is often based on the writer’s thoughts or emotions. In a writer-
centered text, the writer’s purpose and concerns figure largely in the text. In that
period, two trends concentrating on individuality and psychology appeared in the
arena. The two trends were oriented to the writer by focusing on the writer’s spon-
taneous overflow of powerful feelings. They imply a view of style as revealing the
personality or soul of the writer. It is basically due to personal style that a writer
stands recognized.
Table 2.1 Rhetoric Stylistics versus Poetic Stylistics

Rhetoric Stylistics Poetic Stylistics
1. It is practical and designed to promote 1. It is primarily aesthetic and mainly disinterested.
interest. 2. The purpose of poetic discourse is to please the
2. The purpose of rhetorical discourse is to audience.
persuade the audience. 3. The poet is not tied to the occasion and is not
3. The writer is tied to the occasion and obliged to fulfill his/her goal.
obliged to fulfill its goal.
18 2 Historical Overview
Expressive Stylistics
Expressive Stylistics brings the notion of style as the man to the forefront. Every
writer has a unique way of expressing ideas. No two writers bear the same style.
Style is the writer’s peculiar choice of language to describe a situation. It refers to
the habitual choices of all language patterns to reflect his/her personality or world-
view. The individual style of a writer is characterized by idiosyncratic elements or
distinctive features. This is influenced by the writer’s social background, educa-
tional level, political inclination, religious belief, and geographic location. Style is
seen as a mark of character. This is a revival of Cicero’s conception of style as “an
expression of personality.” Based on their use of language, it is possible to differen-
tiate between the styles of the two writers. It is associated with the works of
Benedetto Croce, Karl Vossler, and Leo Spitzer. This way of examining the lan-
guage of a text is known as Individual Stylistics.
Psychological Stylistics
Psychological Stylistics is an approach that establishes a connection between sty-

listics and psychology. It studies and reveals the psychological and emotional side
of a writer. It focuses on the writer’s consciousness that encompasses all mental
activity. It attempts to investigate the nature of the stylistic choices which markedly
appear in literary discourse. These choices reflect the desired aims of the writer and
the impressions created in the mind of the reader. According to Leo Spitzer, there
is a correlation between the style of a literary work and the psyche of a writer.
Writing is a psychological act in which the writer encodes a message, and reading
is a psychological act in which the reader decodes the conveyed message.
Psychological Stylistics aims to provide detailed textual and contextual evidence
in support of observations on personality. In this sense, the task of a stylistician is
to analyze the psychological effect of the language used by the writer on the reader
(Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Expressive Stylistics versus Psychological Stylistics

Expressive Stylistics Psychological Stylistics
1. It analyzes distinctive language use, 1. It analyzes the psychological effects of
including words, phrases, and structures. language use by the writer on the reader.
2. It accounts for the habitual choices of lexical 2. It accounts for the writer’s consciousness
and syntactic patterns which reflect the which encompasses mental activity or a
writer’s character. creative mind.
3. It underlines the correlation between the 3. It underlines the correlation between the
background of the writer and the style. psyche of the writer and the style.
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Imperial clansmen, when inclined to take a line of their own, was
liable, as history had repeatedly proved, to involve the country in
destructive dissension. Her real object in inflicting punishment on the
Prince for treating the Throne with disrespect was to save him from
himself and from the imminent peril of his own folly. But now that
several Memorials had been sent in by Censors and others,
requesting that his errors be pardoned, the Throne could have no
possible objection to showing clemency and, the position having
been made clear, Prince Kung was restored to the position of
Chamberlain, and to the direction of the Foreign Office. The Prince,
in fact, needed a lesson in politeness and, having got it, Her Majesty
was prepared to let bygones be bygones, it being clearly understood
that, for the future, he should display increased energy and loyalty as
a mark of his sincere gratitude to their Majesties.
A week later, Tzŭ Hsi, in order to drive the lesson home, issued
the following Decree in the name of the Empresses Regent.
“We granted an audience this morning to Prince Kung in

order to permit him to return thanks for his re-appointment. He
prostrated himself humbly and wept bitterly, in token of his
boundless self-abasement. We naturally took occasion to
address to him some further words of warning and advice,
and the Prince seemed genuinely grieved at his errors and full
of remorse for misconduct which he freely acknowledged.
Sincere feeling of this kind could not fail to elicit our
compassion.
“It is now some years since we first assumed the burden of
the Regency and appointed Prince Kung to be our chief
adviser in the Government; in this position his responsibility
has been as great as the favour which we have bestowed
upon him. The position which he has occupied in special
relation to the Throne, is unparalleled; therefore we expected
much from him and, when he erred, the punishment which we
were compelled to inflict upon him was necessarily severe.
He has now repented him of the evil and acknowledged his
sins. For our part we had no prejudice in this matter, and were
animated only by strict impartiality; it was inconceivable that
we should desire to treat harshly a Councillor of such tried
ability, or to deprive ourselves of the valuable assistance of
the Prince. We therefore now restore him to the Grand
Council, but in order that his authority may be reduced, we do
not propose to reinstate him in his position as ‘adviser to the
Government.’ Prince Kung, see to it now that you forget not
the shame and remorse which have overtaken you! Strive to
requite our kindness and display greater self-control in the
performance of your duties! Justify our high confidence in you
by ridding your mind of all unjust suspicions and fears.”
In the autumn of this year, 1865, took place the burial of the late
Emperor, Hsien-Feng, the preparation of whose tomb had been
proceeding for just four years. With him was buried his consort
Sakota, who had died in 1850, a month before her husband’s
accession to the Throne; her remains had been awaiting burial at a
village temple, seven miles west of the capital, for fifteen years. As
usual, the funeral ceremonies and preparation of the tombs involved
vast expenditure, and there had been considerable difficulty in
finding the necessary funds, for the southern provinces, which, under
ordinary circumstances would have made the largest contributions,
were still suffering severely from the ravages of the Taiping rebellion.
The Emperor’s mausoleum had cost nominally ten million taels, of
which amount, of course, a very large proportion had been diverted
for the benefit of the officials of the Household and others.
The young Emperor, and the Empresses Regent proceeded, as in
duty bound, to the Eastern Tombs to take their part in the solemn
burial ceremonies. Prince Kung was in attendance; to him had fallen
the chief part in the preparation of the tomb and in the provision of
the funds, and Her Majesty had no cause to complain of any
scamping of his duties. The body of the Emperor, in an Imperial
coffin of catalpa wood, richly lacquered and inscribed with Buddhist
sutras, was borne within the huge domed grave chamber, and there
deposited in the presence of their Majesties upon its “jewelled
bedstead,” the pedestal of precious metals prepared to receive it. In
the place of the concubines and eunuchs, who in prehistoric days
used to be buried alive with the deceased monarch, wooden and
paper figures of life size were placed beside the coffin, reverently
kneeling to serve their lord in the halls of Hades. The huge candles
were lighted, prayers were recited, and a great wealth of valuable
ornaments arranged within the grave chamber; gold and jade
sceptres, and a necklace of pearls were placed in the coffin. And
when all was duly done, the great door of the chamber was slowly
lowered and sealed in its place.
Next day the Empresses Dowager issued a Decree in which
Prince Kung’s meritorious acts are graciously recognised, and their
Majesties’ thanks accorded to him for the satisfactory fulfilment of
the funeral ceremonies.
“Prince Kung has for the last five years been preparing the
funeral arrangements for his late Majesty and has shown a
due sense of decorum and diligence. To-day, both the late
Emperor and his senior consort have been conveyed to their
last resting place, and the great burden of our grief has been
to some extent mitigated by our satisfaction in contemplating
the grandeur of their tombs, and the solemn ceremonies of
their burial. No doubt but that the spirit of His Majesty in
Heaven has also been comforted thereby. We now feel bound
to act in accordance with the fraternal affection which always
animated the deceased Emperor towards Prince Kung, and to
bestow upon him high honours. But the Prince has repeatedly
declined to accept any further dignities, lest perchance he
should again be tempted to arrogance. His modesty meets
with our approval, and we therefore merely refer his name to
the Imperial Clan Court, for the selection of a reward. But we
place on record the fact that as Grand Councillor he has been
of great service to us, and has of late displayed notable
circumspection and self-restraint in all matters.
“The Decree which we issued last Spring was caused by
the Prince’s want of attention to small details of etiquette, and
if we were obliged to punish him severely, our motives have
been clearly explained. No doubt everyone in the Empire is
well aware of the facts, but as posterity may possibly fail to
realise all the circumstances, and as unjust blame might fall
upon the memory of Prince Kung, if that Decree were allowed
to remain inscribed amongst the Imperial Archives, thus
suggesting a flaw in the white jade of his good name, we now
command that the Decree in which we announced Prince
Kung’s dismissal from office be expunged from the annals of
our reign. Thus is our affection displayed towards a deserving
servant, and his good name preserved untarnished to all
time.”
The Empress Dowager was essentially a woman of moods, and

these Imperial Decrees simply reflect the fact, at the beginning of her
autocratic rule, as they did until its close. Four years later Prince
Kung was to incur her deep and permanent dislike by conspiring with
her colleague to deprive her of her favourite, the chief eunuch An Te-
hai.
V
TSENG KUO-FAN AND THE TAIPING REBELLION
(1864)
The first years of Yehonala’s Co-Regency, during which she was

steadily acquiring the arts and crafts of Government, and gradually
relegating her easy-going colleague to the background, were joyfully
associated in the minds of her subjects with the decline and final
collapse of the great rebellion which had devastated the best part of
the Empire since 1850. Chinese historians (a body of writers who
depend largely on each others’ writings for material) agree in
attributing the final deliverance from this scourge to the ability and
courage of the famous Viceroy Tseng Kuo-fan,[12] and for once their
praises are well-deserved, for this military scholar like his fellow
provincial and colleague, Tso Tsung-t’ang,[13] was a man of the
heroic breed of philosophers which, with all its faults, the Confucian
system has always produced, and continues to produce, to the great
benefit of the Chinese people, a man whose name ranks high among
China’s worthies, a household word for honesty and intelligent
patriotism.
It was one of the secrets of Tzŭ Hsi’s success as a ruler that she
recognised and appreciated merit whenever she found it, and
especially the merit of a military commander: it was only when she
allowed her superstitious tendencies to outweigh her judgment that
she failed. For the character and talents of Tseng Kuo-fan she had
the highest respect, due, no doubt, in the first instance to the effect
of his military despatches, stirring tales of camp and siege, on her
imaginative mind, but later to personal acquaintance with his sterling
qualities. With the single exception of Jung Lu, probably no high
official ever stood so high in her affectionate esteem, and Jung Lu
was a Manchu kinsman, while Tseng came from one of the
proverbially independent gentry families of Hunan. From a Chinese
narrative of the Taiping rebellion, we are able to obtain a very clear
impression, not only of Tseng’s character and of his conception of
patriotism but also of the remarkable and undisputed position of
autocratic power already at that time enjoyed by the youthful
Empress Tzŭ Hsi. Before turning to this narrative, however, certain
points in connection with the final defeat of the Taipings deserve to
be noted, events with which Englishmen were prominently identified,
but which, as recorded by British eye-witnesses, confirm our doubts
as to the historical value of Imperial Edicts and Chinese official
despatches.
The Emperor Hsien-Feng had died in exile and defeat at Jehol in
August 1861. The Summer Palace had been destroyed by the British
and French forces, peace had been restored, and the Co-Regency
of the Empresses Dowager had commenced. One of the first acts of
Prince Kung, in his capacity as “Adviser to the Government” after the
conclusion of the Peace Convention of October 1860, was to invoke
the aid of his country’s conquering invaders against the Chinese
rebels, whose strong position on the Yangtsze was causing the
Court ever increasing anxiety. It is an illuminating example of
Chinese methods of government, not without parallels and value to-
day, that even while the British and French forces were
concentrating at Shanghai for their invasion of north China, high
Chinese officials in the Yangtsze provinces had not hesitated to
invoke their aid against the rebels, and had been chagrined at a
refusal which appeared to them unwise since it ignored the interests
of British trade at its most important centre. The history of the “Ever-
Victorious Army” need not be referred to here. It kept the rebels in
check in the province of Kiangsu throughout the year 1862, and in
February 1863 the British Government sanctioned the lending of
“Chinese Gordon” to take command of that force, which was
speedily to turn the tide of war in favour of the Imperialists and
effectively to pave the way for Tseng Kuo-fan’s final restoration of
law and order. Soochow, the provincial capital, was regained in
December 1863, and in the following July the fall of the rebel capital
(Nanking) and the death of the rebel “King” practically ended the
insurrection. A considerable number of Europeans, including a
French Admiral, had given their lives to win back China for the
Manchu Dynasty, although at the outset public opinion was in favour
of strict neutrality and there were many, even then, who thought
China would be well rid of her degenerate rulers: nevertheless, the
triumphant Edict in which is recorded Tseng Kuo-fan’s capture of
Nanking contains no word of reference to Gordon and the invaluable
help which he rendered, and, as will be seen, Tseng’s only reference
to the British Commander is to accuse him of having recommended
the inhuman treatment of a defenceless prisoner. In accordance with
the invariable classical tradition, he ascribes his success to “the
consummate virtue and wisdom” of the late Emperor Hsien-Feng;
the tradition represents, in conventional phraseology, the Oriental
conception of the divine right of kings, and their infallibility (a
conception which we find reproduced almost verbatim in the modern
Japanese Generals’ modest reports of their greatest victories), and it
is incompatible in China with any reference to the existence, much
less the services, of foreign barbarians. The fact is worth noting, for
Tseng was an exceptionally intelligent and courageous man who
could, sooner than most men, have ventured on a new departure;
and he knew full well that this same Gordon, who had steadily driven
the rebels before him, cane in hand for over a year, had come hot-
foot to the task from the sacking of the Manchu sovereigns’ Summer
Palace!
But Yehonala’s joy at the fall of Nanking was unfeignedly great,
and the Decree in which, in the name of the boy Emperor, she
records the event and rewards the victors, is a brilliant example of
her literary style. We take the following extracts from this document,
as of permanent interest and throwing light on the character of Tzŭ
Hsi.
Decree on the Fall of Nanking.

“An express courier from Tseng Kuo-fan, travelling two
hundred miles a day, has just arrived, bearing the red banner
of decisive victory and a Memorial describing the capture of
Nanking, the suicide by burning of the rebel Prince, the
complete destruction of the Taiping host and the capture of
two of their leading commanders. Perusal of this Memorial fills
us with the deepest joy and gratitude, which all our people will
share. The leader of the long haired rebels[14] Hung Hsiu-
ch’uan first raised his standard of revolt in the thirtieth year of
Tao-Kuang (1850); from Kuangsi the movement spread
gradually through Hunan, Hupei and the Yangtsze provinces
to Chihli itself and Shantung, until scarcely a spot in the whole
Empire but bore the footprints of the rebel armies. In the third
year of Hsien-Feng (1853) they took Nanking and there
established the seat of their Government. Uncounted
thousands of our subjects have fallen victims to their savage
crimes. The cup of their guilt has indeed overflowed. Gods
and men alike hold them in abhorrence.
“Our Imperial father, in the majesty of his wrath, and in all
reverence to Heaven, began a punitive campaign against
them and named Kuan Wen, the Viceroy of Wu-Ch’ang, to be
his Imperial Commissioner for the war. This officer
successfully cleared the Hupei region of rebels and then
marched eastwards towards Kiangsu in order to extirpate
them there also. Later, Tseng Kuo-fan was made Viceroy of
Nanking and Imperial Commissioner for the campaign in
Kiangsu and Anhui, and he achieved great results,
proportionate to his high responsibility.
“On the death of our late father (1861), half the cities of
Kiangsu and Chekiang had been retaken by our forces, and it
was a source of grief to His Majesty, recorded in his
valedictory Decree, that he could not have lived to see the
end of the rebellion. Upon our succeeding to the goodly
heritage of the Throne, obeying our late father’s commands
and listening to the sage counsel of the Empresses Regent,
we promoted Tseng Kuo-fan to be an Assistant Grand
Secretary and gave him full powers as Commander-in-Chief
over the four provinces of Kiangsu, Kiangsi, Anhui and
Chekiang, so as to secure an undivided plan of campaign.
“Ever since his appointment he has adopted a policy of
masterful strategy in combination with the forces of P’eng Yu-
lin and Tseng Kuo-ch’uan,[15] attacking the rebels both by
land and by water. Over a hundred cities have been
recaptured and over a hundred thousand rebels, who were
advancing to the relief of Nanking, have been slain and ‘their
left ears cut off.’[16] Nanking was thus completely invested
and its relief became impossible. Early this month the outer
defences of the city were taken and some thirty thousand
rebels put to the sword, but their so-called King and his
desperate followers were still at bay in the inner city, fighting
fiercely to the end.
“Tseng Kuo-fan now reports that after the capture by our
troops of the outer city ramparts, the rebels greatly
strengthened the inner defences. Our men succeeded in
taking the ‘Dragon’s Elbow’ hill and a general bombardment
followed. Mining and counter-mining went on furiously in the
vicinity of the chief forts amidst desperate encounters. At
dawn on the 16th all our forces were collected, and by
springing a mine under the wall of the city a breach was made
some sixty yards in width. Our men rushed the gap, burst into
the city and were advancing on all sides when the rebels from
the wall exploded a magazine, and many of our men were
slain. A panic was only averted by our leaders cutting down a
number of those who were attempting to fly.
[Here follows a detailed description of the fighting, which we omit.]
“By 1 a.m. flames were bursting from the Palace of the

‘Heavenly King’ and the residences of other rebel leaders.
One of them rushed from the main Palace Hall with one
thousand followers and sought refuge in some houses near
the south gate of the city. After some seven hundred of his
men had been slain, he was captured, and on his person
were found two Imperial seals of jade and one official seal of
gold. At 3 a.m. about a thousand of the rebels, disguised in
our uniforms, escaped through the tunnel at the Gate of
Heavenly Peace but our cavalry pursued them and captured
or destroyed the whole force at Hu-Shu chen, where their
leader, the ‘Glorious Prince,’ was taken alive. On being
examined, this leader whose name was Li Wan-ts’ai, admitted
that seven of the so-called Princes of the Taipings had been
slain by our forces, while seeking to escape under cover of
darkness, on the night of our entrance into the city.
“According to the evidence of other rebels, the arch-leader
Hung Hsiu-ch’uan, had committed suicide by taking poison a
month before. He had been buried in the court-yard of his
Palace, and his son, the so-called Boy-Prince, had succeeded
to the usurped title. He also had committed suicide by burning
when the city fell. Another of their chiefs, one Li Hsiu-cheng,
had been wounded and was in hiding at a spot near by, where
our men found him together with the elder brother of the
‘Heavenly King.’ During these three days, over a hundred
thousand rebels were killed, of whom some three thousand
were their so-called Princes, generals, and high officers.
“This glorious victory is entirely due to the bountiful
protection of Heaven, to the ever-present help of our
Ancestors, and to the foresight and wisdom of the Empresses
Regent, who, by employing and promoting efficient leaders for
their armies, have thus secured co-operation of all our forces
and the accomplishment of this great achievement, whereby
the soul of our late father in Heaven must be comforted, and
the desire of all people fulfilled. For ourselves we feel utterly
unworthy of this crowning triumph, and we are truly distressed
at the thought that our late father could not live to witness this
consummation of his unfinished plans. This rebellion has now
lasted fifteen years, during twelve of which Nanking has been
held by the rebels. They have devastated about a dozen
provinces, and have captured some hundreds of cities. Their
final defeat we owe to our Generals, ‘who have been combed
by the wind and bathed in the rain,’ and who have undergone
every conceivable hardship in bringing about the destruction
of these unspeakable traitors. We are therefore bound to
recognise their exceptional services by the bestowal of
exceptional rewards. Tseng Kuo-fan first contributed to this
glorious end by raising a force of militia in Hunan and a fleet
of war-vessels with which he won great victories, saving his
province from complete ruin. He re-captured Wu-Ch’ang,
cleared the whole province of Kiangsi, and, advancing
eastwards, recovered city after city. That glorious success has
finally crowned our efforts is due chiefly to his masterly
strategy and courage, to his employment of able subordinates
and to his remarkable powers of organisation. We now confer
upon him the title of Senior Guardian of the Throne, a
marquisate of the first rank, hereditary in perpetuity, and the
decoration of the double-eyed peacock’s feather.
[Here follows a long list of officers rewarded, beginning with Tseng

Kuo-fan’s brother, above mentioned, who was given an earldom.]
“As soon as the troops have found the body of the usurper
known as the ‘Heavenly King,’ Hung Hsiu-ch’uan, let it be
dismembered forthwith and let the head be sent for exhibition
in every province that has been ravaged by his rebellion, in
order that the public indignation may be appeased. As to the
two captured leaders, let them be sent in cages to Peking, in
order that they may be examined and then punished with
death by the lingering process.”
A further Decree announced that the Emperor would go in person

to offer thanksgiving and sacrifice at all Imperial Temples and
shrines, and make sacrifice to deities of the chief mountains and
rivers of the Empire.
A Chinese diarist of the rebellion, referring to the manner in which
the ‘Heavenly King’ met his death, says:—
“From the moment that the Imperialists captured Ch’u-yung,

the rebels, pent up in Nanking like wild beasts in a cage, were
in a hopeless plight. From the commencement of the 4th
Moon, the city was completely invested, and without hope of
relief. They were living on reduced rations of one meagre
meal a day. The ‘Heavenly King’ caused roots and leaves to
be kneaded and rolled into pellets which he had served out to
his immediate followers, the rebel chiefs, saying, ‘This is
manna from Heaven; for a long time we in the Palace have
eaten nothing else.’ He gave orders that every household
should collect ten loads of this stuff for storage in the Palace
granaries; some of the more ignorant people obeyed the
order, but most of the rebels ignored it.
“The rebel Li Hsiu-ch’eng, known as the ‘Patriotic Prince,’
escaped from Ch’u-yung and made his way to Nanking. Upon
entering the city, he had drums beaten and bells rung as a
signal for the ‘Heavenly King’ and his followers to ascend to
the Throne Chamber for the discussion of the perilous
situation. Hung Hsiu-ch’uan came, and boastfully ascending
the Throne, spake as follows ‘The Most High has issued to
me his sacred Decree. God the Father, and my Divine elder
brother (Christ) have commanded me to descend unto this
world of flesh and to become the one true lord of all nations
and kindreds upon earth. What cause have I then for fear?
Remain with me, or leave me, as you choose: my inheritance
of this Empire, which is even as an iron girdle of defence, will
be protected by others if you decline to protect it. I have at my
command an angelic host of a million strong: how then could
a hundred thousand or so of these unholy Imperialists enter
the city’? When Li Hsiu-ch’eng heard this nonsensical
boasting, he burst into tears and left the hall.
“But before the middle of the 5th Moon, Hung Hsiu-ch’uan
had come to realise that the city was doomed, and on the
27th day, having abandoned all hope, he procured a deadly
poison which he mixed with his wine. Then raising the cup on
high, he cried, ‘It is not that God the Father has deceived me,
but it is I who have disobeyed God the Father.’ After repeating
this several times he drank the poison. By midnight the
measure of his iniquity was full, and, writhing in agony, he
died. Even his last words showed no true repentance,
although they amounted to an admission of guilt. When his
followers learned what had happened, they wrapped his body
in a coverlet of yellow silk, embroidered with dragons and
then, following the rule of their religion, buried it, uncoffined, in
a corner of the Palace ground. They then placed on the
Throne the rebel’s son, the so-called Boy-Emperor, but they
tried to keep secret the news of the ‘Heavenly King’s’ death. It
eventually leaked out, however, and the courage of the
besieged dropped to the last depths of despair.”
In his Memorial to the Throne, Tseng Kuo-fan described the

exhumation of the rebel Emperor’s body.
“Even the feet of the corpse were wrapped in dragon

embroideries,” he says; “he had a bald head and a beard
streaked with grey. After examining the body I beheaded it
and then burnt it on a large bonfire. One of the concubines in
the usurper’s palace, a woman named Huang, who had
herself prepared the body for burial, told me that the
‘Heavenly King’ seldom showed himself to his Court, so that
they were able to keep his death a secret for sixteen days. I
am sending his bogus seals to Peking that they may be
deposited in the Imperial Archives Department.”
The Memorial then proceeds:—
“The prisoner Li Hsiu-ch’eng, known as the ‘Patriotic

Prince,’ was minutely cross-examined by myself, and his
statement, which he wrote out with his own hand, extends to
some thirty thousand words. He narrated in detail the first
causes of the rebellion and described the present position of
the rebels still at large in Shensi and elsewhere. He strongly
advised that we should not be too hard on the defeated rebels
from Kuangtung and Kuangsi, on the ground that severity
would only lead to an increase of the anti-dynastic feeling in
those provinces. It seems to me that there is much sense in
his advice.
“All my staff were most anxious that Li Hsiu-ch’eng should
be sent to Peking in a cage, and even the foreigner Gordon,
when he called to congratulate me, strongly urged this
course. But it seems to me that the high prestige of our
Sacred Dynasty needs no such sending of petty rebels to
Peking as trophies or prisoners of war. The ‘Heavenly King’s’
head is now being sent round those provinces which were laid
waste by the rebellion, and this should suffice. Besides, I feel
that there would be some risk of Li starving himself to death
on the journey, or that a rescue might even be attempted, for
this Li was extraordinarily popular with the common people.
After the fall of the city, some peasants gave him shelter, and
when he was finally captured the people of the village where
he was taken decoyed and slew one of our men in revenge.
After he had been put in his cage here, another rebel leader,
the so-called ‘Pine Prince,’ was brought into camp. As soon
as he caught sight of Li, he went down on his knees and
saluted him most respectfully, I therefore decided to behead
him and the sentence was duly carried out on the 6th instant.
“The two elder brothers of the ‘Heavenly King’ were men of
a cruel and savage nature, who committed many foul and
impious crimes. Li detested them both heartily. When
captured, they were in a dazed state, and could only mumble
‘God the Father, God the Father.’ As I could get no
information from them, and as they were sick unto death, I
had them both beheaded, two days before the execution of Li
Hsiu-ch’eng. I am now in receipt of your Majesties’ Decree,
approving my action and ordering me to forward the heads of
the three rebel chiefs to the various provinces in order that
public indignation may be appeased. I have duly suspended
the heads from long poles, and the sight of them has given
great and general satisfaction.
“And now, victory being ours, I am led to the reflection that
this our Dynasty surpasses all its predecessors in martial
glory and has suppressed several rebellions by achievements
which shed lustre on our history. The Ssŭ-ch’uan and Hupei
rebellion of half a century ago was, however, limited to four
provinces, and only some twenty cities were held by the
rebels. The insurrection of Wu San-kuei, in the reign of K’ang-
Hsi, overran twelve provinces, and the rebels captured some
three hundred cities and towns. But this Taiping rebellion has
been on a scale vaster than any before, and has produced
some great leaders in its armies. Here in Nanking not a single
rebel surrendered. Many burned themselves alive rather than
be taken. Such things are unparalleled in history, and we feel
that the final happy issue is due to the consummate virtue and
wisdom of his late Majesty, which alone made victory
possible. By dint of careful economy in the Palace, he was
able to set aside large sums for the equipment of adequate
forces. Most careful in his choice of leaders, he was lavish of
rewards; all wise himself, yet was he ever ready to listen to
the advice of his generals. Your Majesties the Empresses and
the Emperor have faithfully carried out and even amplified
these principles, and thus you have succeeded in wiping out
these usurpers and have shed great glory on your reign. We,
who so unworthily hold your high command, grieve greatly
that His Majesty did not live to see his work crowned with
triumph.”
For four years after the collapse of the rebellion, Tseng Kuo-fan
remained at Nanking as Viceroy. (The Hunanese still regard that post
as belonging by prescriptive right to a Hunanese official.) His only
absence was during a brief expedition against the Mahomedan
rebels in Shantung. In September 1868 he was appointed Viceroy of
Chihli, and left for Peking at the end of the year, receiving a
remarkable ovation from the people of Nanking. In Peking he was
received with great honours, and in his capacity of Grand Secretary
had a meeting with the Council on the morning after his arrival,
followed immediately by an Audience, to which he was summoned
and conducted by one of the Princes. The young Emperor was
sitting on a Throne facing west, and the Empresses Regent were
behind him, screened from view by the yellow curtain, Tzŭ An to the
left and Tzŭ Hsi to the right of the Throne. In the Chinese narrative of
the rebellion to which we have already referred, the writer professes
to report this audience, and several that followed, practically
verbatim, and as it affords interesting information as to the manner
and methods of Tzŭ Hsi on these occasions, the following extracts
are worthy of reproduction. It is to be observed that the writer, like all
his contemporaries, assumes ab initio that the Empress Tzŭ An,
though senior, is a negligible quantity and that the whole interest of
the occasion lies between Tzŭ Hsi and the official in audience.
Upon entering the Throne room, Tseng fell upon his knees, as in
duty bound, and in that position advanced a few feet, saying “Your
servant Tseng Kuo-fan respectfully enquires after Your Majesties’
health.” Then removing his hat and performing the kowtow, he
humbly returned thanks for Imperial favours bestowed upon him.
These preliminaries completed, he rose and advanced a few steps to
kneel on the cushion prepared for him below the daïs. The following
dialogue then took place:—
Her Majesty Tzŭ Hsi. When you left Nanking, was all your
official work completed?
Tseng. Yes, quite completed.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the irregular troops and braves all been
disbanded?
Tseng. Yes, all.
Tzŭ Hsi. How many in all?
Tseng. I have disbanded over twenty thousand irregulars
and have enrolled thirty thousand regulars.
Tzŭ Hsi. From which province do the majority of these men
hail?
Tseng. A few of the troops come from Hunan, but the great
majority are Anhui men.
Tzŭ Hsi. Was the disbandment effected quite quietly?
Tseng. Yes, quite quietly.
Then follow numerous questions regarding Tseng’s previous

career, his family, &c. As soon as the questions cease, after waiting
a few minutes, the audience is at an end, and Tseng kowtows and
retires. On each occasion, and they were many, the Empress had
evidently worked up her questions carefully from study of reports and
despatches, and invariably put them in the short sharp form
indicated; always peremptory, de haut en bas and Cæsarian, this
woman “behind the screen,” addressing the veteran who had saved
China for her rule.
After describing Tseng’s important position at the Court banquet
given to high officials, Manchu and Chinese, on the 16th day of the
1st Moon (at which six plays were performed and the dishes “passed
all reckoning”), the narrative gives an account of his farewell
audience, at which Her Majesty closely cross-examined him as to his
plans for the reorganisation of the naval and military forces of Chihli.
He held the post of Chihli Viceroy for a little over a year. The
viceregal residence in those days was at Pao-ting fu, so that when
the Tientsin massacre occurred (1870) he was not directly to blame,
though officially responsible. In June of that year the Nanking
Viceroy was assassinated, and Tseng was ordered to resume duty at
that post, his place in Chihli being taken by Li Hung-chang, who held
it for twenty-four years. Tseng, whose health was failing,
endeavoured to have his appointment to Nanking cancelled, but Tzŭ
Hsi would take no excuses. She issued a Decree in which she laid
stress on the arduous nature of the work to be done at the southern
capital and Tseng’s special fitness for the post which he had so ably
administered in the past. “Even if his eyesight troubles him,” she
said, “he can still exercise a general supervision.”
Before leaving for the south, Tseng celebrated his sixtieth birthday,
receiving many marks of Imperial favour and rich gifts. The Empress
sent him a poem of congratulation in her own handwriting, and a
tablet bearing the inscription “My lofty pillar and rock of defence,”
together with an image of Buddha, a sandalwood sceptre inlaid with
jade, a dragon robe, ten rolls of “auspicious” silk, and ten of crape. At
his farewell audience the following interesting conversation took
place:—
Tzŭ Hsi. When did you leave Tientsin?

Tseng. On the 23rd.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the ringleaders in the massacre of foreigners
been executed yet?
Tseng. Not yet. The Consul told me that the Russian
Minister was coming to Tientsin and that the French Minister
was sending a deputy to witness the executions, so that the
decapitations could not be summarily carried out.
Tzŭ Hsi. What date has Li Hung-chang fixed for the
executions?
Tseng. On the day of my departure, he sent me word that
he expected to dispose of them yesterday.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the Tientsin populace calmed down?
Tseng. Yes, things are now quite settled and orderly.
Tzŭ Hsi. What made the Prefect and Magistrate run away
to Shun-Tê after the massacre?
Tseng. When first removed from their posts, they knew not
what sentence would be decreed against them, so they boldly
and shamelessly ran away from the city.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have you quite lost the sight of your right eye?
Tseng. Yes, it is quite blind; but I can still see with the left.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have you entirely recovered from your other
maladies?
Tseng. Yes, I think I can say that I have.
Tzŭ Hsi. You appear to kneel, and to rise from that posture
quite briskly and freely, as if your physique were still pretty
good?
Tseng. No; it is not what it used to be.
Tzŭ Hsi. That was a strange thing, the assassination of Ma
Hsin-yi (the late Viceroy of Nanking), was it not?
Tseng. Extraordinary.
Tzŭ Hsi. He was a first-rate administrator.
Tseng. Yes, he took great pains, and was honest and
impartial.
Tzŭ Hsi. How many regular troops have you raised in
Chihli?
Tseng. Three thousand. The former Viceroy had four
thousand men trained under the old system. I had intended to
raise three thousand more, making a total force of ten
thousand. I have arranged with Li Hung-chang to carry out
this programme.
Tzŭ Hsi. It is of vital importance that we should have a force
of properly trained troops in the south. You must see to this.
Tseng. Yes. At present peace prevails, but we must be
prepared for all possible emergencies. I propose to build forts
at several places on the Yangtsze.
Tzŭ Hsi. It would be a fine thing if we could secure
ourselves properly against invasion. These missionary
complications are perpetually creating trouble for us.
Tseng. That is true. Of late the missionaries have created
trouble everywhere. The native converts are given to
oppressing those who will not embrace Christianity (literally
“eat the religion”) and the missionaries always screen the
converts, while the Consuls protect the missionaries. Next
year, when the time comes for revising the French Treaty, we
must take particular pains to reconsider carefully the whole
question of religious propaganda.
In November Tseng had his farewell audience, and Tzŭ Hsi never
saw him again. A month later he took over the seals of office at his
old post, one of his first acts being to try the assassin of his
predecessor, who was condemned to death by the slicing process. In
the following summer he went for a cruise of inspection and visited
various places of interest, noting with satisfaction the complete
restoration of law and order in the districts which had been for so
long the scene of the Taipings’ devastations. On one occasion,
seeing the gaily decked “flower-boats” and listening to the sounds of
their revelries, he joyfully exclaimed: “I am glad to have lived to see
my province as it was before the rebellion.” In December he moved
into the Viceregal residence which he had known as the Palace of
the Taiping “Heavenly King.” But he was not long to administer that
high office, for in the early part of 1872 he had a first stroke of
paralysis. A few days later, going in his chair to meet a high official
arriving from Peking, and reciting, as was his wont, favourite
passages from the classics, he suddenly made a sign to his
attendants, but speech failed him and he could only mumble. In his
diary that same evening, he wrote:—“This illness of mine prevents
me from attending to my work. In the 26th and 27th years of Tao-
Kuang (1846-7) I found that efforts at poetical composition brought
on attacks of eczema and insomnia. Now it is different. I feel all
dazed and confused. Spots float before my eyes and my liver is
disordered. Alas, that I can neither obtain a speedy release, like the
morning dew which swiftly passes away, nor hope for the restoration
of energies to enable me to perform my duty. What sadder fate than
thus to linger on, useless, in the world!” On the next day he wrote:
—“My strength is rapidly failing, and I must leave behind me many
unsettled questions and business half completed. The dead leaves
of disappointed hopes fill all the landscape, and I see no prospect of
settling my affairs. Thirty years have passed since I took my degree,
and I have attained to the highest rank; yet have I learned nothing,
and my character still lacks true solidity. What shame should be mine
at having reached thus uselessly old age!” Next day, while reading a
despatch, he had another stroke. Rallying, he told his eldest son,
Tseng Chi-tsê, to see to it that his funeral ceremonies were
conducted after the old usages, and that neither Buddhist nor Taoist

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Stylistics enjoys prominence in modern scholarship. Stylistics is taught and

1 Key Concepts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1

Table 1.1 Expository versus persuasive writing styles����������������������������������������� 5

Before dwelling on any linguistic discipline, it is important to introduce the primary

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

1. Style is the manner in which language is used, so it is related to parole rather

was written, respectively. Each stylistic choice gives a different impression of

A writing style is a manner of expressing thought in language characteristic of an

Table 1.1 Expository versus persuasive writing styles

As a term, Stylistics is a combination of three parts: style + −ist (adhering to a dis-

Table 1.2 Narrative versus descriptive writing styles

Human language is a multifaceted system made up of distinct levels. Stylistic analy-

1. Stylistic devices cover all levels of language including phonology, morphology,

1. Style is the specific form of language. It refers to the perceived distinctive

5. Style is seen as a variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary.

Bradford, Richard. 1997. Stylistics. London: Routledge.

Jeffries, Lesley. 2010. Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 15

literary work. Poetic discourse is the most creative of discourses. It is brilliant in

Table 2.1 Rhetoric Stylistics versus Poetic Stylistics

Psychological Stylistics is an approach that establishes a connection between sty-

Table 2.2 Expressive Stylistics versus Psychological Stylistics

“We granted an audience this morning to Prince Kung in

The Empress Dowager was essentially a woman of moods, and

The first years of Yehonala’s Co-Regency, during which she was

Decree on the Fall of Nanking.

[Here follows a detailed description of the fighting, which we omit.]

“By 1 a.m. flames were bursting from the Palace of the

[Here follows a long list of officers rewarded, beginning with Tseng

A further Decree announced that the Emperor would go in person

“From the moment that the Imperialists captured Ch’u-yung,

In his Memorial to the Throne, Tseng Kuo-fan described the

“Even the feet of the corpse were wrapped in dragon

The Memorial then proceeds:—

“The prisoner Li Hsiu-ch’eng, known as the ‘Patriotic

Then follow numerous questions regarding Tseng’s previous

Tzŭ Hsi. When did you leave Tientsin?

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