Power Electronic System Design:

Linking Differential Equations, Linear

Algebra, and Implicit Functions Keng C.
Wu
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POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions

KENG C. WU
Switching Power, Inc. Ronkonkoma, NY, United States
POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions
Elsevier
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Dedicated to
Grandson
Mitchell Patrick Wu Cayanni
Contents

About the Author xi

Preface xiii

1. Capacitor and inductor 1

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form 1
1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form 2
1.3 Inductor equation in differential form 3
1.4 Inductor equation in integral form 4
1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law 4
1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance 5
1.7 Transformer equation 7
1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and equivalent circuit 10
1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits 11
1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor 13
1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor 15

2 First-order circuits 19
2.1 RC network with periodic drive source 19
2.2 Sawtooth (triangle ramp) generator 30
2.3 Full-wave rectifier with RC load 33
2.4 A brushless DC Motor with permanent magnets rotor 38
2.5 A BLDC motor speed detector 45
References 47

3 Current source 49
3.1 Semiconductor diode equation 49
3.2 Simple current source 50
3.3 Bob Widlar current source 54
3.4 Improved current source 58
3.5 Source impedance 60
3.6 555 timer 64
3.7 Precision current loop 70
3.8 Current-mode laser driver 74
3.9 LED array driver 76
3.10 JFET current source 77
3.11 MOSFET current source 78

vii
viii Contents

4 Second order 81
4.1 Form 81
4.2 Root 83
4.3 Time domain 85
4.4 Frequency domain 89
4.5 Parallel and serial resonance 92
4.6 Eigen value approach 103
4.7 RC filters and Sallen–Key filters 104
4.8 Power filters 111
4.9 Oscillator 113
4.10 Implicit function 120

5 Gain blocks 123

5.1 Class-A direct-coupled bipolar transistor amplifiers 123
5.2 Class-AB, B, C bipolar transistor amplifiers 129
5.3 Transformer-coupled transistor amplifiers 133
5.4 Class-D switch-mode power amplifiers 135
5.5 Pulse width modulator 139
5.6 Digital (clocked) window comparator 140
5.7 Linear operational amplifiers 142
5.8 Tuned amplifiers and implicit function 147
5.9 Composite nonlinear operational amplifiers 150
5.10 Unity-gain bandwidth of op-amp 153
5.11 Large signal gain of op-amp 156

6 Feedback approaches 167

6.1 Voltage feedback 167
6.2 Current feedback 170
6.3 PID feedback 175
6.4 State feedback 178
6.5 Feedback isolation 180

7 Control practices 189

7.1 Level control 189
7.2 Mode control 190
7.3 Zone control 192
7.4 Variable structures 193
7.5 Sensor 196
7.6 Open loop 198
 Contents ix

7.7 Close loop 200

7.8 Loop contention 203
7.9 Time control 204
7.10 Sequential time control 206

8 Linear regulator 213

8.1 Bipolar series voltage regulator 213
8.2 MOSFET series voltage regulator 223
8.3 Multiple implicit function approach 227
8.4 Design procedure for loop stability 228
8.5 Design procedure for error amplifiers 230
8.6 Current-mode laser driver design procedure 236
8.7 Shunt regulators 238

9 Switch-mode DC/DC converters 241

9.1 Power filter, inductor, and capacitor 243
9.2 Fundamental topologies 249
9.3 Operational dynamics of basic buck topology 254
9.4 Operational dynamics of basic boost topology 257
9.5 Operational dynamics of basic flyback converter 259
9.6 Cascaded converter—nonisolated 261
9.7 Isolated converter—forward converter 264
9.8 Isolated converter—half-bridge converter 269
9.9 Isolated converter—push–pull converter 272
9.10 Isolated converter—full-bridge converter 272
9.11 Isolated converter—quasi-resonant converter 273
9.12 Analog feedback 275
9.13 Close loop—analog 288
9.14 Close loop—digital 296

10 AC drives, rectification, and inductive loads 299

10.1 Reexamine RC-loaded rectifier 299
10.2 AC drive with unidirectional RL load 301
10.3 Half-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 304
10.4 Full-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 305
10.5 Phase-controlled AC drive with RL load 307
10.6 Phase-controlled AC drive with free-wheel diode and RL load 309
10.7 Phase-controlled full-wave AC drive with RL load 311
10.8 Three-phase circuits 313
x Contents

11 Rotation, three-phase synthesis, and space vector concepts 319

11.1 Magnetic field (flux) 319
11.2 Synthesis of three-phase sources and inverters 323
11.3 Vector concept 331

Appendix A Accelerated steady-state analysis for a parallel resonant

network fed by nonsinusoidal, half-wave rectified current 347

Appendix B Matrix exponential 349

Appendix C Example 4.7 MATLAB m-file 351

Appendix D Example 8.1 353

Appendix E A general mass-spring-dashpot second-order system;

first alternative 359

Appendix F A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

second alternative 363

Appendix G A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

third alternative 365

Appendix H Matrix exponential—Jordan form 367

Appendix I A step-by-step primer on digital power-supply design 369

Digital tides 369
Tumble to digital 369
Roadmap to digital 370
Navigate to digital filter 371
Work out a forward converter example 373
Implementation 377
Conclusion 380
References 381

Appendix J Motor winding driven by SCR phase-controlled

sine source 383
Index 385
About the Author

Keng C. Wu, a native of Chiayi( ), Dalin( ), Taiwan, received the B.S.

degree from Chiaotung University, Taiwan, in 1969 and the M.S. degree
from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois in 1973.
He was a lead member, technical staff, of Lockheed Martin, Moorestown,
NJ. He has published five books: Pulse Width Modulated DC-DC Converters
Chapman & Hall, January 1997; Transistor Circuits for Spacecraft Power System
Kluwer Academic Publishers, November 2002; Switch-mode Power Converters:
Design and Analysis Academic Press, Elsevier, November 2005; Power Recti-
fiers, Inverters, and Converter Lulu.com November 2008.; Power Converters with
Digital Filter Feedback Control, Elsevier, Academic Press, 2016. He holds a
dozen US patents, was awarded Author of the Year twice (2003 and 2006
at Lockheed Martin), and presented a 3-hour educational seminar at IEEE
APEC-2007 S17.

xi
Preface

Years ago, Prof. Emeritus Chi-Tsong Chen, the author of Linear System
Theory and Design, a very successful textbook (Oxford University Press), met
the author at his Flushing, New York residence. In the meeting, and in the
preface of Signals and Systems – A Fresh Look his last publication (PDF form
free to all globally), Prof. Chen lamented that “Feedbacks from graduates
that what they learned in university is not used in industry prompted me to
ponder what to teach in signals and systems.”
Sadly,and based on long professional career serving RCA/GE/Lockheed
Martin space sector, the author can definitively confirm the fact Prof.
Chen was sad about. The less-than-desirable state had existed, and is still
present,in the form that many degree-holding engineers including electrical,
electronic, mechanical, and other specialties are falling short in applying
mathematical tools they were taught in college. Given electrical schematic
drawings, they were unable to formulate and express systems’ dynamics in
state variables and state transition using the first-order differential equations
and linear algebra technique. As a result, they were unable to boost their
productivity using software such as MATLAB.
This book intends to bridge the gap—what is taught in college and how
it is being applied in industry. In essence, this writing shall be considered
didactic.
It begins with Chapter one giving capacitors and inductors, two indis-
pensable energy storage components, an in-depth examination from the
view point of the first-order derivative, its corresponding integral form,
and its physical implications. Chapter two covers RC- and RL-type net-
works governed by a single differential equation. Key steps moving system
differential equations to Laplace transform in a frequency domain and to
a state-space transition form are introduced. Along the way, unconven-
tional approaches deriving Fourier series, explaining orthogonal property,
or treating boundary value problems are also explored. Chapter three covers
current sourcing circuits including current mirror, the workhorse of analog
integrated circuits, and precision current generator loops critical to instru-
mentation. Chapter four extends Chapter two to networks of second order
governed by two first-order differential equations. Procedures transforming
multiple differential equations to Laplace form, to state-transition form, and
to state-transition solution are shown. Chapter five examines circuit blocks

xiii
xiv Preface

and modules performing amplification, voltage-to-time window, duty cycle

modulation, etc. Chapter six covers feedback practices including voltage,
current, isolation, summative current, subtractive current, and state feedback.
Chapter seven discusses configurations of control loops including single loop,
multiple loop, open loop, closed loop, nested loop, loop contention, etc.
Chapter eight deals with linear regulators including series voltage regulator
and current shunt in parallel. Chapter nine explores switch-mode power
processing. Chapter ten presents complexities arising from inductive load fed
by rectified AC sources of single phase, multiple phases, and phase control.
Employing the concept of electromagnetic vectors in space, Chapter eleven
focuses on the formation of magnetic flux vector placed intentionally along
selected orientation, time-varying flux intensity, and rotational flux vector
that makes motor spin.
Considering the writer’s goal is to bridge materials taught in college and
applications of the material in actual industrial settings, the topics outlined
above and organized in that particular order are suitable for college seniors
and novice professionals in the industry. Following the material, and when
facing a real-world design schematic, readers will be able to (1) assign state
variables (circuit node voltage, inductor branch current), (2) write down
multiple differential equations, (3) place equation set in a state-transition
form, (4) select the approach one is more comfortable and confident, for the
time being, (5) obtain system response solutions corresponding to various
drives in different time frames, (6) stitch together a steady-state response
solution in closed-form analytical expressions.
Given time and practice, and when facing system order exceeding three,
most readers will quickly realize that state-transition equation and solution
invoking matrix operation delineated in linear algebra are more effective,
even elegant, in handling high-order systems.
This writer had definitely experienced that awareness, and expects all
reader to do the same.
As indicated in the subtitle of this writing, along the presentation,
mathematical notes are inserted where appropriateness is not violated. Quite
a few may be considered unconventional. This is done in the spirit of never
taking authority dogmatically—a true open mind respecting the unlimited
possibilities of viewing nature from multiple angles and a belief that what
 Preface xv

was said true in the past may not be true in the future when new discoveries
see the daylight.
On the backdrop of the above conviction, this author took additional
efforts to make this writing also available in Chinese language;thanks to pub-
lisher Elsevier for granting such translation right. Thanks are also extended
to Mr. , at ITRI (Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu Taiwan),
who had performed the translation, a very demanding task considering the
limitations of Chinese language in handling technical subjects.
With the advance of miniaturized electronic hardware and supercom-
puter equipped with mathematical co-processors, engineering design tasks
are now mostly carried out by the simulation and computation. The
implementation of both always requires design formulation in the form
of analytical expressions based on, in most cases, systems of differential
equations with coefficients depending on components/parts values.
In the course of almost four decades‘Ł‘™professional career in aerospace
industries, the author had definitely derived significant benefits from follow-
ing the path outlined above.
You, readers, can certainly do the same.
Keng C. Wu
Princeton, NJ.
Dec. 2020
CHAPTER 1

Capacitor and inductor

Two components, capacitors and inductors, play irreplaceable roles in elec-
trical power processing for their energy-storage properties.By presenting the
analytical equations governing both in either differential or integral forms,
this chapter illuminates the electromagnetic behaviors of those devices and
elucidates its physical significance when working with driving sources.

MATH. NOTE: In most calculus textbooks, derivatives and integrals are

introduced in the forms of f´(x) = dy/dx = df(x)/dx and ∫ydx = ∫f(x)dx,
given y = f(x) a two-dimensional plane curve and x is the independent vari-
able, with little physical meaning attached except the concept of “tangential
slope,” associated with the derivative, and “geometrical area,” associated with
the integral, employing the approach of limit. The independent variable x is
by no means restricted to signifying only space quantity.It certainly can stand
for time,and many other variables as well.The simple act of replacing dx with
dt, an infinitesimal time increment, introduces interesting, and important,
physical meaning to derivative f´(t) = dy/dt = df(t)/dt. As dt appears in the
numerator (inverse of time), derivative against time yields the dimension of
speed, velocity, and/or frequency; the temporal changes of a time-dependent
variable. ♣

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form

Almost without exception, the action of capacitors is introduced in text-
books in a differential form; which links current through the device and
time rate of voltage change across it with a positive sign as shown.

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the current is expressed as

the rate of charge carriers’ changes, i(t) = dQ(t)/dt, in which Q(t) = Cv(t) and
C, the capacitance and a constant within reason, is a function of geometry
and material property. ♣

i
dv(t ) +v
i(t ) C (1.1)
dt
Power electronic system design. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-32-388542-3.00004-2 All rights reserved. 1
2 Power electronic system design

v
i
t

Fig. 1.1 Terminal current and voltage of a capacitor.

What does this form tell us about a capacitive element?

1. When dv/dt = 0, that is when the device voltage reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device current crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain current waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding voltage waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for a capacitor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.1.
2. As the voltage variable in Eq. (1.1) appears as a derivative, the current
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.1) is rewritten as
d[VDC + v(t )]
i(t ) = C (1.2)
dt
In this form, one important property of capacitor stands out. That is, the
device sustains a DC (direct current) voltage, VDC , which however does not
contribute to its current. The significance of this attribute is that a capacitor
blocks DC current. Or, DC current does not flow through a capacitor. Only
AC (alternating) current does.
3. Capacitor allows the application of a DC voltage within limit; the
breakdown voltage.

1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.1) can of course be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
v(t ) = i(t )dt = V0 (t0 ) + i(τ )dτ (1.3)
C C t0
MATH. NOTE: This is actually a rewording of the previous MATH
NOTE, that is, charge is equal to the time integral of current. ♣
In contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.3), in particular
the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the capacitive
state variable: voltage.
4. In a very straightforward manner, it declares the continuous nature of
capacitor voltage.
 Capacitor and inductor 3

t
v

Fig. 1.2 Terminal current and voltage of an inductor.

5. In addition, Eq. (1.3) implies that capacitor voltage is lagging its

current in time domain:voltage phase lags (The integral of a time-dependent
variable yields accumulation of its past acts.) Or, capacitor current is leading
its voltage across: current phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that a capacitor stores
energy in stationary charge space: E-field.

1.3 Inductor equation in differential form

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the inductive voltage will
be expressed as the rate of magnetic flux changes, v(t) = d(t)/dt, in which
(t) = Li(t) and L, the inductance and a constant within reason, is a function
of geometry and material property. This will be expounded in one of the
section to follow. ♣

By the same token, inductor and its electrical symbol was always intro-
duced by the following
i
di(t ) +v
v(t ) L (1.4)
dt

With reasoning similar to those given for capacitors, the following

electric behaviors are expected of an inductor.
1. When di/dt = 0, that is when the device current reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device voltage crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain voltage waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding current waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for an inductor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.2.
2. As the current variable in Eq. (1.4) appears as a derivative, the voltage
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.4) is rewritten as
d[IDC + i(t )]
v(t ) = L (1.5)
dt
4 Power electronic system design

In this form, one important property of inductor stands out. That is, the
device allows a DC current, IDC , which however does not contribute to its
voltage.
3. The allowed DC current is however constrained within a limit; the
magnetic core saturation and winding wire Ampere rating.

1.4 Inductor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.4) can also be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
i(t ) = v(t )dt = I0 (t0 ) + v(τ )dτ (1.6)
L L t0
Again in contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.6), in
particular the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the
inductive state variable: current.
4. It states the continuous nature of inductive current.
5. In addition, (Eq. 1.6) implies that inductive current is lagging its voltage
in time domain: current phase lag. Or, inductive voltage is leading its through
current: voltage phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that an inductor stores
energy in circulating charge: H-field.

1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law

Faraday’s law is also generally presented in a differential form and named
“Faraday’s Law of Induction”: An electromagnetic force, emf, is generated by
a time-varying magnetic flux, e = d/dt. This form may best be interpreted
as magnetic induction on a single turn (loop). For a multiple-loop device,
the case of a practical inductor with N turns, the total induced emf sums up
to v = Ne = d(N)/dt.
Placed in an integral form, Faraday’s law of induction with multiple
loops in series becomes λ = N = ∫vdt: Total flux linkage equals the time
integral of a driving (voltage) source. For a practical device consisting of
a magnetic core, which serves to guide and focus flux, and an N-loop
winding, which passes current, each loop experiences an identical flux, .
With known cross-sectional core area, Ac , supplied by core manufacturer,
the total flux linkage is expressed as λ = NAc B, in which B stands for flux
density. It is then understood in physics that, given a core material with
permeability μ = μo μr (μo vacuum permeability, μr relative permeability), flux
 Capacitor and inductor 5

density is proportional to the magnetic field intensity, H, generated by a

driving source in the form of current, I, while permeability serves as the
proportional constant. Therefore, the total flux linkage is further expressed
as λ = NAc μo μr H.
Here, another electromagnetic law kicks in. That is Ampere’s Law:
magneto-motive force Ni = ∫Hdlm , the contour integral of magnetic field
intensity along a closed path lm . The integral may be simplified to HLm for
a geometrically isotropic and materially homogeneous core.
This additional attribute allows us to step further and rewrite the total
flux linkage as λ = NAc μo μr Ni/Lm , or λ = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )i. Plugging into
Faraday’s law of induction, we have v = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )di/dt. Referring to
Eq. (1.4), inductance is therefore L = N2 μo μr Ac /Lm for an inductor with core
material property μo , μr and core geometry Ac ,Lm ; core area and magnetic
path length.
As given, parameters determining inductance value are grouped in two;
(1) inductance index equal to the product of material property and core area
to magnetic path length ratio, and (2) square of winding turn number. In
industrial sector, core inductance index is often assigned a symbol AL .

1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance

In previous section citing Faraday’s law of induction, “time-varying mag-
netic flux” is mentioned as the key to magnetic induction. However,
“variable magnetic flux” may be more fitting as there are basically three
mechanisms to create variable magnetic flux.
A flux source may be moved mechanically in space while the inductive
reception loop stays stationary. Or, the flux generator stays stationary while
the reception loop is moved mechanically. Either way, a relative spatial
motion exists between two entities and that is actually the bottom line
of magnetic induction. Hydropower, coal-fired power, and other turbine
generators all fall under this category. In conventional physics text, it is
named “generator action.”
But the third way involves no mechanical motion at all. Both the flux
source and the reception loop remain stationary in space while the flux
generation side is driven by a true time-varying electric source. By so doing,
a time-varying flux is also created. In conventional physics, it is named
“transformer action.”
Employing the “Transformer action,” multiple windings, each with
multiple turns, are built wrapping around a common ferrous core. One
6 Power electronic system design

i1 i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.3 Ferrite cup-cored transformer and its electrical symbol.

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B( H)
Tesla

0 0

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.4 A B-H curve example without hysteresis.

winding, the primary, serves as a flux source driven by an external voltage

while the rest, the secondary, act as output windings. Fig. 1.3 shows a ferrite
cup-cored transformer, a two-winding and a multi-winding transformer
symbols.
Based on the two-winding transformer, Ampere’s law establishes a mag-
netic field intensity (N1 i1 + N2 i2 )/Lm in the core. When only winding 1 is
driven while winding 2 remains open, i2 = 0, Eq. (1.7) holds

N1 i1 Aw1
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw1 B = N1 Aw1 μoμr = N12 μoμr i1 = L1 i1
Lm Lm
(1.7)
where Aw1 stands for winding 1 cross-sectional area.
Under the same driving condition, Eq. (1.8), a cross-coupled flux linkage,
holds for winding 2, assuming Aw2 < Aw1 .

N1 i1 Aw2
λ2 = N2 2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N2 N1 μoμr i1
Lm Lm (1.8)
λ2 = M21 i1
 Capacitor and inductor 7

Next, we move driving source to winding 2 and open winding 1, i1 = 0.

Eq. (1.9), again a cross-coupled flux linkage, holds for winding 1. Readers
are cautioned to note the assumption that Aw2 < Aw1 .
N2 i2 Aw2
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw2 B = N1 Aw2 μoμr = N1 N2 μoμr i2
Lm Lm (1.9)
λ1 = M12 i2
And, Eq. (1.10) holds for winding 2
N2 i2 Aw2
λ2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N22 μoμr i2 = L2 i2 (1.10)
Lm Lm
Clearly, a mutual inductance exists between the two windings. That is
Aw2
M = M12 = M21 = N1 N2 μoμr (1.11)
Lm
An interesting effect is also observed, that is the product of L1 and L2 .
Aw1 2 Aw2
L1 L2 = N12 μoμr N2 μoμr
Lm Lm
(1.12)
Aw1 Aw2 Aw1 2
= N1 N2 μoμr N1 N2 μoμr = M
Lm Lm Aw2
or,

Aw2 √
0<k= < 1, M = k L1 L2 (1.13)
Aw1
Here an imperfect attempt indicates the origin of coupling coefficient,
k. Imperfect because perfectionist theoretician may mount a challenge
against the use of winding area in place of core area. However, considering
the imprecise nature of magnetism, practitioners in the industrial sectors
are willing to accept Eq. (1.13) knowing there are other flux leakages
unaccounted for.

1.7 Transformer equation

In previous sections, the linkage, represented by symbol μo , μr , between flux
density and magnetic field intensity was freely invoked without qualification.
Unfortunately, nature always places limitation on everything. Permeability
of material is not exempted either. It is well understood, and documented,
that ferromagnetic materials exhibit highly nonlinear and hysteric properties
8 Power electronic system design

when magnetized. The nonlinearity may be expressed in an analytic form

by borrowing the Fermi–Dirac (electron density) distribution, (Eq. 1.14), and
modifying it.
In solid-state physics, the Fermi–Dirac function is given as
1
p(E ) = E−E f
(1.14)
1+ e kT
−23
in which k = 1.380658 × 10 [Joule/degree], T temperature in degree
Kelvin, Ef Fermi energy.
With slight modifications based on Eq. (1.14), Eq. (1.15) describes the
nonlinear magnetic property for ferrous material.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H ) = Bsat ⎜ − 1⎟ (1.15)
⎝ −
H 
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
in which Bsat is the saturation flux density, specific to a material, in Tesla
(MKS unit]; H the driving magnetic field intensity in Oersted (MKS unit].
For example, given μo = 4π × 10−7 [Henry/m, MKS uint], μr = 2500 [unit-
less], Bsat = 0.25 [Tesla], Eq. (1.15) yields Fig. 1.4 plot.
With further modifications, hysteretic behavior is also accounted for,
(Eq. 1.16), depending on either increasing or decreasing magnetic field.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H, Ho ) = Bsat ⎜ H −Ho 
− 1⎟ (1.16)
⎝ −
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
In the case of increasing, the B-H curve traverses the right ascending leg,
while the left descending leg covers decreasing field (Fig. 1.5).
The main point of focus is that the magnetic flux density for any ferrous
material is limited to an upper bound, Bsat , beyond which the material can
no longer support additional flux change. Once a drive condition, that is,
the volt-second integral, exceeds the limit, the device/material permeability
drops to zero. As a result, the device incorporating the material no longer
offers inductance.Eq.(1.4) then states that,with near-zero inductance,a huge
di will also results. Such a surge current, limited only by winding resistance,
will lead to device destruction. And, this is exactly the reason the following,
flux density of transformer core, is discussed.
 Capacitor and inductor 9

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B(H, 50)
Tesla 0
0
B(H, −50)

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.5 A B-H curve example with hysteresis.

MATH. NOTE: What Fig. 1.5 shows is a multivalue function. At a selected

H coordinate, there are two corresponding flux density values. At a selected
B coordinate, there are two corresponding field intensity values. ♣
Refer now to Fig. 1.3 transformer. Suppose an AC source v(t) = Va cos(ωt)
is driving the primary winding N1 . The integral form of Faraday’s law of
induction gives a total flux linkage
 √
Va 2 Vrms
λ = Va cos (ωt )dt = sin (ωt ) = sin (ωt ) (1.17)
ω ω
As discussed above and considering the allowable saturation flux density,
the flux linkage magnitude of Eq. (1.17) must satisfy Eq. (1.18)
√ √
2 Vrms 2 Vrms
|λ| = = ≤ N1 Ac Bsat (1.18)
ω 2π f
where f stands for a driving source frequency. In other words, the driving
source magnitude, in RMS, must be constrained to
2π
Vrms ≤ √ f N1 Ac Bsat ≈ 4.443 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.19)
2
Otherwise, the transformer core will be saturated if the drive exceeds the
limit.
In power processing, in addition to sinusoidal drive, symmetrical 50%
square wave drive, dotted trace in Fig. 1.6, is also a very popular source.
Readers are invited to prove that, in this case, the source magnitude is
10 Power electronic system design

Va
flux

−Va

Fig. 1.6 Square-wave drive and core flux function.

Va Va
0

−Va −Va

Fig. 1.7 Rectangular wave drives.

constrained by Eq. (1.20) and the core flux (per turn) traces the solid curve
given in Fig. 1.6.
Vrms ≤ 4 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.20)
At this point, a moment of caution is warranted. Both Eqs. (1.19) and
(1.20) invoke drive source in RMS quantity. This practice entails easily mis-
understood mistake. Specifically, Eq. (1.19) is applicable solely for sinusoidal
drive while Eq. (1.20) for symmetrical, 50%, square-wave drive. For drive
waves, such as those given in Fig. 1.7, conversion factors existing between
drive amplitude,Va ,and its equivalent RMS quantity will alter the numerical
factor, 4.443 or 4, that appears in Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20). Readers are again
invited to work out the flux profile for drive waves shown in Fig. 1.7.

1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and

equivalent circuit
So far, all discussions concerning capacitors and magnetic devices are carried
out in the context of idealistic, conceptual space on paper. To be of practical
use, both must be built and brought to face real world. Capacitors are made
of bilayer electrodes, which must extend externally via metal contacts, while
inductors of spiral metal wires. Therefore, serial resistances are inevitably
introduced. This is not all; even a short piece of wire has inductance, however
small. What else? Capacitance exists between adjacent wires. Surfaces of
device package also create sneaky, leaky path. Taking in all, a real capacitor
or inductor may be represented by a lumped model (Fig. 1.8).
As shown, a view begins to emerge that neither device would work
as purely as what it is theoretically. Depending on the frequency range it is
immersed in a capacitor/inductor actually acts like a complex RLC network
(Fig. 1.8). We will come back to this point later.
 Capacitor and inductor 11

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 Lumped model of real (a) capacitors and (b) inductors.

1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits

In the same spirit, two-wind transformer (Fig. 1.3) can be transformed into
equivalent circuits. However, before proceeding, the drawing will be slightly
modified (Fig. 1.9) to include effects of mutual inductance. Readers should
also refer to physics textbooks for the dot convention invoked in the figure.
For the time being and in the following, winding resistances are omitted
to simplify the derivation of equivalence.
One sees easily that N1 loop gives

di1 di2 di1 di1 di1 di2

v1 = L1 +M = L1 −M +M +M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.21)
di1 d(i1 + i2 )
= (L1 − M ) +M
dt dt
And, N2 loop gives

di2 di1 di1 di2 di2 di2

v2 = L2 +M =M +M + L2 −M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.22)
d(i1 + i2 ) di2
=M + (L2 − M )
dt dt
Both lead to the loop T-form equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.10).

i1 M i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.9 Two-winding transformer with mutual inductance.

12 Power electronic system design

1:1
i1 L 1 - M L2 - M i2
v1 M v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.10 Loop T-form model for two-winding transformer.

1:1
i1
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ i2
v1 M
v2
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ (L1L2 - M 2 )/ Ideal
(L2-M ) (L1-M )

Fig. 1.11 Nodal π -form model for two-winding transformer.

Taking Laplace transform for the left most parts of Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22),
we reach a new equation set
v1 = sL1 I1 (s) + sMI2 (s) v2 = sMI1 (s) + sL2 I2 (s) (1.23)
Eq. (1.23) enables us to express I1 and I2 in terms of v1 and v2 .
v1 sM
v2 sL2 sL2 v1 − sMv2 (L2 − M )v1 + M (v1 − v2 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.24)
v1 (v1 − v2 )
=  +  
−M
s L1 L2M−M
2 2
s L1LL22−M

sL1 v1
sM v2 sL1 v2 − sMv1 (L1 − M )v2 + M (v2 − v1 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.25)
v2 (v2 − v1 )
=  +  
L1 L2 −M 2
s L1 L2M−M
2
s L1 −M

Eqs. (1.24) and (1.25) indicate a nodal π -form equivalent circuit

(Fig. 1.11).
Both the loop form and the nodal form transformer equivalent circuits
do not find them useful as it calls out all components and parameters.
 Capacitor and inductor 13

1:1
i1 (1-k 2)L 1 i2
v1 k 2L 1 v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.12 Hybrid τ -form model for two-winding transformer.

A keen observation changes the situation. By making L2 – M = 0 in

Fig. 1.10 and recognizing M = kæ(L1 L2 ), M = L2 becomes k2 L1 . As a result,
Fig. 1.10 becomes Fig. 1.12; the hybrid τ -form equivalent circuit.
This form has a loop and a node equation with two parameters, coupling
coefficient and primary inductance, involved.

1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor

Based on the fundamental principle dealing with electric charge storage
capacity of a pair of metallic plates or metalized films, the capacitance C of
such a mechanical construction is expressed as
A
C=ε (1.26)
d
in which ε represents the permittivity (dielectric constant) of separator
medium embedded between two plates, while A stands for plate area and d
plate separation, both spatial dimensions. Therefore, to a very good estimate,
the volumetric size for a capacitor will be at least equal to, or larger than,
dA; which is a simple product of two geometrical entities.
However, the process for sizing magnetic devices does not enjoy the
simplicity a capacitor is endowed with, as the construct of magnetic devices
always require some ferromagnetic filling a core shaped purposely to guide
magnetic flux such that the latter forms closed loops. In addition, space
must also be provided to accommodate multiple windings made of turns
of insulated metal wires. Fig. 1.13 shows one half of a ferrite core. The other
half is a mirror image.
As shown, the core has a center post giving a cross-sectional area Ac and
a winding window area Aw , within which coil(s) is(are) wound.
For a core wound with multiple windings, each winding in general
sustains different periodic voltage waveform and carries different currents,
also periodic. Eq. (1.18) can be generalized to specify how each winding will
be designed individually considering core flux limitation.

(Vrms ) j = K f f N j Ac Bmax (1.27)

14 Power electronic system design

Ac
Aw

Fig. 1.13 Half of a ferrite core; Ac = center post core area; Aw . (dotted line) = winding
window area, small filled circles = coil wires.

Here, Bmax is often chosen to be less than Bsat . Kf is a scaling factor relating
the RMS value of a periodic voltage and its time-domain magnitude.
Next, for each winding with peak current ij , a winding area (Aw )j is
conceptually assigned. Due to wire shape and unavoidable stacking in actual
build, only k(Aw )j is utilized. Given a desired inverse current density J [unit,
length2 /Amp],the winding peak current and its corresponding winding area
is associated by
k · (Aw ) j
ij = (1.28)
JN j
Eqs. (1.27) and (1.28) allow, for jth winding, its area product
(Vrms ) j JN j i j J (Vrms ) j i j
Ac (Aw ) j = · = (1.29)
K f f N j Bmax k kK f f Bmax
The total core cross-sectional area and winding area product covering all
winds is then
 J 
Ac A w = A c (Aw ) j = (Vrms ) j i j (1.30)
j
kK f f Bmax j

The summation on the right-hand side hints the total power handling
capacity of the device. The mathematical formulation may not be exactly
right, but it does give the flavor.
Therefore, referring to Fig. 1.13 and ignoring unit discrepancy, the
volumetric size of a magnetic device, in numerical term, may be considered
 Capacitor and inductor 15

almost twice of Eq. (1.30). Designers must check with core manufacturers
as to the accounting of the area2 number to avoid over, or under, count;
therefore over, or under, sizing a device.

1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor

In the following, only key parameters considered essential are tabulated
for both parts. Readers are to be reminded that a good understanding
of part specifications and ratings constitutes a major role in delivering a
good design, selecting reliable components, and making a high-quality final
product.

1.11.1 Capacitor

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments

Value Numeral, pF, nF, or 100 pF, 100 μF
μF
Value, tolerance Numeral, % 5%, 10%
Value, thermal Numeral, %/°C, 0.02%/°C
ppm/CÚ
Voltage, breakdown Numeral, Volts 25 V, 100 V DCmax + AC peak
magnitude
Voltage, surge rate Numeral, 1 KV/ms Causes transient
(dv/dt) Volts/sec current and
localized
overheating
Current, steady Numeral, A or mA 0.5 A at 360 Hz Frequency
sinusoidal dependent
Current, single pulse Numeral, A μs; A 500 A 3 μs Causes localized
ns overheating
ESR (Equivalent Numeral, mOhm 7 mOhm Not a constant
Serial Resistance)
Reactance Numeral, Ohm = Xc (ω), A curve Frequency
1/(ωC) dependent
Dissipation factor Numeral, A curve ESR/Xc (ω),
dimensionless
Leakage current Numeral, pA, nA Insulation quality
Lead Polarity Not applicable Polarized or Electrolytic or Film
nonpolarized
Packaging Not applicable Radial or axial Mounting
Disc or tubular consideration
16 Power electronic system design

A c B–L m H curve
0.4

Weber(volt.second)=AcB
Ψ(H, 50∙500)

Ψ(H, −50∙500)

−0.4

−2×105 H 2×105
AmpereTurn=LmH

Fig. 1.14 A core specific Ac B–Lm H curve.

1.11.2 Inductor
The intricacy for specifying magnetic devices is, in this writer’s view, orders
of magnitude harder than that for capacitors. Here, we will begin with an
important reexamination of the B-H curves given in Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5.
As far as this writer has been able to reach, the most existing literature
including journalistic articles and textbooks dealing with the subject cover
it solely in terms of B(flux density)-H(field strength) parameters. What was
not clearly mentioned in those presentations is the underlying significance
of presenting in B-H form. In a single statement, we proclaim that the
curve in B-H parameter form is “material specific.” It is characterizing a
specific ferrous material in terms of per unit volume. In other words, it is
independent of core geometry.
Therefore, those material property curves can be easily modified to be
“core specific,” Fig. 1.14, in which core geometry is now included; Ac core
cross-sectional area and Lm magnetic path length. The plot x-axis coordinate
is HLm (Ampere) while the y-axis is Ac B (flux, per turn, in Weber) (Readers
should ignore numerical figures in Fig. 1.14. It just shows that the inclusion
of core geometry will alter plot coordinate scales.)
By the same token, it can be further modified to be “device specific” or
“winding specific,” “terminal specific” in which the winding turn number,
N, is included. With that, the plot x-axis coordinate is Ni (Ampere turn)
while the y-axis is NAc B (total flux linkage in volt-second = ∫vdt).
In summary, three aspects are involved in specifying a magnetic device:
core material B-H, core geometry Ac B–HLm , and winding terminal NAc B-
Ni.
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in its natural state water and solid matter in the proportion of 90 parts
of the former to 10 parts of the latter, and if, we suppose, these 10
parts of solid matter to be cholenic acid with 5.87 per cent. of
nitrogen, then 100 parts of bile must contain 0.171 of nitrogen in the
form of taurine, which quantity is contained in .06 parts of theine, or,
in other words, 272 grains of theine can give to an ounce of bile the
quantity of nitrogen it contains in the form of taurine. The action of
the compound in ordinary circumstances is not obvious, but that it
unquestionably exists and exerts itself in both tea and coffee is
proven by the fact that both were originally met with among nations
whose diet was chiefly vegetable. These facts clearly show in what
manner tea proves to the poor a substitute for animal food, and why
it is that females, literary persons and others of sedentary habits or
occupation, who take but little exercise, manifest such a partiality for
tea, and also explain why the numerous attempts made to substitute
other articles in its place have so signally failed.

TEA AS A STIMULANT.
“Life without stimulants would be a dreary waste,” remarks some
modern philosopher, which, if true, the moderate use of good tea,
properly prepared and not too strong, will be found less harmful than
the habitual resort to alcoholic liquors. The impression so long
existing that vinous or alcoholic beverages best excite the brain and
cause it to produce more or better work is rapidly being exploded,
healthier and more beneficial stimulants usurping their place. But
while the claims made in favor of the “wine cup” must be admitted, it
cannot for a moment be denied that as excellent literary work has
been accomplished under the influence of tea, in our own times,
particularly when the poet, the essayist, the historian, the statesman
and the journalist no longer work under the baneful influence of
spirituous stimulants. Mantegaza, an Italian physiologist of high
repute, who has given the action of tea and other stimulants careful
study, confirms this claim by placing tea above all other stimulants,
his enthusiasm for it being almost unbounded, crediting it with “the
power of dispelling weariness and lessening the annoyances of life,
classing it as the greatest friend to the man of letters by enabling him
to work without fatigue, and to society as an aid to conversation,
rendering it more easy and pleasant, reviving the drooping
intellectual activity and the best stimulus to exertion, and finally
pronouncing it to be one of the greatest blessings of Providence to
man.”
Tea was Johnson’s only stimulant, he loved it as much as Porson
loved gin, drinking it all times and under all circumstances, in bed
and out, with his friends and alone, more particularly while compiling
his famous dictionary. Boswell drank cup after cup, as if it had been
the “Heliconian spring.” While Hazlitt, like Johnson, was a prodigious
tea-drinker, Shelley’s favorite beverage was water, but at the same
time tea was always grateful to him. Bulwer’s breakfast was
generally composed of dry toast and cold tea, and De Quincy states
that he invariably drank tea from eight o’clock at night until four in the
morning, when engaged in his literary labors, and knew whereof he
spoke when he named tea “the beverage of the intellectual.” Kent
usually had a cup of tea and a pipe of tobacco, on which he worked
eight hours at a stretch, and Motley, the historian tells us that he
“usually rose at seven, and with the aid of a cup of tea only, wrote
until eleven.” And Victor Hugo, as a general rule, used tea freely, but
fortifying it with a little brandy. Turning from literature to politics, we
find that Palmerston resorted to tea during the midnight sessions of
Parliament. Cobden declaring “the more work he had to do the more
tea he drank,” and Gladstone himself confesses to drinking large
quantities of tea between midnight and morning during the prolonged
parliamentary sittings, while Clemenceau, the leader of the French
Radicals, admits himself to be “an intemperate tea-drinker” during
the firey discussions of debate.
In moderation, tea is pre-eminently the beverage of the twilight hour,
when tired humanity seeks repose after a day of wearying labor.
Then the hot infusion with its alluring aroma refreshing and
stimulating, increasing the respiration, elevating the pulse, softening
the temper, producing tranquility in mind and body, and creating a
sense of repose peculiarly grateful to those who have been taxed
and tormented by the rush and routine of business cares and
vexations. What a promoter of sociability, what home comforts does
it not suggest, as, when Cowper, on a winter’s evening, draws a
cheerful picture of the crackling fire, the curtained windows, the
hissing urn and “the cup that cheers?” When, however, tea drinking
ceases to be the amusement of the leisure moment or resorted to in
too large quantities or strong infusions as a means of stimulating the
flagging energies to accomplish the allotted task, whatever it might
be, then distinct danger commences. A breakdown is liable to ensue
in more than one way, as not infrequently the stimulus which tea in
time fails to give is sought in alcoholic or other liquors, and the atonic
dyspepsia which the astringent decoction produced, by overdrawing
induces, helps to drive the victim to seek temporary relief in spirits
chloral or the morphine habit, which is established with extraordinary
rapidity. For it is a truth that as long as a person uses stimulants
simply for their taste he is comparatively safe, but as soon as he
begins to drink them for effect he is running into great danger. This
may be stating the case too forcibly for stimulants, but if this rule was
more closely adhered to we should have fewer cases of educated
people falling into the habit of secret intemperance or morphomania.

TEA AND THE POETS.

The subdued irascibility, the refreshed spirits, and the renewed
energies which the student and the poet so often owed to tea has
been the theme of many an accomplished pen, eminent writers of all
times and all countries considering it no indignity to extol the virtues
of this precious and fascinating beverage. What Bacchanalian and
hunting songs, cavalier and sea songs, rhapsodies and laudations of
other subjects have been to our literature, such was tea to the
writers, poets, artists and musicians of China and Japan, theirs being
confined to the simple subject—Tea. Each plantation was supposed
to possess its own peculiar virtues and excellences, not unlike the
vineyards of the Rhine, the Rhone and the Moselle, each had its
poet to sing its praises in running rhymes. One Chinese bard, who
seemingly was an Anacreon in his way, magnifying the product of
the Woo-e-shan mountains in terms literally translated as follows:—

“One ounce does all disorders cure.

With two your troubles will be fewer,
Three to the bones more vigor give,
With four forever you will live
As young as on your day of birth,
A true immortal on the earth.”

However hyperbolical this testimony may be considered, it at least

serves to show the high estimation in which the plant was held in
China.
The first literary eulogist to espouse the cause of the new drink in
Europe was Edmund Waller, reciting how he became first induced to
taste it. In a poem containing several references to the leaf occurs
the following pregnant allusion to tea:—

“The muses friend doth our fancy aid,

Repress these vapors which the head invade,
Keeping that palace of the soul serene.”

That Queen Anne ranked among its votaries is manifest from Pope’s
celebrated couplet:—

“Though great Anna, whom the realms obey,

Doth sometimes counsel take and—sometimes Tea.”

Johnson did not make verses in its honor, but he has drawn his own
portrait as “a hardened and shameless tea drinker, who for twenty
years diluted his meals with an infusion of this fascinating plant,
whose kettle had scarcely time to cool, who with tea amused the
evening, with tea solaced the night, and with tea welcomed the
morning.” While Brady, in his well-known metrical version of the
psalms, thus illustrates its advantages:—

“Over our tea conversations we employ,

Where with delight instructions we enjoy,
 Quaffing without waste of time or wealth
The soverign drink of pleasure and of health.”

Cooper’s praise of the beverage has been sadly hackneyed,

nevertheless, as the Laureate of the tea table, his lines are worthy of
reproduction here:—

“While the bubbling and loud hissing urn

Throws up a steaming column, and the cup
That cheers, but not inebriates, wait on each,
So let us welcome peaceful evening in.”

That Coleridge, in his younger days, must have liked tea is inferred
from the following stanza:—

“Though all unknown to Greek and Roman song,

The paler Hyson and the dark Souchong,
Which Kieu-lung, imperial poet praised
So high that cent, per cent. its price was raised.”

Gray eulogizing it:—

“Through all the room

From flowing tea exhales a fragrant fume.”

Byron, in his latter years, became an enthusiast on the use of tea,

averring that he “Must have recourse to black Bohea,” still later
pronouncing Green tea to be the “Chinese nymph of tears.” And in
addition to the praises sung to it by English-speaking poets and
essayists, its virtues have also been sounded by Herricken and
Francius in Greek verse, by Pecklin, in Latin epigraphs, by Pierre
Pettit, in a poem of five hundred lines, as well as by a German
versifier, who celebrated, in a fashion of his own, “The burial and
happy resurrection of tea.” In opposition to the “country parson,” who
calls tea “a nerveless and vaporous liquid,” and Balzac, who
describes it as an “insipid and depressing beverage,” the author of
“Eothen” records his testimony to “the cheering, soothing influence of
the steaming cup that Orientals and Europeans alike enjoy.”
 CHAPTER IX.

WORLD’S PRODUCTION
AND

CONSUMPTION.

The first direct importation of tea into England was in 1669, and
consisted of but “100 pounds of the best tea that could be procured.”
In 1678 this order was increased to 4,713 pounds, which appears to
have “glutted the market;” the following six years the total
importations amounting to only 410 pounds during that entire period.
How little was it possible from these figures to have foreseen that tea
would one day become one of the most important articles of foreign
productions consumed.
Up to 1864 China and Japan were practically the only countries
producing teas for commercial purposes. In that year India first
entered the list as an exporter of tea, being subsequently followed by
Java and Ceylon. In 1864, when India first entered the list of tea-
producing countries, China furnished fully 97 per cent. of the world’s
supply and India only 3, the latter increasing at such a marvelous
rate that it now furnishes 57, China declining to 43 per cent. of the
total.

TABLE 1.
ESTIMATED TEA PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD.
 Countries. Production Exportation
(Pounds). (Pounds).
China, 1,000,000,000 300,000,000
Japan, 100,000,000 50,000,000
India, 100,000,000 95,000,000
Ceylon, 50,000,000 40,000,000
Java, 20,000,000 10,000,000
Singapore, 20,000 10,000
Fiji 30,000 20,000
Islands,
South 50,000 20,000
Africa,
—————— —————
Total, 1,270,100,000 495,050,000
From these estimates it will be noted that China ranks first in tea-
producing countries, followed by Japan, India, Ceylon and Java in
the order of their priority; the total product of the other countries
having little or no effect as yet on the world’s supply.
This most important food auxiliary is now in daily use as a beverage
by probably over one-half the population of the entire world, civilized
as well as savage, the following being the principal countries of
consumption:—

TABLE 2.
ESTIMATED TEA CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD.

Countries. Consumption Per

(Pounds). capita
(Pounds).
Austria, 1,000,000 0.03
Australia, 18,000,000 4.50
Belgium 130,000 0.03
China, 800,000,000 3.00
Canada, 23,000,000 4.00
Central 13,000,000 ...
Asia,
Denmark, 850,000 0.37
France, 1,250,000 0.03
Germany, 4,000.000 0.09
Holland, 5,000,000 1.20
Italy, 60,000 0.01
India, 5,000,000 ...
Japan, 50,000,000 4.00
Java, 5,009,000 1.00
Norway, 165,000 0.09
New 4,500,000 7.50
Zealand,
Portugal, 600,000 0.12
Russia, 100,000,000 1.70
Spain, 275,000 0.02
Sweden, 150,000 0.03
Switzerland, 150,000 0.08
South 600,000 0.80
Africa,
South 12,000,000 0.03
America,
Straits 1,000,000 ...
Settlements,
United 82,000,000 1.50
States,
United 180,000,000 5.94
Kingdom,
West Indies, 300,000 0.03
—————— ——
Total, 1,308,039,000 1.67
From these estimates it will be observed that England ranks first in
the list of tea-consuming countries, the United States second, and
Russia third, the Australian colonies and Canada coming next in
order, comparatively little tea being used in France, Germany and
the other European countries. It is rarely used in some parts of the
globe, and is practically unknown in a great many other countries. It
is also apparent that 90 per cent. of the world’s supply is chiefly
consumed by English-speaking people, fully 75 per cent. of this
being used by England and her dependencies alone, the United
States being next in importance as a tea-consuming country. And it
may here be noted that while the world’s production of tea has been
very largely increased during the last quarter of a century in greater
ratio than that of any other of the great staples of commerce, the
production of China and Japan having increased at least 50 per cent.
in that period, to which must be added that of India and Ceylon, from
which countries little or none was received until a few years ago. Yet
it cannot be said that the consumption has increased in anything like
the same proportion, which will account for the great decline in price
in later years, and to prevent prices from going still lower it is evident
that new markets must be opened up for its sale in other countries
where it has not yet been introduced.

TABLE 3.
SUMMARY.

World’s 1,377,600,000
Production,
“ 1,307,130,000
Consumption,
—————
Surplus, 70,470,000

or

Quantity 503,100,000
 exported,
Consumption in 432,630,000
non-producing
countries,
—————
Surplus, 70,470,000
In England, particularly, the increase in the consumption of tea in late
years borders on the marvelous, the figures for 1890 reaching
upwards of 195,000,000 pounds, which, at the present rate of
increase, will, in all probability, exceed 200,000,000 in 1892, as in
the quarter of a century between 1865 and 1890 the consumption
rose from 3½ to 5 pounds per capita of the population. But as in the
latter half of that period strong India teas were more freely used,
being increased appreciably by the similar Ceylon product in the
closing years of that time largely displacing the lighter liquored teas
of China, a larger consumption is indicated by the number of gallons
of liquid yielded. This is calculated on the moderate estimate formed
in a report to the Board of Custom to the effect that if one pound of
China leaf produces five gallons of liquor of a certain depth of color
and body, one pound of India tea will yield seven and a half gallons
of a similar beverage. Then by allowing for an apparent arrest of the
advancing consumption when the process of displacement was only
commencing, the increase in the consumption of tea in the British
Islands has not only been steady but rapid; thus, from 17 gallons per
head in 1865 to 24 in 1876, 28 in 1886, reaching 33½ gallons per
head per annum in 1890, the figures of last year almost exactly
doubling that of the first year of the series, so that in consequence of
the introduction of the stronger products of India and Ceylon the
people of Britain have been enabled to double their consumption of
the beverage, although the percentage of increase in the leaf has
been only from 3½ to 5 pounds during the same period. Ceylon tea,
which a decade ago was only beginning to intrude itself as a new
and suspiciously regarded competitor in the English market with
products so well known and established as the teas of China and
India, has recently made such rapid progress that its position in the
British market in 1890, rated by home consumption, occupying third
place on the list. India teas 52 per cent., China 30 per cent., Ceylon
18 per cent.

TABLE 4.

Showing relative positions of kinds of Tea consumed in England, and

increase in pounds of same since 1880:—
Kind. 1880. 1885. 1890.
China, 126,000,000 113,500,000 60,000,000
India, 34,000,000 65,500,000 95,000,000
Ceylon, 3,000,000 24,000,000
In 1868, when the price of tea was reduced in England to an average
of 36 cents per pound, the consumption increased to the heretofore
unprecedented figures of 107,000,000 pounds, while in 1888, when
the average price was again reduced to 20 cents, owing to the
enormous increase in the production of India and Ceylon teas, the
total consumption became augmented to 185,000,000 pounds,
comprised as follows, in round numbers:—
Kinds. Pounds.
China teas, 80,000,000
India and Ceylon 105,000,000
teas,
————
Total, 185,000,000
The latter, for the first time on record, exceeding that of China teas,
being an almost exact inversion of the figures of 1886 in favor of
India and Ceylon teas, by which it will be seen that China is year by
year becoming of less importance as a source of tea supply to
English consumers. And as the demand becomes greater the
importations from India and Ceylon are constantly expanding, prices
being correspondingly reduced to an unprecedentedly low figure,
being now so cheap in the United Kingdom as to be in daily use in
almost every household. The relative positions of China, India and
Ceylon teas in England at the present writing being
Kind. Consumption,
Pounds.
India (estimated), 105,000,000
China “ 50,000,000
Ceylon “ 35,000,000
————
Total, 180,000,000
The proportion of Black tea consumed in England is about as 5 to 1,
the per capita consumption ranging from 5 to 6 pounds for the entire
population.
Ceylon teas continue to grow in public favor to a marvelous extent in
England and beyond anticipating in the natural growth of
consumption, they help fill up the yearly displacement of China teas.
The total production for 1890 was nearly 38,000,000 pounds against
over 30,000,000 pounds for 1889, and 18,500,000 pounds for 1888,
thus showing an increase of 19,500,000 pounds for the two years.
The supply for 1891 is about 40,000,000 pounds, the stock being
increased 3,000,000 pounds, which may be considered very
moderate and quite steady considering the steady all-round demand
there is for Ceylon teas in that country. But there is not the slightest
doubt but that the check which the consumption of China tea
appears to have sustained in England is entirely due to the forced
use of India and Ceylon teas in that country and her dependencies,
there being a positive revulsion of taste in many sections in favor of
the truer, purer and more delicate and richer of China teas. Medical
opinions have been recently given to prove that the excessive
quantity of tannin contained in India and Ceylon teas is very injurious
to health, and a revival of the Chinese tea-trade may be confidently
expected in the future.
So far as the English tea-trade is concerned the market for China
and Japan teas is now but a tame affair to what it was only a few
years ago, little interest being taken there in the tea product of these
countries. Year by year since 1885 China and Japan teas has had
less hold upon the English market, and it is remarkable to note how
continuously the consumption of these varieties have been on the
decline there from that time, notwithstanding their superior merits in
drawing and drinking qualities over both India and Ceylons. In that
year their consumption in the British isles amounted to over
113,000,000 pounds, but fell off to less than 105,000,000 pounds in
1886, to about 90,000,000 in 1887, to 80,000,000 in 1888, to
60,000,000 in 1889. The quantity of China and Japan teas
consumed in the whole United Kingdom declining to about
50,000,000 pounds in 1890, although the prices for them were
exceedingly low during that period. There are two main causes for
this serious reduction which have been in operation simultaneously
and for a length of time. The first was the great competition of India
teas stimulated for the reasons already named, and the second
cause the extraordinary favor that Ceylon teas found with English
consumers in 1888, when the quantity imported for use from that
island amounted to 18,500,000 pounds, or nearly double of what it
was the preceding year, the quantities cleared for 1889 and 1890
being respectively 28,500,000 pounds and 34,500,000 pounds,
showing an astonishing increase within the short space of three
years, and which fully accounts for the decadence of the English
demand for China and Japan teas. The consumption of the latter
varieties has retrograded there, while that for India and Ceylon teas
has increased proportionately, so that, although the market for the
former descriptions has occasionally given signs of revival, they
have been only spasmodic efforts at recovering, the much expected
and promised reaction soon subsiding. And instead of the
phenomenal cheapness of China and Japans being regarded as a
recommendation to consumers it has been used as an argument by
British dealers as an evidence of their unpopularity, and so
completely has the demand been transferred from China and Japan
teas to Indias and Ceylons that it has been no uncommon
occurrence for the latter kinds to be selling at improving rates whilst
the former descriptions have been disposable only at drooping
prices.
The enormous size of the tea estates in India and Ceylon as
compared with the small gardens of China and Japan give the
growers in the former countries several advantages over those in the
latter as they can be worked more systematically and with less
expense in larger areas. The use of machinery in curing and firing
also lessens the cost of preparation for market, together with a
saving in freight and quicker sale consequent to English preferences
giving a speedier return for the money invested. The advantages
which India and Ceylon tea-growers have over those of China are
greater command of capital, as in both India and Ceylon tea estates
are generally owned by companies consisting of shareholders whose
living is not dependent on the product of the plantations. The
companies can consequently afford to carry on the business at a
loss for several years, can purchase extensive tea lands, and can
spend large sums on machinery, labor and experiments as well as
on agents to introduce and distribute them. The India and Ceylon
tea-growers can obtain loans at a lower rate of interest, borrowing
money at from 4 to 5 per cent., while their Chinese competitors have
to pay from 20 to 30 per cent. for the same accommodations, in
addition to a command of better chemical and agricultural
knowledge. But against these admitted advantages of India and
Ceylon, China possesses one great advantage, that is, that the
Chinese grower, working for himself instead of wages, brings greater
care and more industry to the task. Experience with him takes the
place of science, and he is thus enabled to produce a finer flavored
tea than has yet or ever will be produced in either India or Ceylon.
Again the great decline in the consumption of China teas in England
and her dependencies cannot be attributed, as is so loudly
proclaimed by her statisticians, to any falling off in the quality of
China teas or any inherent merit possessed by those of India or
Ceylon, but simply to the narrow and contracted policy of her
merchants of favoring and forcing the product of her colonies to the
prejudice if not positive exclusion of that of the older tea-growing
countries.
In 1865 China exported over 120,000,000 pounds of tea, in 1870
nearly 170,000,000 pounds, in 1880 over 214,000,000 pounds,
reaching the enormous total of 221,000,000 pounds in 1890, thus
China’s export has also been increasing in a proportionate degree.
But although the figures for 1870 and 1890 show that in twenty years
it has nearly doubled, still it is not such a remarkable increase
relatively when compared with that of India, which during the same
period has increased nearly fourteen fold in quantity. In estimating
the probability of a recovery in the position of China teas in the
markets of the world the following considerations are of interest on
the subject: First, it is well known that the heavy Likin (grower’s tax)
Kutang (transit dues) and export duties levied on tea have
contributed in a great measure to the decadence of the tea-trade in
that country and to the development of that of India and Ceylon,
where the article, at least, starts free and unencumbered. The
Chinese laboring under this disadvantage, at the outset, have
endeavored to compete with India and Ceylon by reducing the cost
of production and lowering their standard of quality with a
consequent deterioration in the grade of the leaf. This changed
condition of the tea-trade may be attributed to these specific causes.
Fifty years ago India and Ceylon produced no tea, as it was not until
1840 that the export from the former began with a small venture of
400 pounds, since that year, however, the increase has been both
rapid and striking. Thus, commencing in 1840, the export has
steadily increased year after year until now, when the average
annual production reaches 100,000,000 pounds, of which England
consumes some 97,000,000 pounds, the balance going to Australia
and other of her colonies. It is contended by the Chinese themselves
that if the Likin and export duties were removed entirely or the export
duty alone reduced to an ad valorem charge of 5 per cent. it would
greatly help those engaged in the China tea-trade in their
competition with the growers and shippers of India and Ceylon,
others holding that a simple reduction of the duty will not
permanently benefit the China tea-trade unless it enables China to
lay down teas in Europe and America at a less price than can be
done by either India or Ceylon.
Russia is now regarded as the main hope of Chinese Congous and
sorts, the British islands consuming Indias and Ceylons almost
exclusively, the United States favoring Oolongs and Japans
principally. The trade in China teas with Russia is increasing
annually, while it is decreasing with England. In former years tea was
first shipped to England and thence to Russia, the Russian tea-
dealers now purchasing direct from China. The Russian demand
seems, in fact, to grow as fast as that from England declines,
constituting a total which is hardly suspected by those who are
interested in the trade, so that, although ousted from her monopoly,
China has still a great market for her produce.
Great quantities of tea are consumed in the domains of the Czar and
it is believed that the Russians use as much tea per capita as the
Chinese themselves. The “Samovar” or tea-urn is always steaming
and the natives never cease sipping tea while there is water left to
make it. It is served at all hours of the day, in palace as well as
hovel, being regarded as much a necessary of life there as bread or
tobacco. Shops abound for its sale in the principal cities; bargains
made and business transactions sealed over steaming tumblers of
tea.

TABLE 5.

The earliest official record of the importation of Tea into the United
States is in 1790, the order of increase for its importation, value and
consumption in the country by decades since that year being as
follows:—
Year. Imports, Value. Consumption Average
Pounds. per capita. Import
Price.
1790, 3,022,983 ...... ... ...
1800, 5,119,341 ...... ... ...
1810, 7,708,208 ...... ... ...
1820, ...... ...... ... ...
1830, 8,609,415 $2,425,018 0.53 22.3
1840, 20,006,595 5,427,010 0.99 24.1
1850, 29,872,654 4,719,232 0.87 27.9
 1860, 31,696,657 8,915,327 0.84 26.3
1870, 47,408,481 13,863,273 1.10 29.4
1880, 72,162,936 19,782,631 1.39 27.2
1890, 84,627,870 13,360,685 1.40 20.0
The first duty levied on tea by the United States was in 1789, when a
tax of 15 cents was imposed on all Black teas, 22 cents on Imperial
and Gunpowder, and 55 cents on Young Hyson. But in order to
stimulate American shipping these duties were reduced to 8, 13 and
26 cents respectively, the following year, when imported from Europe
in American vessels, and to 6, 10 and 20 cents when imported direct
from China in the same manner. In 1794, however, the rates were
increased 75 per cent. on direct importations, and 100 per cent. on
all teas shipped from Europe, but again reduced to 12,18 and 32
cents in 1796, the latter rates being doubled during the War of 1812.
In 1828 this tax was again reduced, being entirely removed in 1830,
except when imported in foreign bottoms, when a duty of 10 cents
per pound was collected. The latter rate continued in force up to the
outbreak of the Rebellion in 1861, when a uniform duty of 15 cents
per pound was placed on all teas, which was eventually increased to
20 cents and finally to 25 cents per pound. In January, 1871, this
duty was reduced to 15 cents, being entirely removed in July, 1872,
since which year tea has been uninterruptedly on the free list in the
United States.

TABLE 6.

Showing net imports, value and per capita consumption of tea in the
United States, from 1885 to 1891, inclusive:—
Year. Net Imports, Value. Per
Pounds. Capita,
Pounds.
1880, 69,894,760 $18,983,368 1.39
1881, 79,130,849 20,225,418 1.54
1882, 77,191,060 18,975,045 1.47
 1883, 69,597,945 16,278,894 1.30
1884, 60,061,944 12,313,200 1.09
1885, 65,374,365 13,135,782 1.18
1886, 78,873,151 15,485,265 1.37
1887, 87,481,186 16,365,633 1.49
1888, 83,944,547 13,154,171 1.40
1889, 79,192,253 12,561,812 1.28
1890, 83,494,956 12,219,633 1.33
1891, 82,395,924 13,639,785 1.32

TABLE 7.

Estimated average annual Quantity and Value of tea imported into

the United States:—
Countries. Quantity, Value.
Pounds.
China, 43,000,000 $7,000,000
Japan, 38,000,000 5,500,000
India, 100,000 20,000
Java, 200,000 30,000
Ceylon, 100,000 20,000
England, 3,000,000 650,000
Ireland, 1,000 500
Scotland, 12,000 2,500
Germany, 10,000 2,000
Russia, 200 60
Belgium, 50 25
Canada, 300,000 50,000
———— ————
Total, 85,000,000 $13,000,000
The average annual exports range from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000
pounds.

TABLE 8.

Showing varieties most in demand in the United States:—

Varieties. Kinds. Quantity,
Pounds.
Oolong, (Formosa), 10,000,000
“ (Amoy and 8,000,000
Foochow),
Green (all kinds), 10,000,000
Teas,
Japans, “ 38,000,000
Pekoes (China), 10,000,000
and
Congous,
India, Java and 6,000,000
Ceylon,
————
Total, 82,000,000
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, there was imported into
the United States, at all ports, 84,627,870 pounds of tea, of which
43,043,651 pounds were received from China and 37,627,560
pounds from Japan, the balance consisting of imports from India,
Java and Ceylon, received via England and Holland. The United
States official reports show that tea represents 27 per cent. of the
total value of imported merchandise into this country. The gross
trade in the article, however, even at retail prices, does not exceed
$35,000,000, the total annual value of all food products being about
$220,000,000, of which tea only represents a value of $13,000,000,
equivalent to about 6 per cent. of the whole.
In round numbers the consumption of tea in the principal importing
countries has increased from 350,000,000 pounds in 1880 to
upwards of 400,000,000 pounds in 1892. To which may be added for
the minor consuming countries another 60,000,000 pounds, in which
case we get a grand total of 460,000,000 pounds. Tea consumption
in India and Ceylon is scarce worth computing, and it is also claimed
that the consumption in China has been greatly exaggerated, for
although the Chinese drink tea constantly much of the liquor is little
different from hot water, so that to credit China and her feudatories
with another 500,000,000 pounds would be an extravagant estimate.
But, admitting it to be near the mark, we may then take in round
numbers 1,000,000,000 pounds of leaf, or say 6,000,000,000
gallons, as the world’s annual consumption of tea. But it is
confidently predicted that if peace be preserved and wealth and
civilization continues to advance that much greater increase during
the closing years of the present century and the whole of the
twentieth century—for large portions of mankind are at length
discovering that alcohol with its “borrowed fire” is a deceiver and a
curse. If the civilization of an age or a community can be tested by
the quantity of sulphuric acid which it uses, much more certainly can
the moral status of a time and a people be judged by a comparison
of the quantities of alcoholic and non-alcoholic stimulants it uses.
All teas have declined one-half in value during the past ten years,
owing to the increased production of India and Ceylon, the position
of the market at the present time is, however, unique and unusual.
Heretofore the rule has been for the supply to exceed the demand,
particularly of China tea, it being the custom to claim that the market
would never run short of the latter, as the production could be
increased to meet any sudden or excessive demand. Now, however,
the position is entirely different, the shortage in China tea the past
year reaching some 21,000,000 pounds, to which must be added the
increase in consumption of 11,500,000 pounds, due in a measure to
the reduction of the duty in England, against which deficit is to be
placed the increase of production in India of 3,000,000 pounds, and
that of Ceylon of 15,000,000 pounds, but still leaving a shortage of
14,000,000 pounds. This position has led to an advance in China
common grades, part of which is undoubtedly due to speculation.