LOGIC

𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ⊻ 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ⟺ 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ⇓ 𝒒𝒒

T T T T F T T F

T F F T T F F F

F T F T T T F F

F F F F F T T T

Some Properties:

1. 𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ (𝒑𝒑
� ∨ 𝒒𝒒)
2. ������� � ∧ 𝒒𝒒
𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ 𝒑𝒑 � ≡ 𝒑𝒑 ⇓ 𝒒𝒒
3. �
¬(𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒𝒒) ≡ 𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒
�������
4. 𝒑𝒑 ⊻ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ [(𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒) ∧ ( 𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒 )]
5. � ∧ 𝒒𝒒
𝒑𝒑 ⟺ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ [(𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒) ∨ (𝒑𝒑 �)]
6. � ⟹ 𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ 𝒒𝒒
𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒
7. ¬(𝒑𝒑 ∨ (¬𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒) ≡ ¬𝒑𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒𝒒
8. (𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒) ⟹ (𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒒𝒒) ≡ 𝑻𝑻 (𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒂𝒂 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕)
9. [(𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒𝒒) ∧ ( 𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒓𝒓)] ≡ [𝒑𝒑 ⟹ (𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒓𝒓)]

METHODS OF PROOFS (𝒑𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒𝒒)

Methods Assumed Deduce/Prove

Direct 𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑞𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Contrapoisitive 𝑞𝑞� 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝̅ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Contradiction 𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑞𝑞� 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑞𝑞� 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑞𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

i. 𝑃𝑃(1) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘 + 1) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

ii. 𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘) (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘 + 1)
Induction (First Version)

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

i. 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛0 ) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘 + 1) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
ii. 𝑃𝑃(𝑘𝑘) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 𝑛𝑛0
Induction (Second Version)
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 𝑛𝑛0
 SET THEORY

Union Intersection

𝐴𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅
Identity
𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = ∅
Complement
(𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 )𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶 = ∅, ∅𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸

Commutative 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝐴

Idempotent 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴

Associative (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵) ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ (𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶) (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵) ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ (𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶)

Distributive 𝐴𝐴 ∪ (𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶) = (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵) ∩ (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐶) 𝐴𝐴 ∩ (𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶) = (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵) ∪ (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐶𝐶)

De Morgan (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵)𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵)𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶

Symmetric Difference 𝐴𝐴∆𝐵𝐵 = (𝐴𝐴\𝐵𝐵) ∪ (𝐵𝐵\𝐴𝐴) = (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵) − (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵)

Some Properties:

1. 𝑨𝑨\𝑩𝑩 = 𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑩𝑩𝑪𝑪
2. 𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑩𝑩 ⊆ 𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑩𝑩
3. 𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ⟹ 𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑪𝑪 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ∩ 𝑪𝑪
4. 𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ⟹ 𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑩𝑩 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑨𝑨
5. 𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ⟹ 𝑩𝑩𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪
6. 𝑨𝑨\(𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑪𝑪) = (𝑨𝑨\𝑩𝑩) ∩ (𝑨𝑨\𝑪𝑪)
7. 𝑨𝑨\(𝑩𝑩 ∩ 𝑪𝑪) = (𝑨𝑨\𝑩𝑩) ∪ (𝑨𝑨\𝑪𝑪)
8. (𝑨𝑨\𝑩𝑩)\𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨\(𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑪𝑪)
9. 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪 \𝑩𝑩𝑪𝑪 = 𝑩𝑩\𝑨𝑨
10. 𝑨𝑨∆(𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑩𝑩) = 𝑨𝑨 − 𝑩𝑩
11. 𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑩𝑩 ∩ 𝑪𝑪 ⟹ 𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ⊆ 𝑪𝑪
12. 𝑷𝑷(𝑨𝑨): (𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨): 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨
13. 𝒏𝒏(𝑨𝑨) = 𝒌𝒌 ⟹ 𝒏𝒏�𝑷𝑷(𝑨𝑨)� = 𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌
14. 𝒔𝒔(𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 ∪ 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 ∪ … ∪ 𝑨𝑨𝒌𝒌 ) = ∑ 𝒔𝒔(𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 ) − ∑ 𝒔𝒔�𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 ∩ 𝑨𝑨𝒋𝒋 � + ∑ 𝒔𝒔�𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 ∩ 𝑨𝑨𝒋𝒋 ∩ 𝑨𝑨𝒌𝒌 � − ⋯ + (−𝟏𝟏)𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏𝒔𝒔(𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 ∩ 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 ∩ … ∩ 𝑨𝑨𝒏𝒏 )
15. 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑨𝑨, 𝑩𝑩, 𝑪𝑪 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅; 𝒏𝒏(𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑪𝑪) = 𝒏𝒏(𝑨𝑨) + 𝒏𝒏(𝑩𝑩) + 𝒏𝒏(𝑪𝑪)
 CARTESIAN PRODUCT AND PROPERTIES

𝑨𝑨 × 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = {(𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃)| 𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃 ∈ 𝑨𝑨}

𝑨𝑨 × 𝑨𝑨 × … × 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝒏𝒏 = {(𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝒂𝟑𝟑 , … , 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 )| 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝒂𝟑𝟑 , … , 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 ∈ 𝑨𝑨}

(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = (𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗) ⟹ 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗

𝑨𝑨 × ∅ = ∅ × 𝑨𝑨 = ∅

𝑨𝑨 × (𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑪𝑪) = (𝑨𝑨 × 𝑩𝑩) ∪ (𝑨𝑨 × 𝑪𝑪)

𝑨𝑨 × (𝑩𝑩 ∩ 𝑪𝑪) = (𝑨𝑨 × 𝑩𝑩) ∩ (𝑨𝑨 × 𝑪𝑪)

𝑨𝑨 × (𝑩𝑩\𝑪𝑪) = (𝑨𝑨 × 𝑩𝑩)\(𝑨𝑨 × 𝑪𝑪)

𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 ⟹ 𝑨𝑨 × 𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 × 𝑪𝑪

𝑨𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑫𝑫 ⟹ 𝑨𝑨 × 𝑪𝑪 ⊆ 𝑩𝑩 × 𝑫𝑫

(𝑨𝑨 × 𝑩𝑩) ∩ (𝑪𝑪 × 𝑫𝑫) = (𝑨𝑨 ∩ 𝑪𝑪) × (𝑩𝑩 ∩ 𝑫𝑫)

(𝑨𝑨 × 𝑩𝑩) ∪ (𝑪𝑪 × 𝑫𝑫) = (𝑨𝑨 ∪ 𝑪𝑪) × (𝑩𝑩 ∪ 𝑫𝑫)

RELATIONS AND PROPERTIES

Basic Relations 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 (𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃) ∈ 𝜷𝜷

Reflexive 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙 ∈ 𝑨𝑨, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 (𝒙𝒙, 𝒙𝒙) ∈ 𝜷𝜷

Properties

Symmetric 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 (𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) ∈ 𝜷𝜷, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 (𝒚𝒚, 𝒙𝒙) ∈ 𝜷𝜷

Anti-Symmetric 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 (𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) ∈ 𝜷𝜷 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 ≠ 𝒚𝒚, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 (𝒚𝒚, 𝒙𝒙) ∉ 𝜷𝜷

Transitive 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 (𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚), (𝒚𝒚, 𝒛𝒛) ∈ 𝜷𝜷 , 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 (𝒙𝒙, 𝒛𝒛) ∉ 𝜷𝜷

𝒂𝒂 ∼ 𝒃𝒃 i. Reflexive
Equivalence Relations 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 ii. Symmetric
𝒂𝒂 ≡ 𝒃𝒃 iii. Transitive

𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ℤ|~

𝒂𝒂 ∼ 𝒃𝒃 i. Reflexive
Partial Ordering (Poset) 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 ii. Anti-Symmetric
(𝑨𝑨, � ) iii. Transitive
iv. 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑴𝑴, 𝑵𝑵 ∈ 𝑷𝑷(𝑨𝑨), 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑴𝑴 ⊆ 𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑵𝑵 ⊆ 𝑴𝑴
Totaly Ordering
v. (𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎, 𝒏𝒏 ∈ 𝑨𝑨, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒎𝒎 ≤ 𝒏𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒏𝒏 ≤ 𝒎𝒎)
 DISCRETE MATH DIVIDE

Maximal Elements Bir sıralama bağıntısında, kendisinden büyüğü olmayan elemanlar

Minimal Elements Bir sıralama bağıntısında, kendisinden küçüğü olmayan elemanlar

Greatest Element (maxA) Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanlardan büyük olan eleman

Least Element (minA) Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanlardan küçük olan eleman

Upper Bound Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanların ondan küçük olduğu değerler

Lower Bound Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanların ondan büyük olduğu değerler

Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanların ondan küçük olduğu değerlerin en

Least Upper Bound küçüğü
(Supremum) Eğer bir sıralama bağıntısında “Greatest Element” var ise, o halde supremum o
değerdir. Yani maxA=supA
Bir sıralama bağıntısında, tüm elemanların ondan büyük olduğu değerlerin en
Greatest Lower Bound büyüğü
(Infimum) Eğer bir sıralama bağıntısında “Least Element” var ise, o halde infimum o değerdir.
Yani minA=infA

Lattice

Well-Ordered

FUNCTIONS

Assume Deduce/Prove

One to One (Injective) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏

(𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 ∀ 𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃 ∈ 𝑨𝑨) 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) ≠ 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏)

Onto (Surjective) 𝑓𝑓: 𝐴𝐴 → 𝐵𝐵. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Bijection If a function f is both Injectıve and Surjective

Identity Function 𝐼𝐼(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥

Composition 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))

 OPERATIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Binary Operation

Algebric Operation

Mathematical System (𝑆𝑆,∗1 ,∗2 , … ,∗𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∗𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆

Associative (𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏) ∗ 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎 ∗ (𝑏𝑏 ∗ 𝑐𝑐) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Closed 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Commutative (Abelian) 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 ∗ 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Properties

Identity Element 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑒𝑒 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Inverse Element 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑒𝑒 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

𝑎𝑎 ∗ (𝑏𝑏∆𝑐𝑐) = (𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏)∆(𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑐𝑐) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

Disrubition
(𝑎𝑎∆𝑏𝑏) ∗ 𝑐𝑐 = (𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑐𝑐)∆(𝑏𝑏 ∗ 𝑐𝑐) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝐴𝐴

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 〈𝐴𝐴,∗〉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒;

i. Assocative
Group ii. Closed
iii. Identity
iv. Inverse Element

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

Cardinality (|𝑨𝑨| = |𝑩𝑩|) 𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓: 𝐴𝐴 → 𝐵𝐵
Cantor-Schöder-Bernstein
|𝐴𝐴| ≤ |𝐵𝐵| 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 |𝐴𝐴| ≥ |𝐵𝐵| ⟹ |𝐴𝐴| = |𝐵𝐵|
Therom
Countability 𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓: ℕ → 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 ⟹ 𝐴𝐴\𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 ⟹ 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Propositions

𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Let A be an inFİnite set, and C a fixed countably inFİnite set. Then the following are equivalent.
1. A is countable.
2. There exists a bijection f : ℕ → 𝐴𝐴.
3. There exists a bijection g : 𝐴𝐴 → ℕ.
4. There exists a bijection h : 𝐴𝐴 → 𝐶𝐶 , or h : C→ 𝐴𝐴.
5. There exists an injection i : 𝐴𝐴 → ℕ, or i : 𝐴𝐴 → 𝐶𝐶 .
6. There exists a surjection s : ℕ → 𝐴𝐴 or s : C→ 𝐴𝐴.

Uncountability
 NATURAL NUMBERS

Peano Axioms

𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥): 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

Ö𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ğ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℕ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 3 𝑡𝑡ü𝑟𝑟. 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠(2) = 3
i. 𝑚𝑚 + 0 = 𝑚𝑚
ii. 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑠𝑠(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛)

𝑓𝑓: ℕ × ℕ → ℕ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛) = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒;

i. 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 0) = 𝑚𝑚
ii. 𝑓𝑓�𝑚𝑚 + 𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛)� = 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛)

 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) + 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ∈ ℕ (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
 0 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥
Addition
 𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠(𝑦𝑦)
 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)
 𝑦𝑦 ≠ 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 ≠ 𝑥𝑥
 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 = 0
Trichotomy Law for Addition;
(i) x = y;
(ii) x = y + z for some nonzero 𝑧𝑧 ∈ ℕ;
(iii) y = x + z for some nonzero 𝑧𝑧 ∈ ℕ.
Properties

i. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 0 = 0
ii. 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑠𝑠(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥

𝑓𝑓: ℕ × ℕ → ℕ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛) = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒;

i. 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 0) = 𝑚𝑚
ii. 𝑓𝑓�𝑚𝑚 + 𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛)� = 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛)

 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 1 = 𝑥𝑥
 𝑥𝑥(𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)
Multiplication
 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)
 0 ∙ 𝑥𝑥 = 0
 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
 𝑥𝑥(𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ∈ ℕ (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚+𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 )𝑛𝑛
 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛
 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 = 0
Elementary
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑟𝑟, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑏𝑏
Number Theory