Section 1: Introductory Topic Nature and Scope of Genetics INTRODUCTION~ erelics Othe Steady ¢ ghulin, Co posi hs ; fure jh gene the principles of heredity and varia ae arents to their offspring, “Thus, genetics isa science which unravels sracters from one generation to another, The foundation of this new by Mendel in 1866 when he discovered the basic principles of h into light only in 1900 when similar results we sts, vic, de Vres, Carl Correns and Tschermak. Thus, x: The term word genetics has b Since characters Genetics is a biological Heredity refers to the ti s was first use n 1905, ie., five year, afier its birth. The ‘hich means to become or to grow, ‘ure, composition and BRANCHES OF GENETICS There are seyeral bran experimental material used Plant Genetics. It deals with Microbial Genetics. It deals with inher Viruses and fungi. Animal Genetics. It deals with inheritance of traits in animals. y & Molecular Genetics. It deals with the structure, YGmposition, fiction and replication of chromosomes and genes, representing genetic material. vic, DNA and RN/ Biochemical Genetics. It deals with the role of genes in controlling biochemical pathways in an organism. anches have been identified on the basis of briefly described below of characters in various plant species. ince of traits in microorganisms like bacteria,dl 1 Blements of Generic * Population Genetics. It deals with frequencies of genes and genotypes in well as with various agencies which tend to alte? gene frequencies leading to evolutionary changes. n Genetics. It deals with effects of various types of radiations on chromoso genes, Eugenics. It deals with the application of genetic principles for the betterment of race. Mendelian Genetics. It deals with the inheritance of qualitative characters or characters which display discontinuous variation, “Quantitative Genetics. It deals with the inheritance of polygenic or quantitative char which display continuous variation. This branch of genetics is also known as genetics or statistical genetics or mathematical genetics. Cytogenetics. It deals with combined study of cytology and genetics. Euphenies. It deals with the control of hereditary diseases especially inborn errors of metabolism. © Population ag ma Population Ra Mes ang human Oligogenic biometrical PRE-MENDELIAN CONCEPTS ABOUT HEREDITY Various views were prevailing about heredity before rediscovery of Mendel’s laws of inheritance. Some of the important theories or concepts about the heredity which were proposed by varioay Scientists prior to the discovery of Mendel are : (i) preformation, (ii) epigenesis, (ii) inheritance Of acquired characters, (i) pangenesis, and, (v) germplasm theory. These are briefly presented below : (@ Preformation Theory / 2 own neh oy This theory was proposed by noe biologists, Swammerdam and Bonnet (1720-1793), ‘This theory states that a miniature Kuman called humunculus was already present in the egg and sperm. In other words, & miniature human was preformed in the gametes. The development of Z¥gote resulted only in the growth of miniature human who was already present in the egg and sperm. However, this theory was soon given up because this could not be proved scientifically. Si) Theory of Epigenesis This theory was advocated by Wolff (1738—1794), a German biologist. This theory states thal Bg or sperm cells do not contain miniature human. In other words, egg or sperm cells are undifferentiated. The differentiation into various organs or parts takes place only after fertilization from the zygote resulting, injo development of adult tissues and organs. This concept is known as epigenesis which is universally accepted, ic. (iii) Theory of Acquired Characters << | This concept was proposed by Lamarck (1744—1829), a French biologist. This theory states that a new character once acquired by an individual shall pass on to its progeny. It means if a man develops a strong muscle by exercise all his children will have strong muscle. On the other hand, if a person becomes weak all his children will be weak. This theory was disproved by Weismann. He cut the tail of mice for 22 successive penerations and always got the baby mice ‘With tail. Thus, this theory was soon given up, a eetheory states that very small, exact gemmules) are transported by the bl ly org . TI fertilization these gemules move out to di A gametes. After of respective organ. A defective gemmuare ei @ ctive organ, le will lead to the develo, Senet i a clopment of. i o hal. This theory was given up because it did me have scenic ans eaaseiel (») Germplasm Theory _“S-L <«. Vnysicad Davee Life Aeerbboin , Weismann a German biologist THe hee ann, logist. ao that phos istea are of two types, viz, germplasm and somatoplasm. The SS a m - al et aS oe oF ali ich produce gametes. The somatoplasm includes all other s Sexual reproduction. Thus, transmission of characters from one generation to other takes Place only through germplasm, Any change in the germplasm will lead to change in the ext generation. This theory is accepted in a broad sense. s of the body resulting in ti This theory was advocated by August CONTRIBUTION OF SOME GENETICISTS Several scientists have contributed for the advancement i fnew it of genetics. A brief contribution of some earlier geneticists is presented below : Mendel Gregor (Johann) He was an Austrian botanist who laid the foundation of the science of genetics. He worked with garden gea (Pisum sativum) and formulated two important laws of inheritance, viz., (i) Jaw of segregation and, (ii) law of independent assortment. For this pioneer work he is rightly called as the father of genetics. He presented his results in two papers at the meetings of Natural. History Society on February 8 and March 8 in 1865 which were published in the proceedings of the society in 1866. However, his results were neglected for 34 years. Mendel died in 1884 and his work came into being after 16 yrs. of his death in 1900 when same results were independently discovered by de Vries, Correns and Tschermak. Correns, Carl Erich He was a German botanist and geneticist who in 1900, independently but simultaneously with the biologists Tschermak (Austria) and Hugo de Vries rediscovered Mendel’ historic paper outlining the principles of heredity. He conducted research with garden peas and came to the same conclusions which were drawn by Mendel in 1865. Later on, he worked with variegated plants such as four 0’ clock (Mirabilis jalapa) and established the first conclusive example of extrachromosomal or cytoplasmic Inheritance. Hugo, de Vries iologi i i ly but simultaneously He was a Dutch biologist and geneticist. He rediscovered independently aneous with Correns_and Tschermak in 1900 Mendel’s Law's of inheritance. Later on, working with Oenothera lamarc! he coined the term mutation-for sudden heritable changes in the ances. SS aaa —~ Fr Elements of Geng 4 nak, VS.E. a Bea n Austrian botanist and geneticist. He was one of the sodiacoverers of Men der He was ai on the garden pea. Working with garden pea, Tschermal say, : se lete ce is Mone eon and found that his results were in agreement with ae nas i x fend In the same year 1900, when Tschermak reported his findings, Hugo waved orn ene their discoveries of Mende!'s Papers. Later on, he applied Meade ley, wheat-rye hybrids and oats hybrids for development of new plants, Bateson, William and Punnett, R.C. was a British biologist who coined the term Genetics in 1905. Bateson translated Mender’ pet from German into English and became Mendel’s cham ingland. He worked wig faa toe gnome of linkage which is now known to be the result ot closely Renomenia of linkage which Seem ate te rel located genes on the same"chromosome, He also demonstrated ther ia ea certain characters arc governed by two or more genes, ame Punnett was an English geneticist who with Bateson discovered genetic linkage in 1995, Working with poultry and sweet peas, Punnett and Bateson discovered some fundamental concepts soc enatics like linkage, sex determination, sex linkage and iva case of autosomal linkage. In 1901, Bateson and Punnett founded the journal of genetics, Johannsen, W.L, He was a Danish botanist and geneticist, He developed the concept of pure line. He worked with princess beans and coined the terms Phenotype and genotype in 1903, He supported the mutation theory of Hugo de Vries, which refers 19 sudden heritable changes in a gene. The terms Phenotype and genot "pe are widely used in genetics. He also Tecognized the importance of environment in the expression of characters, Morgan, T.H. He was an American zoologist and Beneticist famous for his fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster. He established the chromosome theory of heredity in 1910, He showed that genes are linked in a seriee on chromosomes and are responsible for observable Benet traits. For this work he received Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1933. Thus, he was awarded Nobel Prize for hig discovery of hereditary transmission mechanisms in Drosophila. He also observed sex linkage in Drosop\ Bridges, C.B. He was a U.S. geneticist who helped establish the chromosomal basis of heredity and sex. He constructed detailed gene craft Of the giant chromosomes found in the salivary gland cells of fruitfly larva. He also discovered Benic balance theory of sex determination and gene duplication in Drosophila. He had ©pportunity to work with Morgan, Muller, HJ. He was a U.S. geneticist best known for his demonstration in 1927, that X-rays speed up the natural process of mutation, For “perimental induction of mutation he was awarded Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine in 1946, He went to USSR and worked with NLL Vaviloy in experimental research with the | Sco ith aee —— Nature and Scope of Genetics : ee oe Leningrad for about 4 years. He also helped to organize 7th International Congress of Genetic at Britain. in Beadle, G.W. He is a U.S. geneticist. He worked in the field of biochemical genetics and discovered that genes affect here by determining enzymatic structure. He worked on fruitfly with Morgan and fn Neurospora with Edward Tatum. They exposed Newrospora with X-rays and studied the altered nutritional requirements of the mutants thus produced. These experiments enabled them to conclude that each gene determined the structure of a specific enzyme which in turn allowed ‘a single chemical reaction to proceed. This one gene one enzyme hypothesis concept won Beadle and Tatum (with Joshua Lederberg) the Nobel Prize for physiology or Medicine in 1958 Tatum, E.L. He was a U.S. biochemist, whose research on bacteria, yeast and Neurospora created a new field of genetic studies known as molecular genetics. He worked in collaboration with Beadle and Lederberg and developed the concept of one gene one enzyme hypothesis in 1941 for which they were awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1958. They demonstrated that : 1. All biochemical processes in all organisms are ultimately governed by genes. 2. Alll these processes are resolvable into series of individual sequential chemical reactions or pathways. 3. Each reaction in some way is controlled by a single gene and, 4, Mutation of a single gene results only in an alteration in the ability of a cell to carry out single chemical reaction. Later on, with Lederberg he discovered genetic recombination or sex in E, coli bacteria. This bacteria has become important source of genetic investigations for biochemical process after the discovery of one gene one enzyme hypothesis. Sutton, W.S. Sutton was a U.S. geneticist who working with Grasshopper gave a hypothesis in 1903 that chromosomes carry the units of inheritance and they are the physical basis of the Mendelian laws of heredity. Thus, his work formed the basis for the chromosomal theory of heredity. Avery, O.T. ; Mac Leod, C.M. and Mc Carty, M. Avery was a Canada born U.S. bacteriologist. His research on pneumococcus bacteria laid the foundation of immunochemistry. He discovered that pneumonia causing bacteria produce a capsular envelope consisting of polysaccharide. He also discovered the phenomenon of transformation. Avery with his coworkers (Mac Leod and Mc Carty) reported in 1944 that the substance which caused the transformation was deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Thus, they were the pioneer workers to demonstrate that DNA was the genetic materi: Me Carty is a U.S. biologist, who with Avery and Mac Leod provided the first experimental evidence in 1944 that the genetic material of living cells is composed of DNA. When the DNA extracted from capsulated bacteria (virulent) was mixed with living cells of second type of bacteria lacking capsules, the transformation occurred. The results of this experiment indicated -that the substance responsible for the change was DNA.Elements of Geney; ati Watson, JD. and Crick, SE aa He is famous for his discovery ofthe moteculy USS. geneticist it DNA), the genetic material, in 1953 This investigation brouah, atratd as Nitkins) the Nobel Prize for Physiology OF Medicine him (with Francis Cric ble helical model fOr DNA. This model also showed how the Dya 1962. They proposed douPhe it became known how genes and eventually chromosomes fea cold dpb 5, hooks, vi (1) Mol cular Biology of Gene in 19g dapliate themselves: Was” PUT the DNA story in 1981. Crick i a British biophysics (2) The Double He ns witkins and discovered the DNA double helical model : eo at New Zealand born Brith biophysiist whose X-ray diffraction studies o aia ets discovery of the molecular structure of DNA by James Watson ang DNA are ‘ae work the three Scientists were awarded Nobel Prize as mentioned sir Francis Crick. above. (eClintock “ =i re MeClintock (1950), a U.S. geneticist working with maize observed that some Miss, Bait changing their position on a chromosome and from one chromosome to genes aa ise enes are known as transpozons OF transposable elements or jumping genes. Since coe uch erro finding, people did not appreciate it for a long time. This concept was is recognized in ealy seventies and MeClintock was awarded Nobel Prize for this work in 1983. Watson is @ structure of deoxytil Benzer, S. He is a US. molecular biologist, who developed a method in 1955 for determining the re of viral genes and coined the term cistron to denote functional subunit of genes. He also explained non-sense mutations in terms of molecular sequence of DNA. Benzer (1955) gave sub-divisions of genes viz., Cistron, Recon and Muton. These are the units of function, recombination and mutation with in a gene. He worked with r-II locus of T4 bacteriophage. Jacob, F. and Monod, J.L. Jacob is a French biologist and Monod was French biochemist. They explained in 1961 the way in which genes regulate cell metabolism by directing the biosynthesis of enzy#fes. Jacob discovered that genes of bacteria are arranged in linear fashion in a ring and the ring can be broken at almost any point. They developed the concept of gene regulation known as operon concept in 1962, They discovered regulatory genes which control the activities of structural genes. For this work, they were awarded Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine in 1965. detailed structut Nirenberg, M.W. and Khorana, H.G. Nirenberg is a U.S. biochemist, who played a major role in deciphering the genetic co¢ He demonstrated that with the exceptions of non-sense codons, each possible triplet (called a codon) of four different kinds of nitrogen containing bases found in DNA and in some other viruses in RNA ultimately causes the incorporation of specific afnino-acid into a cell protein. VHar Gobind Khorana is an Indian born U.S. biochemist. He discovered h components of the cell nucleus control the synthesis of protein, He was awarded Not physiology or medicine with Nirenberg aid Holley in 1968, Later on, he prepared the firs, artificial copy of a yeast gene in 1970. e_aaen pelea 8 Yeast ene JitNature and Scope of Genetics and (3) mutagenesis have playe indocing additonal genetic vaibitiy Ayn, He in the evolution of various crop plants by e appli Plant species like Triticale ha lv through the applicat ! ‘¢ Triticale have been evolved genetic origin of various crop pln Ples. Genetics has also helped in understanding the € of Various char characters are governed by genes, genetics is the stud) genes. Genetics was born in 1900 when Mendel scientists, viz. de Vries (Holland), ‘acters from parents to their offspring. Since y of structure, composition and function of 5 results were rediscovered independently by three many) and Tschermak (Austria). The term genetics er the birth of this new branch of biology. There are several branches of genetics, vi molecular genetics, population genetics, cytogenetics, quantitative genetics, etc, z plant genetics microbial genetics, i animal genetics, radiation genetics, cuugenics, ‘euphenies, mendelian genetics, Various views were prevailing about heredity before rediscovery of Mendel’ laws of inheritance The important pre-Mendelian concepts about heredity include : 1. Preformation theory, 2. theory of epigenesis, 3. theory of acquired characters, 4. theory of pangenes, and 5. theory of germplasm. Alter rediscovery of Mendel’s principles of heredity in 1900, significant advancements have been made in genetics and various new concepts have been developed. Notable contribution hes been made by various scientists in the advancement of genetics. Various disciplines suchas cytology, biochemistry, biophysics and statistics have played important role in the advancement of genetics. Genetical concepts have been developed on a variety of organism ranging from viruses to higher organisms like flowering plants and higher animals. Various organisms which have been extensively used for genetic investigations include bacteria, bacteriophages, Drosophila, Neurospora, corn, garden pea etc. Genetics has important practical application in the field of taxonomy, agriculture, medicine and evolution. In taxonomy, it helps in classification based on chromosome number. In agriculture, it helps in the improvement of crop plants and domestic animals. In medicine, it helps in the detection of heredity diseases and production of antibiotics. It also helps in evolution by creating new species such as Triticale. I —_____ Genetics. A biological science which deals with the principles of heredity and variation. Iti the study of structure, composition and function of genes. There are various branches of genetics. Plant genetics. A branch of genetics which deals with inheritance and variation of characters in plant species. Animal genetics. A branch of genetics, which deals with inheritance and variation of traits in animals. Microbial genetics. A branch of genetics which deals with inheritance of characters in micro- organisms like bacteria, viruses and fungi. Molecular genetics. A branch of genetics which deals with structure, composition, function and replication of chromosomes and genes. Population genetics. A branch of genetics which deals with frequencies of genes and genotypes in~~ a etic, “Ses ‘ forces which tend to alter gene frequencies ig set and also with various ene a population : ing to evoltonry canes Radiation genetics. A branch 0 Cer cmcica which deals wih the application of the principles of eal banc of genetics Bugenics. A 1 FOr th Cevnuatie genetics. A branch of genetics which deals with the inheritance of Wanting, titative os arene cen logy and genetics. Cytogenetics. Combined study of cytology and genet BERR ores 0 WI wes contol Gf fcrodiary discascs capectatly fnbors Euphenics. metabolism. ~ eS Prokarote Uncle organisms whose cll lack miles like bacteria, bacteriophages and yy sen algae. MR Seite Wee cls contain well dined nucleus Bacteria. Unicellular free living organisms without well defined nucleus. i Special types of virus which grow only inside the bacteria and kill them, Bacteriophage. Heredity. Transmission of characters from parents to their offspring. Variation. Differences for various characters among the individuals of the same species, Gemmules. Invisible copies of each body organ as per theory of pangenes, genetics which deals with effects of various types of Fadiation trors of 1 Define genetics. Describe in brief its role in crop improvement. 2. Give a brief account of pre-Mendelian concepts about heredity. 3: Pescribe in brief the role of various disciplines in the advancement of genetics, ‘4 Fist the names of various organisms which are commonly used for genetic investigations. Discuss their role in the advancement of genetics. x 5. Describe in brief various applications of genetics in taxonomy, agriculture, medicine and evolution. 6. Write short notes on the following : @ Genetics (ii) Theory of epigenesis (iii) Theory of pangenes (i) Germplasm theory ©) Drosophila (vi Bacteriophages (vii) Neurospora (viii) Garden pea 7. List the names of Nobel Prize winners in Benetics, Describe in brief the contribution of any five Nobel Prize winners, 8. Describe in brief the role of © Cytology (iii) Biophysics following disciplines in the advancement of geneties: (ii) Biochemistry ae (iv) Statistics 9. Give in brief the contribution of th () Gregor Mendel (tii) Hugo de Vries () William Bateson (ii) CB, Correns (wv) VSB. Tschermak (i) TH. Morganoo Nature and Scope of Genetics (vi) CB. Bridges (i) ELL. Tatum (xi) Barbara Me Clintock (xiii) O.T. Avery (a) S. Benzer (vii) F Jacob (xit)_ M.W. Nirenberg ia (vill) 1.5. Matter () GW. Bewdle (xii) J.D, Watson (iv) BHC. Crick (vi) Har Gobind Khorana (viii) 5... MonodCell Organelles INTRODUCTION Yasious membrane bound structures that are found within a cell ae known as cell organelles. The sonnei ene Chonan 5, Seg a ante tage Chomnsome — ; Now ance al jaetonemee Seana pai nome ate ant Se a el (alee ‘ee ramen ate ent crea Coane ~Aenone — ES SSSR a a ce Ty ef everson ~ Serene tno seca pin wh — nd pee Spc — Comoe iat ean eal mone imams ih ny nf mat ie ol cin et Serf Tey a loins Kad YF pets ‘Set St ~Ciesi ik t epi ea ‘lal lst ty can natn ~Chemsone th em el i ici Chm ect ea coe te ‘ramen onus Shs i yo hammered el Be SPECIAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES Chromosomes which gin ifn sacra finn fossa romans Inown ay special homo, Speci chansons ale anh oman, ais ‘romoiome and chromosome Tse me ded ow Lampbrush Chromosome ery ‘Thee are specie ep of chromosome in mich nent oft epi ot Sich desome well th cman ai Ging» bh SS em Te ‘romosome. They ae found in zx Ta tio a tye mc of Drei iin1. Batra ordinary length Lampbrush Loops tomes ate ota th Thy a Sometimes lager than pene romoirs ‘he length ha Bon record op mm in race anh 2 Large mamber of lop. Lamptrsh chromosomes have Ie tambo of ops Loops ate projected in pair fom the ‘shromnr (Fs 43). Que ln logs ay ‘rise_ftom_a_single_chromonre. The ‘hromomere are connected by inter stromoner Bis {.Lamprbrush appearance Pojcton of large number of pairs of Toops trom renee as 10 amphash ppearice ‘Thelnoprinresse raul in mates each raxinum in cpotene and gradvaly deine (a) ° er Glan nd oat Sages Fy. 43. Snce funn crontone Indien age, amphi chromosomes 4 mmolgou ronosamen cansitof two homologous chramaones which (aed ee ‘2a contact nla ein pints called cima ach chromosome of te piensa of to chroma which le tofeber at foo the chromosome axis o main ats The ae filed it chromomeres Crk elu) ad ops ight cao). Loops ae formes on to $e of ehomosamal ax. Each chromatid bas one chrmomere, The chromosomal me oe ‘rooms and the Hop axis all ae male up of DNA and have beri fain or oe ‘one repos of pnt acti POLYTENE OR GIANT CHROMOSOMES ‘The mip replete ofthe sane chromosome olin toete ina pralel fasion essing Jn eck chromosome ae known as poyese choses ad ech condo seed ‘os olyeny. They wer fst repo by Balin (BS) inary glands ot dipean nse [Later onthey were repo in vay glands of Drosptils abd sever nsecs Sine te romosomes ae general found in salary gland they are also Lnown at slvay hand ‘romosomes. These chroosomes hve thes ain features genta 41. Bands Te sips which found in hese chromosomes are known as buns. Sore of he hands {isle ina swale or expanded form which ae Known st pl Fig 48). When pull comes vary mich enlarged sealed Balla’ sing 2 Pats Te stn eins ae kno x chromosome pts Bali’ ings Te pus ae eerie a le sein of gente avy. Recent has ee fund in Drosophila tht exch and consis he gece mari of» single gem, (2) Ene ehvonotone Fig. 44. Povtane chremcaen (Erg vi pat (0 erage pt shown nip (0) wo comeneg, Si Sate alti aes thie appearance of ape an orem ae seat eee Spore seal aaa eaten of Pe mpd M4 gene os vere aati a Seas seals aad, bet to a very salen. Toe sccm Of ‘Neston cn" em Sehooen Danae men pes oem Sg a ecto ac eet int ec Sie es cee Gram een eee ae ay cea cree ee ae 4 Giant Size Palyen chromosomes Have gat i. The se maybe obseewp 200 es moe than the nomal moins, Bose of int se, hy ae eel El {hromosome. These chromosomes ar somal pela he name ean {elle nay appear 10 be hal of he norma ont es Now tse cromosones hae ao teen ported in malihian ies, nal te, ee ot ptt Tse ronooms {hn be easly studied te svar dof Drop Forts pose, ery and te sete out from a hid sar ana ad sue in aceeami. The sb can ‘ewe under ight micosepe. [B-CHROMOSOMES romnsae feng aA ronson Se et The normal member of como cmp une A ons Sms Insane eer secs Now B chemosnes Incading 163 gener nd 756size ae found which ae kon B elromasomes ate usualy shor than shotest of the nomal chromosomes. Most, B chromosomes are heterekromatc as reported by various workers in Festuca, maize wy Sorghur. Behaviour at Mitosis and Meiosis The behaviour of B chromosomes during mi in ye B chromosomes occupy central position they occupy peripheral position at metaphase ‘The meiotic behaviour of B chromosomes during pachytene stage. They have been observed to behave in four different ways as given below : 1. They do not pair with A chromosomes. 2. Lower degree of paring is observed among B hromosomes. Whenever they pair long B will pair wit long B and shor B with short. 4 Sones ey sow peel nn disjunon dung. css and pom mei divisions asin case of Lilium and Trillium, 1 en Effects 3 croosome a teeta he ri ee ral roth an regedit of plats and hs Howes efit of B crooner tom ce imie omens bed (I) ncn nigel rade Ce ee as 1SOCHROMOSOMEs Fig, ASA. Origin ot soctromosomes by vera dion of center 3000 (a) o } 4.58. Three ‘ot pairings of isachromasoryes: (a) intemal, na to) fate at rar tnaoo oven as pseu RING CHROMOSOME (@) nucleosome solenoid m ‘organisation of chromatin fibre in a chro 1. Folded Fibre Model ‘Chromatin fibres are basic uni ‘chromatin fibre is found in each chromatid which ‘The folding of chromatin fibre in ifferent way which is observed at metaphase. Thus according undergoes super coiling, thickness of chromosomes. This model was orginally proposed by DuPraw in 1965. Electron micrographs of metaphase chromosome sopport this model. Hence ths is widely accepted ‘atiaton of protein sulphur in differen rei R Bands chromosomes are ete in a bfler at a high temperature, These ed with Giemsa tai, This gives alogether a diferent patern known 1s ae reverse of the G bands. hromatin and have bead like appearence. Each 46 base pars (bp) of DNA. Each nucleosome of H2B, H3 and Hé histone molecules. Thus it has a histone octamer. The core C Bands shout 100 A in diameter and 60 A in height. A duplex DNA stand is tightly wound “The chromosomes are fist weated wih a moderately song lal and hen by warm sane king two cites. Spacer or lnker DNA has four basepairs. One . fe of histone 11 is connected wih linker DNA. The super coiled nucleosome fibre is . ———— | _ <<, 4lies on Sex Chromosomes. Chromosomes play an important rol in sex determination, In unisexual diploid organisms, there are two sex chromosomes and rest are autosomes. Tn case in Drosophila clearly demonstrated mn and genes of one chromosome are idies on Structural Chromosomal Chai anges. Studies on structural chromosomal changes especially deficiency and du gest that genes are located in_chromasomes. --P>Because loss of some part of a chromo: sto alteration ina speci ‘of chromosome segment affects 2 5 : i 23 iH als EB $s S| ; 5 ted chromosomes during meiosis whic is tema, ObRicaly. This provides song suport in favour of chromosomal then ot inheritance, | __S. Monosomic and Nulisomic Analysis. Studies of losing genes on diferent chromosomes, Loss of one chrome from on et leads Yo alteration of some characters in an individual indicating the nee of genes on the “ssa L 7 _monosomic and nullisomic analysis na ape co snp) nee spe i homme nd B chomosn) ole sx tintinHapleid number. The gumeti chromosome numberof a species, Diploid number. The son: stricted ‘elomere. The teminal repion of chromosome on citer ‘Chromorere. The linearly aranged bead like sisctures found on the chrom led strvetures found in the chromosomes and ‘hromosome models with suitable mosome banding ? Explain various ypes of chromosome banding and their5 Changes in Chromosome Structure ss INTRODUCTION, ich ‘om ‘change. Such ch romosomal erm cells, eof great evolationary significance. abed, etgh (@) DUPLICATIONS ‘ % hangs : 2) dln, (2 aos, Fety {6 translocations, and (9 ies. ee ee25 ileal or igre ‘emo In suc deletion the tnd the remaiing potions a and is very rare, ager wordy chromose ic tores orig a cp gpanotame which restores orighal sequence of genes. DETECTION Deletions canbe detected in wo way aR two ways, vic. BY eyoog “sk mle ag ae et oe, case of heterzypous deletion, lL. i) | ees (2 Metaphase contiguation ot transiocaon heterozygotes a Fig. 52. Meiotc coniguratons of deletion, duplication and traneacaton, @crnerre EFFECTS Deletions have effects on frit, viability, crossing over, phenotype and karyotype as describedin the deletion ry gin phenotype, ay DUPLICATION ~ B>idfe> (1419) jw Depletion refers wo the ocunence ofa segment twice i he same chromosome fat ed nt £8 10 chromosome. Dupaion san known a ee was fist eponed in Drosophila by Bri 19. Now i has ben reported in maize, hear tere, Nieotiana, Tradescantia several the species of cmp plants by various worken’ Depiction are of fur Sypes, iz tandem, ce ‘Bree tandem, displaced and reverse daplaced Tandem Inahis case sequence of genes inthe dp in the orignal segment of a chromosome, abetbdder Se Reverse Tandem ange tence gees inthe apicad segment is re (0 the ats Feverse tothe sequence of genes in lect, Of 2 Ehomosome. Tandem and revere tendo ‘uplications are known ay Ss, Pecate hey ae ace: to the orginal segment abeleblder a cated Segment is similar wo the sequence of genes (be {be} det) (be [eb] deny —ee GENETIC EFFECT have been found to affect phenotype, crossing over, gene number and pollen cs ecie eeee a ae eel two doses of 16A and ulrabar eye with toplicate region doe to lack ofSignificance rein the evan. More ae in an india TRANSLOCATION ‘One way o proc transfer of segment between ons have Been reported wheat Tradesanta, and Several ober crops by ¥ Cresing over in four mun aspects as given below 1. Tanslocaons involve non-homologous chromosomes, whereas crossing over ronsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. 2, Translocaion homozygotes change the linkage map, whereas crossing over does not change the lnkage map. 4. Translations imolve breakage and reunion, whereas cosing over involves chiasma fooraon 4 Crossing over dos not ead to sterility, whereas translocations lead to pollen and ovule sey. ‘Translocations are of thre types, vi. (1) simple, (2) shifts, and (3) reciprocal (Fig. 5. c) ‘Simple Translocation When a segment from one chromosome is transferred ant homologous chromosome, itis known as simple translocatior break occurs in one chromosome. Since telomere does not Segment, such translocations are very rare in natute. 1234567 12345 non-homologous chromosom« ‘Simple Transformation 89012 Be 7 Shits ‘Transfer ofan itercalary segment bomologous chromosome is refemed Se 89 wis 12 a3 of sezments between Tn such transtoc non-homologous chromosomes, it is ations, one break occurs in each >F non homologous chro 8 are known as multiple tran jand Oenothera, Origin Translocatons originate through breakage and exchan chromosomes. When only one chromosome from cach pa iver location heterozygotes and when bth chor ft produces translocation homozygotes. fee = 2 \ 2 i 2 1 % Translocation oe? heterozygotes 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 1 4 i 2 1 a “Translocation i 4 3 2 homozygotes 3 ‘ 3 2 DETECTION ‘Translocations can be detected by cytol includes stidy of pachytene c homozygotes, mei jel as well as genetic methods. Cyt ns and metaphase configurations. In valent formation at pachytene the chromosomes disjoin (segregate) in thee different ways as given belowAlternate Disjnction ‘When two normal ebro [Ny nd trsaosomes [Fan] another poli ove towards on pole a 0 tay 2040 a ere Segregation on such seg, ll gumees receive fll cmplenent of genet 28 aw = leet of ge a wil Be vey lt [Adjacent 1 Segregation ‘Te scent of ot norm comoione wih ne reed i ald sepeaon. Soh segreraioncsus in open ring configura, Here te choo nto oe pole ae nor Sanolooot [T, Nand Ty Ny Adjacent 2 Segregation sient | OES wh “inden can abo be decd by genet mets, epeaion nd inkage ses as deseed ow Pollen Sterility Tascam cided yen pet 9% ‘ioc ins he ee of anc mE based on pollen ser cn posey i of tee pes. imal heey, ne oy ad ‘aged hme 127 ran ts pone se TN ATN, TIT. eT, i ia the “Linkage Studies en en a = pec sense ec Dee sts em atkins ones in Chromosome Sc four cmon, 5% ened monn. 198 ; ty is sei nd Ts mel ne ideo ae - th to mse in tappacon congo in pling Karyotype ‘rasan ig chargs in chroma of bomosone st wel is pen ce Phenotype “ranseain akochang phen cam ais inthe progeny ofa a ioe meter aye Tey my tere ie Sinificance ‘Tanslcion ster the croosone si, cmon ued ance an us sn img roe in heft of cer Teco ome ade ae Of sew linkage eltoshi. Te atl i any te ps of pes cso ed Ste sets mtr one cemovones They ae afl won teen popes et tran fdas ccs fom oes [STRUCTURAL HYBRIDITY IN OENOTHERA In the genus Oeother, some cronocae tanh i 14 Tete ae sw es ‘Ocnthea which exit varus dees eg oemsson. Se sis ae ermine tame herayeysy icing slo al conser Sich poer cde Oxnter Tamarckin, Omar sn ,bnO. arena ss gf 12 ones’ a fre alent pa InO. metal he tchamosones ne ned frm 3 Ban. ‘eos shows one rig of ¥ehomsones we ao fs chromo. In vom spece of Ort, permanent rata! yy i iin de el super i native va, In eh yess,» bce hal tn operas wa cia yon ey. Sah yen os oR, Te ae etal pm a ‘dear Tow Reser comple Some a blued ketal sem in Octane Bes ow Oenothera lamarekiana Ti composed of gauss (I) genes and ae es of tiie re te es neat! en ae Ce iO ae aa Sec Oe ei) ==Bement n ements ———————— — andes sth doin alo tl The hor 3805 65 (a) thy eth mony (yal ad LL) be “hy, Oenothera muricta Thassos he gn genset {RO hes he nly cng (UC, The meres (RAR aC) Se eo ~t ‘Ocnothera bien Tiel cmt ops hee (iy of ae topics Le Al Thm WA Lew ove me INVERSION spent retin a eon wt acon i 1826 n Drop. Now ic has been repetdin maize, Nicovona and seer *Y tec pea comet edo ane ee eect an pees (Fp Sd, ov, Paracntic Iverson ‘Te iesin in wich enone is tines, time bh Wes nn mf conn MT yp eee Nan enon! Ths out af vo; The aceotc segment is lost. doe ty) SSS Sm nl i an me Prien eign ‘snot in de nei beak oe nea iin is kn a POE es, When he enone i nde I'he oan in Chromo Sretar ese sp ; (Sty pte eee! a eet (0) Percent verion Fp 63, te conguaon ot imarion (9) zee amon (perc eon Cosing over win he ivesion op ess inte mao a rama wh dupleton and dete, Ou of ou coisa ae cases pata wo a somal Oe of ‘he on-rosbves tas opal te Sune sl the aber has ined ste egorce. The Ceaerehmmosimes pace inte games oye thew imblnee offs Te Wioble progeny 8 produced by mon crosover omosomes cay. 530) Origin Tnversins esa when he ae two break in chomoseme ad ie detched epmen i reuied othe sme chomorone ine vee elesElements o Gen Hlements Genet, DETECTION ath clog and genic meds are wd 40 det the prsens of i ‘lpr payne configton, ants ongeraton and pos te ted for decon of vein. Invenio cn be dese inte mes rescace of an nverion pin the pied homlnges dng pace, A Pesce inversion can dated bythe presets of ene ge, Pe St he posion of enromee whic eps In the det fiero be decd genic by poe set. Bah pes of imersons wi or edt S08 ity in the ame. GENETIC EFFECTS Ines av fle iy, sing ov, ee odeand kayeyp dicate Fertity Te cong ovrin tbe imerson op leads formation of homosaes with dp tel eens Canes isch moe an end 0 se Crossing Over enon eyes fen hn pig problems ine flan. Ths cos fo psting meds rosin oer ne nso inven aa Gene Order ‘Th ee ri changed nt ned segment conse. th nag mp wih ten gee ode need clone oe een eet cin sme heim ber svt mari proved sing dct cern he eis map ce Karyotype escent inves sometimes es in cetroet.Cosing ove ihe ines kay ‘Significance eof cesut maton canna chat ny by iting ps ay kad wh oe psn ct Eaaeieeee ea = swaerotarwapetn’ ‘Showed cn Se te teh out ely two chums rived ine casng one UNECE at in Chromonome Strctre 5 No te es ea eso se wake eh te na =e me am eton has gene sequence ir oy ctl pret Tinks Sa an revere dpe ets aires peeaanatan ster sn pee ern ae ‘Sromose) ad espe ts ates fs = thremosomes). Io ive, takes seman send See eet em ‘pes. ve. prcenic(entomei etched) al pe ean Eo Structral chromoml change. ay hn wb she orm rie hemune Reston. Uso often crnosone nen wih ee erg une ‘akon Las of sepmet fom acrombons sn cla cry tole pene ot ines “Termin tion. Lo of cider mit eset of temeane Intertidal Los of itteay sept cre Depletion. Oxuenc fa eget ice tne mse, Dao a tp i onde, rs en, dpc! alee nid, “Tandem, Dpicain with nem eee (ai xl sym of ne Revere tandem Dupin wih eee eu of ges omg ong pm ‘placed Pesencfdpcon ny om erg eet oe se a ms Reverse alae, Pesce of pan ney fom he nial sect a one her of ‘oe cmon “Tranncaton, One my scp exchange of eg etee oomsogs oma "Tovlratons fe ffs pe inl, Sf ad eo Simple rman Taser et fo on cmos oh en of meade shit Taner of nec ep rom ne conse othe ney posin na. 08- Brolga hanson Reciprocal trasbatin Mul xhng of ene nse samp ronson [Ateraeegegon Al naps overeat ft mal orn 8a wed ot iso ha of anced cross (oT) 1 ae le ee6 Changes in Chromosome = ——Nomber INTRODUCTION (iy Pace and Percent inveson. = see LEUPLOIDY~ Numeric? ergo poids. The mai ‘monoplcids proper meiosis does not occur dv to lack of paiting1 Ror et esne be—_Rps ci n mmrap tl eon sees 2 ed yn Bendy Men ae sys fas came avs be mono Conan angle wt pe May coma Fe pif Pe ‘Types of Haploids Daren pes hin, th two np i i on any Eon cf cc lhe ope its ra snp meth defo somal ld psn oh {ceo fom puyol ces Ppp spun fo pes ancy alone shat fom apy es adap Sec fom ase, ‘PS When hip Jos fom op spec, sealed apo Aneta doco om aphid pee and hve cer ont aon o mi Steps Anis inte dsc he (+, matin apy ‘nton fps (1 Dy mision hp ce. Miedo haps fg 2 exhonione With 6 pid by vere sno cntonen Genel ene vies pity. Ansgar peel inn Origin and Production avo may aga in several ways in vows cp plant, In mz, tay eccae spcanouy hex ey ow fee In one ee. tenis dec fom iene ces Suh haps hve hen ocd eo coas igo nw, alas eh ep cnn a SSL coe ee thy lip a meme fo ie feos eel eng awe ala Sled raph aa cae noo, haps we deo! by tele iene ow ans mod knows by chaps cab pre wl These metas iid) pln wih foi pl. (2) ted plein, of a USES OF HAPLOIDS fe se pion apa Ty ee) depen of ag SEs lates, Opn be an ma ea a Tee ss ae bay ae we Disease Resistance ee Production of Inbreds In doson pits ety of iis rpc een poten Te hphid mete ss lwo fr anny en crop sees Indirect Uses 1a whe compe sis f ions, ene hor ee tom pois. Tse mods pons Sar mo me tel ropes ud lo ef she 2. Ine pe inf trsom SE pe hoe help saiig wat pew e cy of gcse eSB sens nected Spin eal nes he pa mcafee 3. In pan lal tps ie vie! cmcng eee fe pi inn ts weep co piPLows Normal pis ae tno sonic. Thy tne pir Hap ing mesa ios do bre dem pres vin eas wea es Fos bes RTS ips hve Homorgosiy at ec es ysis wih Ree he sh a owe ‘Gemiepotypids Me whet, onc POLYPLOWS a ‘An ori or infin vig oe sts a mons ef cranes i dp nt ac oo ws ps il a et ‘fi afew pen us ohh pred 18 mia iy a me tl es od in tose spec of animale wich ae bermaphtesach t nce ‘ich decoy prtengeeicaly aids Pays ia wo ype) nop nd 2) apapce not affect Colchicum from, fi he my pa Then ate general vigour and size of various plant pants, Such features are genes eos i Sma at | Sone er ge 2 lene we ty HEE at poe ba | 2 eto ane {oes oes md ea pe i 5 Maat dn np a 6 Yaw cme ip tare morpholog ‘are generally referred ‘ {s slower than diploids, SSS crigin of natural specific gene transfer, and (8) a a brgging pairing Ivement of diploid species in the otigin of po 2, Creation of New Species. Alloploidy sometimes species. Titicale is the best example, whi : ‘combines desirable character of both the species‘, grain quality of wheat and havens: of tye. Titicales are of two types, viz, pri icles and secondary teiicales. The ‘rimary tritiales are derivatives of cross involving ether tetraploid wheat or hexaploid ‘wheat with rye. The secondary triticales Irticales in several aspects ‘re derivatives of the cross either between two. ‘imary titicale and wheat. These are superior to primary ltivated strawberry originated from a cross between North and South American, in the middle of seventeenth centuary in Europe. Loganberry was developed from between raspberry and blackberry in 1880 in California, USA. + Interspecific Gene Transfer. When the desirable characters no found within the spesies, it is wansferred from the related species. Interspecific gene transfer is done in two ways,some other a Besides these, alloploids have conserved more easily in allottaploids th ‘maintenance of monoplods and triploid in case of sexually propagating crop species, uitpeces polyploid characters are contributeg ts may be sometimes undesirable as incase other Defects, Induced polyp iy, low growth rut, late mat © developing new species tough alopolyploidy are extremely low. I, ANEUPLOIDY shave several defects such as low fer, genesc The change in cromotome unter hic the genome is Called aneuploidy and such individuals ue Knot individual ‘itt than exe mip ofthe bac cheomasone led aneuploid. Aneupoids ee three types, vi. (1) /monosomics, (2) nullisomics, below 7 as monosomy. In xcept los of one ey Siloid ble monosomics lack one ee Maori oni ctf oe fo romeo te omosome inthe diploid complement omy. Plysomics ae also knowna hype pairs, Polysomi and Drosophils I plant has n=12 chrom Depending on te nature of extra chromosor i) ia) various ways, Some of the uses of ancuplois in ! 0 APPLICATIONS IN CROP IMPROVEMENT - are usefl in erp improvemes t eloag ges er pee cera 8 ete pup, Monroe aay has ten @ . oa and ter emp for oeing geet oo specie Mee ks, x a of pif coms wil afl exesion a @ 2 ies i 2 Gene transfer. Monoomis ae also wed in ansfring chromosomes FS wth deiabl genes fom ont specs w wnt : 2 —— 7 34. Aneuploids ae wsed for developing alien akon and sen stan ines in vans a in fy crops. 8. Meets ni 4 Primary vsonics ave use in Menifcaon of chromosomes ime in transo: alos ot (rma scm, () second ones ana (0 seedy | cations