HEAT TRANSFER

HEAT
Heat is energy in transit due to temperature difference

Conduction

Modes of
Heat transfer Convection

Radiation
Conduction

Occurs due to vibration and collision of medium particles.

Convection

Occurs due to motion of medium particles.

Radiation

Occurs duet to electro magnetic ways.

Thermal Conduction

Spontaneously heat flows from high temperature to low temperature.

TH TL
Transient State
In this state temperature of each and every part of the rod changes with time.

Steady State
After a long time variable state comes when no heat is absorbed by any part.
So the temperature of every part is constant and decreases uniformly from
hotter end to colder end.

The state in thermal conduction in which all the particles of the rod are
saturated & there will be no net absorption of the heat & heat flows in the
object just like current is known as steady state.

Note In steady state each point have different temperature but it remain
constant.
Conduction

Temperature gradient

T T+dT

T1 T2

𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Steady state of thermal conduction

TH dx dx
TL
dQ dQ
dt in
dt out
TP TQ TR TS

Note

In steady state temperature gradient remains constant throughout the uniform

medium
Thermal Conduction in steady state

T1 T T+dT T2

dQ
x dx
d𝑡

K : coefficient of thermal conduction

(Thermal Conductivity)
Effect of high and low thermal conductivity

High K Low K

L L

If K is high for a material, it is Generally it takes long time

always considered to be in to attain steady states.
steady state of conduction.

Body do not absorb any heat Body absorbs more heat

(or barely absorb) and conduct and conducts less.
heat instantly.
 Analogy of Conduction with Ohm's Law

Electrical Conduction Thermal Conduction

I R
A B T1 H T2
𝐿
V
Thermal Resistance
Example Find temperature as a function of x, assuming the ends of the rod of
length L are maintained at a temperatures T1 and T2 (T1 > T2 ).
Assuming point A to be at origin. T1 T T2
Solution A
x
 T1 T T2
A
x

T
T1

T2
x


T1 − T2 x
Ans. T = T1 −
ℓ
Equivalent Thermal Conductivity

Series

Both rods have same cross sectional area

Rods joined end to end

TH TL
K1 , A ,L K2 , A ,L

TH TL

Keq , A , 2L
Parallel

1 1 1 1
= + .......
Req R1 R 2 Rn K1 A1
K 2 A2
K 3 A3
T1 T2

Kn An

Example Find
(i) Equivalent thermal resistance
(ii) Equivalent thermal conductivity T℃
(iii) Rate of heat transfer
100℃ ///////// ///////// 0℃
(iv) Temperature of junction
2L,2K,A L,K,A
Solution
Example Find
(i) Equivalent thermal resistance
L,K,A
(ii) Equivalent thermal conductivity
///////////////////
(iii) Net Rate of heat transfer 100℃ 0℃
///////////////////
(iv) Individual Rate of heat transfer
L,4K,2A
Solution
Example Regular hexagon made of six rods made of same thermal resistance.
Find the ratio of heat flow in the rods in following cases:
(a) Two consecutive vertices are connected to source and sink at
temperature T1 and T2 respectively
(b) Two opposite vertices are connected to source and sink at
temperature T1 and T2 respectively

Solution
Example Two identical rods are connected in series between source and sink. 80
calorie heat transfer in 4 minutes. If the rods are welded in parallel
fashion find the time taken for flow for same amount of heat.
Solution
Example Two plates A and B have thermal conductivities 84 Wm–1K–1 and 126 Wm–1K–1
respectively. They have same surface area and same thickness. They are
placed in contact along their surfaces. If the temperatures of the outer
surfaces of A and B are kept at 100°C and 0°C respectively, then the
temperature of the surface of contact in steady state is ________°C. [ 2023 ]
Solution

100°C 0°C
Example If K1 and K2 are the thermal conductivities L1 and L2 are the lengths and A1
and A2 are the cross sectional areas of steel and copper rods respectively such
K2 A L
that = 9, A1 = 2, L1 = 2. Then, for the arrangement as shown in the figure.
K1 2 2

The value of temperature T of the steel-copper junction in the steady state

will be : T [ 2022 ]
(1) 18 °C (2) 14 °C Furnace Ice box
450°C Steel Copper 0°C
(3) 45 °C (4) 150 °C
Insulating
Solution material
Example A rod CD of thermal resistance 10.0 KW–1 is joined at the middle of an
identical rod AB as shown in figure, The end A, B and D are maintained at
200°C, 100°C and 125°C respectively. The heat current in CD is P watt. The
value of P is ....... . A B [ 2021 ]

Solution 200°C C 100°C

125°C D
Example Temperature difference of 120°C is maintained between two ends of a uniform
rod AB of length 2L. Another bent rod PQ, of same cross-section as AB and
3L
length , is connected across AB (See figure). In steady state, temperature
2
difference between P and Q will be close to : [ 2019 ]
(1) 60°C (2) 75°C L
4
(3) 35°C (4) 45°C A B
Solution L
P
L
Q
2

L
R
L/4 R/4 R/4 L/4
120 O
A R/2 P Q R/2 B
Example Figure shows a water tank at a constant maintained temperature T0
and a small body of mass m and specific heat S at temperature
T1( T1 < T0) at t=0. A metal rod of length L and cross sectional area A
with thermal conductivity ‘K’, it is placed between tank and body to
connect these. Find temperature of body as a function of time

Solution 𝐓0

𝐀 𝐓1
𝐦
𝐋
Example Find the thermal resistance (R) of a spherical shell having inner radius
a and outer b (K is the thermal conductivity of the shell).
T2
Solution

T1 𝑏
𝑎
 Example Find thermal resistance of a cylindrical shell of length L, having inner
radius a and outer radius b.
(i) Longitudinal direction
𝐛
𝐚
(ii) Radial direction
Solution
Longitudinal direction

T1 T2
H b
a
2b 2a
H


Radial T2

2b T1 2a

r
dr
a

b
Example Find the heat current through the frustum of a cone shown in figure.
Temperature of its two ends are maintained at T1 and T2 respectively
and its thermal conductivity is k.
Solution 

b
a

K
Formation of Layer of ice on the surface of a lake
Formation of Layer of ice on the surface of a lake

– T°C

x 0°C
dx
Convection

The process in which heat is transferred by actual motion of particles of the

medium, is known as convection.

It take place due to density difference.

It is possible only in fluids ( Liquid and gas).

If the medium is forced to move with the help of a pump as a fan, it is called
forced convection
Land and sea breezes

Land is hotter than the sea during day time. As

a result of this, the colder air over the sea
blows towards the land. This is called sea
breeze. At night, air blows from land towards
sea. This is called land breeze
RADIATION
Radiation
They are electromagnetic in nature

No medium is required.

Speed of radiation in vacuum is 'c', while in other medium it is c/μ

Laws of Radiation

Prevost Theory of Heat Exchange

Every body in nature at T > 0 K, emit EM radiation of several wavelengths

to surrounding. This polychromatic radiation from the body is called
thermal radiation.

All bodies radiate thermal radiations at all temperatures & simultaneously

absorb the radiations emitted by the surroundings.

If it radiates more, than what it absorbs, its temperature decreases & vice
versa.

If radiation and absorption is same then temperature remains constant.

Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Qr
Reflective Coefficient r =
Q

Qa
Absorptive Coefficient a = Q
Q Qr
Qt
Transmissive Coefficient t =
Q

Qr + Qa + Qt = Q
Qa
Qr Qa Qt
+ + =1
Qt Q Q Q

r+a+t=1
Ideal Black Body

A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident

electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence.

For an ideal black body

a=1 r=t=0
For General Body  0 < a < 1
It is not necessary that a black body be black in colour(eg. Sun).
In nature, 100% absorption by any surface is not possible. Absorption is of
platinum black (98%) and carbon black (96%)
 Ferry's
ideal
black body
Terminologies

Emissive power
The total energy radiated per unit area, per unit time is known as emissive
power :
Emissivity (e)

The emissive power of body w.r.t. a black body, at constant temperature is

defined as emissivity (e).
Also known as relative emissive power.

Ebody For black body e=1

e= 0≤e≤1
Eblack body
For reflectors e=0
Kirchoff’s law

At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of their emissive power (E)
to absorptive power (a) is constant and this constant is equal to emissive
power (EIBB) of the ideal black body at same temperature
Energy emitted by black body = Qi

Energy emitted by general body = aQi

Qi
EIBB = 𝑨

𝒂Qi
EGB = 𝑨

EGB
= EIBB
a

𝐄 𝐄
= =. . . . . = 𝐄 𝐈𝐁𝐁 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐚 𝐆𝐁𝟏
𝐚 𝐆𝐁𝟐
 Result : "Good absorbers are good emitters"

Any specific wavelength which is emitted at high

temperature will be absorbed at low temperature.
Example Two bodies at same temperature having absorptive power of 0.6 and
0.5 respectively and surface area are 2m2 and 4m2 respectively. If one
body emits radiation of 20W find the power emitted by the other body

Solution

100
Ans. W
3
Stefan Boltzmann Law

dQ
µ T4
dt

dQ
µA
dt
Stefan Boltzmann Law

Stefan's constant
5.67 × 10 –8 W/m2K4
Stefan Boltzmann Law
Power Absorbed by IBB = σATo4

Temperature of
surrounding

Power Absorbed by GB = eσATo4

Expression for Net Heat Exchange

Power Absorbed GB = eσATo4

Power Radiated GB = eσAT 4

Power net = eσAT 4 − eσATo4

𝐝𝐐
= e𝛔A( 𝐓 𝟒 – To4 )
𝐝𝐭

Rate of heat
loss
( Emitted radiation per sec )
 𝐝𝐐
= e𝛔A( 𝐓 𝟒 – To4 )
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝐐 𝐞𝛔𝐀 𝟒 𝟒
= 𝐓 – 𝐓𝟎
𝐝𝐭 𝐉

cal
sec

𝐝𝐐
depends on
𝐝𝐭

Surface Area (A)

Nature of surface (e)
Temperature
 R
Example Two spherical bodies have radius R & 2 . having surface temperature T1 & T2.
T
If both have same radiating power, find T1.
2
1
(A) 𝟏Τ 𝟐 (B) (C) 2/1 (D) 𝟐Τ𝟏
2
Solution

Ans. A
Example An electric heater of power 113.4 kW emits thermal radiation and the
surface and the surface area of heating element of heater is 2 cm2. If
this heating element is treated like a black body, find its surface
temperature. Assume temperature of element is much higher than
surrounding.
Solution

Ans. 104 K
Example A white hot metal wire at 1000 K has radius 0.07 cm. Calculate rate
per unit length at which it emits radiation if its emissivity is 0.35
(Ignore surrounding heat).
r
Solution

Ans. 87.318𝐾
Example A solid black body metal sphere of diameter 20 cm and mass 10 kg is
heated to a temperature 327°C and suspended in a box which is
maintained at temperature 27°C. Find the rate at which the temperature
of sphere will fall with time. Take specific heat s = 4𝜋𝜎 × 108 J/kg°C.
Solution

Ans. 1.215°C/s
Example The rate of emission of a black body at temperature T is E. Find the
rate of emission of another body [e = 0.25] of same area at
temperature 2T.
Solution

Ans. 4E
Cooling by Stefan’s Law

P = σeA T 4 − T04

dT
−mS = σeA T 4 − T04
dt

−dT σeA T 4 − T04

 Rate of colling = =
dt mS
Newton’s Law of Cooling
 T(°C)

Log(T – T0)
dy dT
Slope = = = RF
dx dt

0 t t(sec.)

loge(T – T0) = –Kt + C T = e−Kt+C + T0

Method of Average Temperature
Example The temperature of an object kept in the room decreases from 61°C to
59°C in 4 min then find the time in which its temperature decreases
from 51°C to 49°C. Take ambient temperature 30 °C
Solution
Ans. t=6
Spectral Emissive power

The power emitted per unit area with wavelengths between λ and λ + dλ is
called spectral emissive power (E). E

It depends on temperature.
∞

ET = න Eλ dλ
0

λ λ + dλ 
Wein’s Displacement Law
It was observed that as the temperature of BB increases, the wavelength
corresponding to the peak radiation intensity shifts toward lower wavelength

E

𝑚3 𝑚2 𝑚1 

According to it the product of temperature (T) & m at that temperature is
always a constant.
λm T = constant b = 0.2898 cmK

1
λm ∝
T

This law explains the day to day observations that when a body is heated
more & more, its colour changes from red to yellow & gradually.
Example A black body emits maximum radiation of wavelength 5000 Å at
1227°C. If the object temperature is increased by 1000°C. Find new
wavelength corresponding to maximum emission.
Solution

Ans.  = 3000 Å
Rayleigh's Analysis

It was analysed roughly that for higher wavelength spectral intensity (energy
emitted per unit area by a black body per unit range of wavelength) is given
as
T
Eλ ∝ (not valid for lower wavelength)
λ4

At maximum spectral intensity  = m & E = Em

Example If the temperature of an object is doubled then, Find the ratio of:
1. Wavelengths corresponding to maximum emissions
2. Total emissive power
3. Maximum spectral emissive power
Solution
E

𝑚1 𝑚2 
Solar Constant

The solar constant measures the amount of energy received by a given

area one astronomical unit away from the Sun.
The solar constant S is taken for earth to be 1340 watt/m2
 A = 4πR2
A′ = 4πd2

R d

T
Magnetism &
Matter
Bar Magnet

It is made up of iron, steel or any other ferromagnetic substance or

ferromagnetic composite, that shows permanent magnetic properties.

It has two poles, a north and a south pole which are situated near the
ends of a magnet.

Magnetic moment
N Magnetic length (ℓ𝑚) S m = m.ℓ𝑚
Geometric length (ℓ𝑔) Where, m = Pole Strength
BAR MAGNET
Pole Strength

Number of field lines emerging from each pole indicate the pole strength of
pole.

area of cross section for

Unit: A-m Pole strength (m)
of each pole ∝ a given bar magnet.

m/2 m/2
m m
m/2 m/2
Example Dipole moment of a bar magnet is M. Find effective dipole moment of
the given combinations of two such magnets.

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
θ

Solution

θ
Ans. A 2M B Zero C M 2 D 2Mcos
2
 Coulomb's Law in Magnetism

Coulomb's 1785

The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly

proportional to the product of their pole strength.
– 𝑚1 +𝑚1 – 𝑚2 +𝑚2
S N S N
𝑟
Force of attraction or repulsion is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the magnetic poles.

m1m2 μ0 m1m2
F∝ F=
r2 4π r2
where,
μ0 = Absolute permeability of free space
m1, m2 = Magnetic pole strength
 Properties of Bar Magnet
Magnetic poles exist in pair

Difference between electrostatics and magnetism is that in electrostatics,

an isolated charge exists, whereas in magnetism, an isolated pole or
monopole does not exist.

N S N S

N S N S N S N S
𝐁 Due to Single Pole (Hypothetical)

𝐏 𝐁
+𝐦 𝐫

𝐫 𝐏
−𝐦
𝐁

μ0 m
B =
4π r 2
𝐁 Due to Magnetic Dipole
At Axial point At Equatorial point

B+
N S
+m –m
B
B–

For far-off points, r >> l

M = Magnetic Moment = ml N S

μ0 2M
Baxial = μ0 −M
4π r 3 Beq =
4π r 3

Where, r >> ℓ

1 μ0
Analogy: q → m E→B P→M →
4πε0 4π
Magnetic Dipole Moment

𝐁 Due to Magnetic Dipole

P
At an Angle 𝛉 Baxial
α Beq
Bnet
r
M sin θ
θ
+m N S −m
M cos θ
ℓ
μ0 M
Bnet = 3
1 + 3cos2 θ
4πr

Where, r >> ℓ
𝐌 in a uniform magnetic field

B
+m
mB
ℓ θ

mB −m τnet

τnet = M × B

τnet Restoring Torque

θ Angle between M and B

𝐌 in a uniform Magnetic field
B
Potential Energy

ℓ M
U = −M. B = − M B cosθ θ
Force on a short magnet placed in Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Short Trick
B(r)
+m −m
M
N S
r
r dr

dB
Fnet = M
dr
Example What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar
magnet of length 5 cm at a distance of 50 cm. From its mid-point?
The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.4 Am2.
Solution
Ans. 6.4 × 10−7 T
3.2 × 10−7 T
Example A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 JT −1 lies aligned with the
direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.22T. What it the amount of
work done to turn the magnet so as to align its magnetic moment
(i) Normal to the field direction
(ii) Opposite to the field direction?
Solution
Ans. (i) 0.33 J
(ii) 0.66 J
Example A magnetic dipole is under the influence of two magnetic filed. The angle
between the field direction is 60° and one of the fields has a magnitude of 1.2
× 10-2 T. If the dipole comes to stable equilibrium at an angle of 15° with this
field, what is the magnitude of the other field ? Given (sin 15° = 0.2588,
sin 45°= 0.7071)
Solution
Ans. 4.4 × 10−3 T
Magnetic Materials &
Their Properties
Intensity of Magnetization 𝐈Ԧ

When a magnetic material is placed in magnetising field then 𝐼Ԧ is induced

dipole moment per unit volume of that material.

Bo
Bo H=
μo

ԦI =
M unit: A/m
V

Induced magnetic field due to these induced

dipoles in the material is given by: Bin = μo ԦI
Magnetizing field or Magnetic Intensity 𝐇

Field in which a material is placed for magnetization, called as magnetizing

field.

Bo Bo
H= unit: A/m Bo H=
μo μo

Bo : Magnetic Field
μo : Permeability of free space
Magnetic susceptibility (𝛘𝐦)

𝑀
𝐼Ԧ = I
𝑉 H χm = unitless
H

Note

More is the value of 𝜒𝑚 , easier is to magnetize a given material

Magnetic Permeability ( µ )

B Total magnetic field inside a material

μ= =
H Magnetizing field

unit :

henery
Wb − Am or ; H/m
m

It represents the degree up to which a material can be penetrated by the

magnetic field lines

μ
Relative Permeability μr =
μo
Relation between 𝛍 and 𝛘𝐦

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field 𝐵𝑜 for

magnetization, Then total magnetic field in the material is

Bm = Bo + Bin

Bm = μo H + ԦI
𝐁𝐢𝐧 = µ0 𝐈Ԧ Bo
Bo H=
Bm = μo H + I μo
I
μH = μo H 1 +
H
μ = μo 1 + χm
μ
= 1 + χm For vacuum, 𝛍𝐫 = 𝟏  𝛘𝐦 = 𝟎
μo

μr = 1 + χm For air, 𝛍𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒  𝛘𝐦 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
Example A solenoid of 500 turns/m is carrying a current of 3A. Relative permeability of
core material of solenoid is 5000. Determine the magnitudes of-
1. Magnetic intensity (H)
2. Intensity of magnetization
3. Magnetic field inside the core

Solution

Ans. (1) 1500 Am–1, (2) 7.5 ×106Am–1 , (3) 9T

Classification of Magnetic Materials

Faraday classified the substances on the basis of their magnetic properties,

into the following categories.

(i) Paramagnetic substances

(ii) Ferromagnetic substances
(iii) Diamagnetic substances
Paramagnetic Substances
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field are feebly magnetised
in the direction of magnetising field are called paramagnetic substance
Paramagnetic is found to exist in substances whose atoms or molecule
have an excess of electron spinning in same direction.
Atoms of paramagnetic substances possess a permanent magnetic dipole
moment and thus behave like small bar magnet called atomic magnet.
Some paramagnetic substances are Al, Na, Sb, Pt, Cucl2, Mn, Cr, liquid
oxygen etc.

S N

𝐁=0 𝐌=0 𝐁≠0 𝐌≠0

 In absence of external magnetic filed paramagnetic substance do not
show any magnetism because atomic magnetics are randomly oriented so
net magnetic dipole moment is zero.

In presence of external field each atomic magnet experiences a torque

which tries to rotate and align them parallel to direction of magnetic filed.
The substances acquires net dipole moment of magnetic field.

Effect of temperature on paramagnetism

The thermal agitation on increase of temperature spoils the alignment of

atomic magnet which reduce net magnetic dipole moment.
Ferromagnetic Substances
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetised
in the direction of magnetising field are called ferromagnetic substance.
Ferromagnetic substances are paramagnetic substances which acquire very
high magnetism of high magnitude in external magnetics field

Each atom of ferromagnetic material possess permanent magnetic dipole

moment before application of external magnetic field.

Then unpaired electron of one atom interacts with

electron of neighbouring atom to form groups of
small volume of uniform magnetisation are called
domains which are small in size. (1018m3) but
obtain large number of atomic dipoles (1011).
Random orientation
of domains
In absence if external field the domains are randomly oriented so that
their resultant magnetic dipole moment in any direction is zero.
In presence of external filed the magnetic dipole moment increase due to :
(a) Displacement of boundaries of domains : Here size of domain with
magnetic dipole moment parallel to applied filed increase while for
others it decreases.
(b) Rotation of domain Here domains rotate until their magnetic dipole
moments ate aligned parallel to direction of external field.
In presence of weaker filed displacement of boundaries takes place while
in stronger fields rotation of domains taker place.
External field External field

Displacement of
Rotation of
domains
domains
Iron, Cobalt, nickel etc are some examples of ferromagnetic substances.
Effect of temperature on ferromagnetism

On heating it loses property of ferromagnetism at certain temperature

called curie temperature and becomes paramagnetic. In cooling it
becomes ferromagnetic again. The curie temperature for iron is 770°C.
Diamagnetic Substances
The substances which when placed in a magnetic field are feebly
magnetised in a direction opposite to that of the magnetising field are
called diamagnetic substances.
Diamagnetism is found to exist normally in substances in which each atom
has net magnetic dipole moment equal to zero.
Some diamagnetic substances are Cu, Zn,Bi, Ag, Au, Pb, He Ar, Nacl, H2O.

Cause of diamagnetism
When diamagnetic substance is kept in an external field it causes
acceleration of one electron and deceleration of other in pair. A net dipole
moment is produced in a direction opposite field. 𝐁

𝐁=0 𝐌=0 𝐁≠0 𝐌≠0

Classification of Magnetic Materials

Based on the observation of how materials respond to external

magnetizing field

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Cause of Orbital Motion Spin Motion of Domain formation
Magnetism of electrons electrons
I Small, negative Small, positive Very large, positive

χm Small, negative Small, positive Very Large, positive

μr 1 > μr > 0 2 > μr > 1 μr ≫ 1

 Classification of Magnetic Materials

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

𝑰 𝑰
𝑰
𝐼 − 𝐻 curve
𝑯
𝑯
𝑯

𝜒𝑚 ∝ 𝑇 0 1
𝜒𝑚 ∝ 𝑇 𝜒𝑚 ∝
1
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐
Variation of 𝝌𝒎 (Curie Law) (Curie Wiess Law)
𝜒𝑚 with 𝝌𝒎 𝝌𝒎
Temp 𝑻
TC
𝑻 𝑻

Above Curie temperature, ferromagnetic materials lose their permanent

magnetic properties and behave as paramagnetic materials.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Degree of
magnetization

N S N S N S
Behavior in Weak field Weak field Weak field
non-uniform
magnetizing
field N S N S N S
Strong field Strong field Strong field

Examples Cu, Ag, H2O Na, K, Mg Fe, Co, Ni