S U G A R C O O K E R Y

SOURCES

1. SUCROSE
Also identified with term SUAGR/SWEETNESS .
It occurs naturally as a component of carbohydrate of every F&V.
It is a product of photosynthesis and occurs in great quantities in SUGARCANE & SUGAR BEETS from which it is harvested for
commercial use.

2. D-GLUCOSE
Natural sugar .
commonly called as DEXTROSE in confectionary industry.
HONEY & FRUITS also contain glucose.
Source of glucose for commercial manufacture is - STARCH.

3. D-FRUCTOSE
It is a hexose monosaccharide.
It is a natural sugar.
Sweeter than sucrose.
SOURCES : HONEY & RIPE FRUITS.
Used in confectionary to provide sweetness, flavour and color.

4. DEXTROSE SYRUP
Manufacture of dextrose from starch is a multi-enzyme process.
It's often used as a sugar substitute and is ideal for applications that require high sweetness and fermentability.

5. CORN SYRUP
It contains 75% Carbohydrate and 25% Water.
Corn syrup is a food syrup which is made from the starch of corn/maize and contains varying amounts of sugars: glucose, maltose
and higher oligosaccharides, depending on the grade.
It inhibits crystallisation in foods.
Useful in baked products.
It enhances citrus flavour in fruit products used in cola beverages.
It is also available as dried corn syrup used in dry beverage mix, cereal bars, sauce mix, chikki.

6. HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP

Manufactured from corn starch by enzymatic isomerization.
Sweeter than glucose.
Inhibits crystallization in foods.
Useful in baked products and in cooking.
Enhances citrus flavour used in cola beverages.
Marketed in 3 types- 42% , 55 % , 90 % .

7. ISO-MALT
Derived from BEET SUGAR.
Similar to sugar in sweetness, taste, technological properties.
Gives body & texture to foods like aspartame and saccharin.
Less hygroscopic , better shelf life.

8. MALTO-DEXTRINS
Prepared from CORN STARCH by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis.
Low hygroscopicity, bland flavour, Extremely low sweetness, Inhibits crystal formation in ice-creams.
Useful in flavour encapsulation and prevention of oxidation of unstable compounds.

9. MOLASSES
It is the residue that remains after sucrose crystals have been removed from the concentrated juices of sugarcane or beet.
Contains <25% water & <5% mineral ash.
Molasses is used in food as a sweetener, to add moisture, and to create consistency and crust.
It's commonly used in baked goods like cookies, gingerbread, pies, and dark breads.
Molasses can also add thickness to baked beans, sauces, and marinades.

10. MAPLE SYRUP

Maple syrup is a thick, sweet liquid made from the sap of maple trees.
It's made by boiling down the sap of the sugar maple or other maple trees.
Maple syrup is a natural sweetener that can be used in cooking and baking to add a maple flavour and lower glycaemic index than
sugar.
11. HONEY
Honey bees collect nectar from flowers and deposit it in the hives where it is converted to honey.
Bees produce an enzyme INVERTASE that converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Honey contains 17% water & 80% carbohydrates with small amounts of minerals & vitamins & enzymes.
Carbohydrate portion includes :- FRUCTOSE, GLUCOSE, MALTOSE, SUCROSE.
Higher percentage of sucrose indicates adulteration.
Color of honey is related to its mineral content and is characteristic of its flowers - its source.
Used for treatment of indigestion, coughs, colds and skin wounds.
Honey has tendency to retain water and hence cakes and candies made with honey has longer shelf life.

12. JAGGERY
Jaggery is obtained from SUGARCANE, though it can be prepared from palm, date palm and coconut.
Jaggery is usually golden yellow in color and has a sweet, winy fragrance and a taste similar to brown sugar or molasses.
Jaggery is a type of unrefined sugar made from concentrated sugarcane juice that's boiled until it solidifies.
USED as a substitute for white sugar.
It adds a sweet taste to curries like sambhar or gujarati curries, and is used in several traditional sweet dishes like chikki, laddus,
and puranpoli.
Jaggery powder can also be used to add brown color and moisture to pancakes.

13. CARAMEL SUGAR

Caramelized sugar is sugar that has been cooked until it browns, giving it an amber color and a rich, slightly sweet, and nutty flavor.
The process of caramelizing sugar is called pyrolysis, which occurs when sugar is cooked over low heat and oxidizes.
The amount of water remaining in the sugar during cooking determines the flavor, consistency, and sweetness levels of the
caramelized sugar.
It is used in brewing, vinegar making, whisky, rum & wines as well as soft drinks.
Also used in BISCUITS, PICKLES, SAUCES and pastries.
Can be prepared from- SOYBEAN, TAPIOCA OR SAGO.

14. BROWN SUGAR

Also known as SUGAR CANE JAGGERY POWDER, COUNTRY SUGAR or NAATU SUGAR.
Brown sugar is a soft sugar that is unrefined or partially refined and contains molasses, giving it a distinctive brown color, flavor,
and moisture.
Brown sugar has a deep, caramel or toffee-like flavor and retains moisture, so baked goods made with brown sugar will be softer
and denser.
It contains about the same number of calories per teaspoon as white table sugar, but has slightly more calcium, iron, and
potassium.

PROPERTIES
1. SOLUBILITY
Sugars are soluble in water.
Crystallisation of sugar occurs in a sufficiently concentrated sugar solution and use of this is made in commercial production of
sugar from sugarcane and beets.
Most soluble sugar is FRUCTOSE followed by sucrose & lactose.
Fructose is much soluble hence difficult to crystallise.

2. ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE
Sugars are hygroscopic.
Fructose is more hygroscopic than other sugars.
Cakes made with honey, molasses remain moist for a long time.

3. FERMENTATION
Most sugars except lactose, may be fermented by yeasts to produce CO2 gas and alcohol.
It is an important reaction in making bread and other baked products.
The CO2 leavens the product and the alcohol volatilises during baking.

4. ACID HYDROLYSIS
Sucrose is easily hydrolysed by acid but Maltose and lactose are slowly acted on.
End product of sucrose hydrolysis are mixture of GLUCOSE & FRUCTOSE commonly called INVERT SUGAR
Heat accelerates action of acid.

5. ENZYME HYDROLYSIS
The enzyme also called INVERTASE is used in candy industry to hydrolyse some of the sucrose in cream fondant to fructose and
glucose.
This is done to produce soft, semifluid centres in chocolates.
The enzyme is commonly added to fondant layer around the fruit in chocolate-coated cherries.
6. MELTING POINT AND DECOMPOSITION BY HEAT
With the application of sufficient dry heat, sugar melts or changes to liquid state.
Heating beyond the M.P. brings about number of decompositional changes.
As sucrose melts around 160 degree celsius , a clear liquid Forms that gradually changes to brown colour with continued heating .
At about 170 degrees Celsius caramelization occurs with the. development of a characteristic caramel paper along with the brown
colour.
Carmel has a pungent taste is often better, is much less vital than the original sugar from which it is produced. And is non-
crystalline.
It is soluble in water.
Doctors carbonization at 110 degrees Celsius. And maltose caramelises at about 180 degree Celsius. galactose at 170 degree
Celsius.

7. DECOMPOSITION BY ALKALIES
Monosaccharides are markedly decomposed by alkalis and flavour may become strong and bitter.
Sucrose is least affected by alkalis.

8. SWEETNESS
Of all the sugars, lactose is the least sweet, followed by maltose, galactose , glucose and sucrose with fructose being the most
sweet.
Maximum sweetness from fructose is most likely to be achieved when it is used slightly with acids, cold foods and in beverages.

C A R A M E L I Z A T I O N

Non enzymatic browning is a chemical process that produces a brown color in foods.
Caramelization is also known as pyrolysis of sugar, is the heating of carbohydrate.
The final product contains a complex mixture of polymeric compounds.
Severe heating caused the dehydration of sugar molecule with introduction of double bonds and development of anhydro ring.
The process is temperature-dependent.
Certain acids (Food grade Sulfuric, Phosphoric, Acetic and Citric acid), bases (Ammonium, Sodium, Potassium and calcium
Hydroxide) and salts (Ammonium, Sodium and Potassium Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Sulfates and Bisulfites) used as catalyst to
enhance and production of different classes of caramels.
The commonly used sugar is sucrose but D-fructose, D-Glucose(Dextrose), Glucose syrup and molasses may also be used.
This process consists of heating sugar slowly to around 170°C.
As the carbohydrates are heated, the molecules break down and reform into compounds with a characteristic brown colour and
flavour.
It is a chemical decomposition of non-protein substances that occurs spontaneously at high temperatures and the reaction is
known as pyrolysis.
Caramelization is a complex, poorly understood process that produces hundreds of chemical products.
Caramelization by heat during baking contributes to flavour and colour. However, it occurs to limited extent in milk and milk
products and hence has limited significance.

Definition
Caramelization is the removal of water from a sugar, by heating.
This process results in is omerization and polymerization of the sugars into various high molecular weight compounds.
Compounds such as difructose anhydride may be created from the monosaccharides after water loss.
The fragmentation reaction of sugars during heating would result in low molecular weight compounds that may be volatile and
may contribute to flavour.
Polymerization reactions lead to large molecular weight compounds that contribute to the dark brown colour.
Caramelization type of browning may be defined as the heat decomposition of sugars as a function of pH and buffers in the
absence of amino compounds. It requires high order of activational energy.
Caramelization is the oxidation of sugar by heating resulting in the production of nutty flavour and changing to brown colour.
During the process, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavour.

The types of reactions that occur during the process of caramelization are
1. Sucrose inversion to fructose and glucose
2. Condensation reactions
3. Intramolecular bonding
4. Isomerization of aldoses to ketoses
5. Dehydration reactions
6. Fragmentation reactions
7. Unsaturated polymer formation.

PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of condensed substances that occurs spontaneously at high temperatures.
CARAMEL
Caramel colouring is a dark, rather bitter-tasting liquid.
It is the highly concentrated product of near total caramelization, which can be used as food colouring and apart from its addition
in beverages such as cola.
COMPONENTS OF CARAMEL

Three main components of caramel called CARAMELAN, and CARAMELIN were isolated by using dialysis.
Caramelan was described as a brown brittle, deliquescent solid having a bitter taste.
Caramelan melts between 136°C to 144°C and it is readily water soluble.
Caramelen is a brown substance much darker than caramelan and not deliquescent it melts at 153.5°C-154°C.
Caramelin exists in three modifications’ namely, soluble in cold water, soluble only in boiling water and insoluble in all ordinary
solvents.
They are infusible materials that are much darker than caramelan and carmelen.
Three high molecular weight components have been separated from caramel prepared from sucrose.
They are MELANOIDIN found in ammonia processed caramels .
The pH values of caramel constitute an important property of caramels. A high pH may indicate an incomplete burn or alkali present.
Above pH 6.0 - caramel is susceptible to the attack by molds and
Below pH 2.5 - it quite readily resinifies.
A good caramel should contain colloidal particles which do not precipitate during storage or to the products to which caramel is
added.
The rate of dehydration is one of the most important parameter to influence the properties of caramel in general.
The time of mutual contact of reagents and manipulation of the temperature may lead to caramel of desired viscosity.

C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N
A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a pattern.
Crystallisation occurs only if the solution is supersaturated.
The size of the crystals produced will depend on the rate of the formation of nuclei about which the crystals grow and the rate of
growth of crystals around the nuclei.
If only one or two nuclei form, the crystal will be large, but if the nucleation rate is very fast, many small crystals will form.
Both the rate of crystallisation and the rate of nuclei formation are modified by many factors.

FACTORS AFFECTING CRYSTALLISATION

1. Nature of the crystallising substances

Some sugars like glucose do not have the ability to produce very large crystals, rather they produce nuclei rapidly. Thus formation of
many small crystals takes place.

2. Concentration of the solution (saturation)

Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water.
The higher the temperature of water, the greater the amount of sugar that will dissolve in water .
Maltose and glucose are less soluble than sucrose.
Hence, when syrups containing a large proportion of these sugars are used, more water must be added to dissolve them.
The right conditions for rapid crystallisation is to have the syrup to heat up to the right temperature or adjust to the right
concentration.
The lower the temperature the smaller the size of the crystals .
Gulab jamun and jalebi syrups are not supersaturated solutions hence do not crystallise.

3. Agitation or stirring
Agitation Make crystals better than self-generated ones.
Stirring brings the supersaturated solution in contact with each crystal.
It is important to stir crystalline candy not only until crystallisation starts, but until it is complete.

4. Impurities
Impurities that may be deposited on the crystals reduce the growth of the crystals.
The presence of glucose interferes with the crystallisation of sucrose.
Another way an impurity may interfere with crystallisation is by coating the crystals.
The use of fat, flour, milk, coconut, nuts, interfere with the crystal formation.

5. Addition of acid
An acid ingredient like cream of tartar, lemon juice or vinegar may be added to hasten the inversion of sucrose to glucose and
fructose. For example, addition of citric acid to jams and jellies prevent crystallisation.
In sweet pickles when mango is used crystallisation is prevented.
Boiled sugar solutions may be treated to produce either crystalline or non-crystalline candies.
Crystalline candies are generally soft. If properly made, they are so smooth and creamy
The principal crystalline candies are fondant, mysore pak and coconut burfi.
Non-crystalline candies are sometimes called amorphous which means “without form”. Non-crystalline candies may be chewy, such
as caramels or hard such as butter scotch, toffees and brittles.
In their preparation, by use of various techniques, crystallisation of sugar is prevented.
CRYSTALLINE CANDIES
FONDANT
Fondant is the soft smooth candy that results from the cooking of a sucrose solution to a certain temperature, after which the
solution is cooled and beaten until crystallisation occurs.
Additions of acid accelerate inversion and use of milk or cream as the liquid, increases the creamy character of fondant.
Method of making fondant
1. 200g sugar + 120ml water , boil till 113-114 degree Celsius
2. Allow to cool to 40 degree Celsius.
3. Beat continously until becomes a creamy mass.
As the hot syrup cools to 40 degree C ,it becomes saturated and then super-saturated because it is holding in solution more solute
(sugar) than is normally soluble at the lower temperatures.
An important aim in making crystalline candies is to produce a very smooth texture.
For this, many fine crystals, rather than few large crystals must be formed. For this many nuclei are required.
These act as centres around which crystal formation may begin.

Ripening
As crystalline candy stands after crystallisation is complete, it becomes somewhat more moist, smooth and kneads more easily,
Changes that occur during the initial period of storage are called ripening.
Fondants are used in making mints.
Fondants are used in confectioneries for numerous purposes.
Softened fondant is used in coating fruit and nut mixtures that are moulded and sliced.

FUDGE
The principles of making fudge do not differ from those of making fondant.
Usually, the butter or margarine, the fat of chocolate and the milk furnish the substances that interfere with crystallisation.
Method:
1. Melt chocolate and butter.
2. Add milk and heat till sugar dissolves completely.
3. Cook the syrup to soft ball stage -112 degree Celsius.
4. Allow it to cool to about 70 Degree Celsius and transfer to a greased pan and cut into pieces.
The presence of substances that interfere with crystallisation of sucrose in fondant and other candies is desirable, but at an optimum
level.
Glucose, corn syrup or invert sugar either added directly or formed by acid hydrolysis affect crystallisation because they make the
sugar solution more soluble and therefore, decrease the ease of crystal formation.
Other substances including fats from milk, cream, butter, margarine and chocolate and proteins from milk and egg white do not
themselves crystallise. They physically interfere with the process of crystallisation, retarding the growth of crystals.
All these interfering substances aid in fine crystal formation and smooth texture in crystalline candies.
The temperature at which crystallisation occurs affect the size of crystals, primarily because it affects the rate of crystallisation.
In general, the higher the temperature at which crystallisation occurs, the faster the rate of crystallisation and the more difficult is to
keep the crystals separated, resulting in larger crystals.
Cooling the mixture to about 40 degree C before starting at lower temperatures.
High viscosity is a further aid in the production of fine crystals because it retards crystallisation.
Too low a temperature may also hinder the formation of many nuclei

NON-CRYSTALLINE CANDIES

Sugar does not crystallise in non-crystalline candies.

The crystallisation is prevented by cooking at very high temperatures so that the finished product hardens quickly before the crystals
have a chance to form, adding such large amounts of interfering substances that the crystals cannot form or combining these
methods.
1. Brittles:
Brittles are cooked to temperatures that are high enough to produce a hard, brittle candy that solidifies before it has a chance to
crystallise.
The brown colour and characteristic flavour of brittles result from non-enzymatic browning reactions, probably both the maillard-
type and the caramelisation of sugar.
The development of caramel also helps to prevent crystallisation of sugar in the brittles because it is non-crystalline.
Some brittles and groundnut chikkis are made merely by melting and caramelising sucrose.
Soda is sometimes a constituent of brittles and is added after cooking is completed. The flavour is also made milder and less bitter by
the use of soda.
The degree of bitterness in a brittle depends on the extent of decomposition of the sugar.
Brittles include butterscotch and toffee.
2. Caramels:
Caramels are firm non-crystalline candies containing large amounts of interfering substances.
These are cooked to temperatures between those for crystalline candies and those for hard brittle candies.
The added substances that interfere with crystallisation are usually butter or margarine and viscous corn syrup, molasses which
contain glucose, fructose and invert sugar.
Cornsyrup also contains dextrins which does not crystallise.
 R O L E O F S U G A R I N C O O K E R Y
1. TEXTURE
Sugar makes an important contribution to texture of foods, commonly referred to as MOUTHFEEL.
For ex: Glucose syrups in ice cream provides body & texture.
Adding sugar syrup helps to prevent lactose crystallisation, which would cause a sandy or grainy texture .
Honey has a non-crystallization property and can therefore be used in confectioneries to maintain a soft and smooth
consistency.
In bakery products, sugar is recrystallised as water and is removed during baking, resulting in a crisp texture. This
crispiness is increased by effects of browning-maillard reaction.

2. FLAVOUR, AROMA & COLOR

Sugars are used to impart flavour, aroma and color.
In baking, Addition of sugar during mixing ensures gluten to maintain optimal elasticity allowing the dough to expand
and rise properly .

3. FERMENTATION
Sugar allows the dough to rise at an optimal rate during leavening.
Sugars encourages the growth of yeast. Under appropriate conditions, the yeast cells break down the sugar crystals,
releasing CO2 that causes the dough the rise.
Addition of shorteners (fats/oils) to dough allows the air to set trapped in naturally irregular sugar crystals.
Sugars naturally interact with proteins from beaten eggs to stabilise the foam structure.

4. TENDERIZER
Sugars also act to tenderize bakery products by slowing rate at which starch molecules become interlinked and
proteins bread down.
Glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose are used in bread-making to increase the yield of dough and prevent excessive
stickiness.

5. SLOWS DOWN GELATINIZATION.

The heat of baking causes starch in flour to swell from moisture absorption and set in gelatinization.
To create a fine, uniformly grained cake with soft , smooth scrumb texture , the setting must be delayed until optimal
amount of gases are produced by leavening.
Sugars are hygroscopic and acts to slow down gelatinisation by competing with starch for moisture. This maintains the
viscosity of the batter, ensuring good texture and volume.

6.SWEETENING AGENT
Acts as sweetening agents in ice-creams and beverages like coffee, tea, cocoa, milk shake etc

7. LOWERS THE FREEZING POINT (important in making ice-creams).

8.Used as syrup in preparations like gulab jamun and rasgulla.

9. Prevents the growth of micro-organisms in high concentrations. Used in preserving jams and jellies.
10. Improves color and antioxidant activity by maillard reactions.