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CONVERSION FACTORS FROM SI TO ENGLISH UNITS
Length: 1m 5 3.281 ft Stress: 1 N>m2 5 20.885 3 1023 lb>ft 2
1 cm 5 3.281 3 1022 ft 1 kN>m2 5 20.885 lb>ft 2
1 mm 5 3.281 3 1023 ft 1 kN>m2 5 0.01044 U.S. ton>ft 2
1m 5 39.37 in. 1 kN>m2 5 20.885 3 1023 kip>ft 2
1 cm 5 0.3937 in. 1 kN>m2 5 0.145 lb>in2
1 mm 5 0.03937 in.
Unit weight: 1 kN>m3 5 6.361 lb>ft 3
Area: 1 m2 5 10.764 ft 2 1 kN>m3 5 0.003682 lb>in3
1 cm2 5 10.764 3 1024 ft 2
1 mm2 5 10.764 3 1026 ft 2 Moment: 1 N#m 5 0.7375 lb-ft
1 m2 5 1550 in2 1 N#m 5 8.851 lb-in.
1 cm2 5 0.155 in2
Energy: 1J 5 0.7375 ft-lb
1 mm2 5 0.155 3 1022 in2
Moment of 1 mm4 5 2.402 3 1026 in4
Volume: 1 m3 5 35.32 ft 3
inertia: 1 m4 5 2.402 3 106 in4
1 cm3 5 35.32 3 1024 ft 3
1 m3 5 61,023.4 in3 Section 1 mm3 5 6.102 3 1025 in3
1 cm3 5 0.061023 in3 modulus: 1 m3 5 6.102 3 104 in3
Force: 1N 5 0.2248 lb Hydraulic 1 m>min 5 3.281 ft>min
1 kN 5 224.8 lb conductivity: 1 cm>min 5 0.03281 ft>min
1 kgf 5 2.2046 lb 1 mm>min 5 0.003281 ft>min
1 kN 5 0.2248 kip 1 m>sec 5 3.281 ft>sec
1 kN 5 0.1124 U.S. ton 1 mm>sec 5 0.03281 ft>sec
1 metric ton 5 2204.6 lb 1 m>min 5 39.37 in.>min
1 N>m 5 0.0685 lb>ft 1 cm>sec 5 0.3937 in.>sec
1 mm>sec 5 0.03937 in.>sec
Coefficient of
consolidation:
1 cm2>sec 5 0.155 in2>sec
1 m2>yr 5 4.915 3 1025 in2>sec
1 cm2>sec 5 1.0764 3 1023 ft 2>sec
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9E SI Edition
Principles of Foundation Engineering
Braja M. Das
Dean Emeritus, California State University
Sacramento, California, USA
Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Associate Professor, College of Science & Engineering
James Cook University, Queensland, Australia
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
To Janice, Rohini, Joe, Valerie,
and Elizabeth.
Contents
Preface xv
MindTap Online Course xviii
Preface to the SI Edition xxi
About the Authors xxii
1 Introduction 1
Firma V/shutterstock.com
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2

1.2 Foundation Engineering 2
1.3 Soil Exploration 2
1.4 Ground Improvement 3
1.5 Solution Methods 4
1.6 Numerical Modeling 4
1.7 Empiricism 5
1.8 Literature 5
references 6
Part 1 Geotechnical Properties and Soil Exploration 7

2 Geotechnical Properties of Soil 8
2.1 Introduction 9
EcoPrint/Shutterstock.com
2.2 Grain-Size Distribution 9

2.3 Size Limits for Soil 12
2.4 Weight–Volume Relationships 12
2.5 Relative Density 16
2.6 Atterberg Limits 18
2.7 Liquidity Index 19
2.8 Activity 19
2.9 Soil Classification Systems 20
2.10 Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil 27
2.11 Steady-State Seepage 32
2.12 Effective Stress 33
2.13 Consolidation 36
2.14 Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement 41
2.15 Time Rate of Consolidation 42
2.16 Range of Coefficient of Consolidation, cv 48
2.17 Degree of Consolidation Under Ramp Loading 49
2.18 Shear Strength 51
2.19 Unconfined Compression Test 56
2.20 Comments on Friction Angle, f9 57
2.21 Correlations for Undrained Shear Strength, cu 60
2.22 Selection of Shear Strength Parameters 60
2.23 Sensitivity 61
v
vi contents
2.24 Summary 62
Problems 62
References 65
3 Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration 67
Brendan Howard/Shutterstock.com
3.1 Introduction 68
Natural Soil Deposits 68
3.2 Soil Origin 68
3.3 Residual Soil 69
3.4 Gravity-Transported Soil 70
3.5 Alluvial Deposits 71
3.6 Lacustrine Deposits 73
3.7 Glacial Deposits 74
3.8 Aeolian Soil Deposits 75
3.9 Organic Soil 76
3.10 Some Local Terms for Soil 76
Subsurface Exploration 77
3.11 Purpose of Subsurface Exploration 77
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program 77
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field 80
3.14 Procedures for Sampling Soil 83
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling and Standard Penetration Test 83
3.16 Sampling with a Scraper Bucket 92
3.17 Sampling with a Thin-Walled Tube 93
3.18 Sampling with a Piston Sampler 93
3.19 Observation of Water Tables 95
3.20 Vane Shear Test 96
3.21 Cone Penetration Test 100
3.22 Pressuremeter Test (PMT) 108
3.23 Dilatometer Test 111
3.24 Iowa Borehole Shear Test 114
3.25 K0 Stepped-Blade Test 116
3.26 Coring of Rocks 117
3.27 Preparation of Boring Logs 120
3.28 Geophysical Exploration 121
3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report 127
3.30 Summary 128
Problems 129
References 131
4 I nstrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical

Engineering 134
Skinfaxi/Shutterstock.com
4.1 Introduction 135

4.2 Need for Instrumentation 135
4.3 Geotechnical Measurements 136
4.4 Geotechnical Instruments 137
4.5 Planning an Instrumentation Program 142
4.6 Typical Instrumentation Projects 143
4.7 Summary 143
References 143
contents vii
Part 2 Soil Improvement 145

5 Soil Improvement and Ground Modification 146
Nicolae Cucurudza/Shutterstock.com
5.2 General Principles of Compaction 147
5.3 Empirical Relationships for Compaction 150
5.4 Field Compaction 154
5.5 Compaction Control for Clay Hydraulic Barriers 156
5.6 Vibroflotation 160
5.7 Blasting 164
5.8 Precompression 165
5.9 Sand Drains 170
5.10 Prefabricated Vertical Drains 179
5.11 Lime Stabilization 184
5.12 Cement Stabilization 187
5.13 Fly-Ash Stabilization 189
5.14 Stone Columns 189
5.15 Sand Compaction Piles 194
5.16 Dynamic Compaction 195
5.17 Jet Grouting 198
5.18 Deep Mixing 199
5.19 Summary 201
Problems 201
References 202
Part 3 Foundation Analysis 205

6 Shallow Foundations: Ultimate
stockthrone.com/Shutterstock.com
Bearing Capacity 206

6.2 General Concept 208
6.3 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory 212
6.4 Factor of Safety 216
6.5 Modification of Bearing Capacity Equations for Water
Table 217
6.6 The General Bearing Capacity Equation 218
6.7 Other Solutions for Bearing Capacity, Shape, and Depth
Factors 225
6.8 Case Studies on Ultimate Bearing Capacity 227
6.9 Effect of Soil Compressibility 231
6.10 Eccentrically Loaded Foundations 235
6.11 Ultimate Bearing Capacity Under Eccentric
Loading—One-Way Eccentricity 236
6.12 Bearing Capacity—Two-Way Eccentricity 242
6.13 A Simple Approach for Bearing Capacity with Two-Way
Eccentricity 249
6.14 Bearing Capacity of a Continuous Foundation Subjected
to Eccentrically Inclined Loading 251
6.15 Plane-Strain Correction of Friction Angle 254
viii contents
6.16 Summary 254

Problems 254
References 256
7 ltimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow

U
Foundations: Special Cases 258
PHATR/Shutterstock.com
7.2 Foundation Supported by a Soil with a Rigid Base at Shallow
Depth 259
7.3 Foundations on Layered Clay 266
7.4 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soil: Stronger Soil Underlain
by Weaker Soil (c9 2 f9 soil) 268
7.5 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soil: Weaker Soil Underlain
by Stronger Soil 275
7.6 Continuous Foundation on Weak Clay with a Granular
Trench 278
7.7 Closely Spaced Foundations—Effect on Ultimate Bearing
Capacity 280
7.8 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Top of a Slope 282
7.9 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on a Slope 285
7.10 Seismic Bearing Capacity and Settlement in Granular
Soil 286
7.11 Foundations on Rock 289
7.12 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Wedge-Shaped
Foundations 291
7.13 Uplift Capacity of Foundations 293
7.14 Summary 298
Problems 299
References 300
8 Vertical Stress Increase in Soil 302

Bertold Werkmann/Shutterstock.com

8.2 Stress Due to a Concentrated Load 303
8.3 Stress Due to a Circularly Loaded Area 304
8.4 Stress Due to a Line Load 305
8.5 Stress Below a Vertical Strip Load of Finite Width
and Infinite Length 306
8.6 Stress Below a Horizontal Strip Load of Finite Width
and Infinite Length 310
8.7 Stress Below a Rectangular Area 312
8.8 Stress Isobars 317
8.9 Average Vertical Stress Increase Due to a Rectangularly
Loaded Area 318
8.10 A
verage Vertical Stress Increase Below the Center of
a Circularly Loaded Area 323
8.11 Stress Increase Under an Embankment 325
8.12 W
estergaard’s Solution for Vertical Stress Due
to a Point Load 328
8.13 Stress Distribution for Westergaard Material 330
contents ix
8.14 Summary 333

Problems 333
References 335
9 Settlement of Shallow Foundations 336
Rachata Kietsirikul/Shutterstock.com
9.2 Elastic Settlement of Shallow Foundation on Saturated
Clay ( ms 5 0.5) 337
Elastic Settlement in Granular Soil 339
9.3 Settlement Based on the Theory of Elasticity 339
9.4 Improved Equation for Elastic Settlement 350
9.5 Settlement of Sandy Soil: Use of Strain
Influence Factor 354
9.6 Settlement of Foundation on Sand Based
on Standard Penetration Resistance 361
9.7 Settlement Considering Soil Stiffness Variation
with Stress Level 366
9.8 Settlement Based on Pressuremeter Test (PMT) 370
9.9 Settlement Estimation Using the L1 2 L2 Method 375
9.10 Effect of the Rise of Water Table on Elastic Settlement 378
Consolidation Settlement 380
9.11 Primary Consolidation Settlement Relationships 380
9.12 Three-Dimensional Effect on Primary Consolidation
Settlement 382
9.13 Settlement Due to Secondary Consolidation 386
9.14 Field Load Test 388
9.15 Presumptive Bearing Capacity 389
9.16 Tolerable Settlement of Buildings 390
9.17 Summary 392
Problems 392
References 394
10 Mat Foundations 396

Kekyalyaynen/Shutterstock.com
10.2 Combined Footings 397

10.3 Common Types of Mat Foundations 401
10.4 Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations 403
10.5 Differential Settlement of Mats 406
10.6 Field Settlement Observations for Mat Foundations 407
10.7 Compensated Foundation 407
10.8 Structural Design of Mat Foundations 411
10.9 Summary 424
Problems 425
References 425
Oliver Foerstner/Shutterstock.com
11 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 427

11.2 Design Philosophy 429
x contents
11.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 431

11.4 Limit State Design (LSD) and Partial Safety
Factors 432
11.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 433
11.6 Summary 436
Problems 436
References 437
12 Pile Foundations 438

12.1
DESIGNFACTS/Shutterstock.com
Introduction 439
12.2 Pile Materials 440
12.3 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Piles 450
12.4 Point Bearing and Friction Piles 451
12.5 Installation of Piles 452
12.6 Pile Driving 453
12.7 Load Transfer Mechanism 458
12.8 Equations for Estimating Pile Capacity 461
12.9 Meyerhof’s Method for Estimating Qp 463
12.10 Vesic’s Method for Estimating Qp 466
12.11 Coyle and Castello’s Method for Estimating Qp
in Sand 469
12.12 Correlations for Calculating Qp with SPT and CPT Results
in Granular Soil 473
12.13 Frictional Resistance (Qs) in Sand 474
12.14 Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay 480
12.15 Ultimate Capacity of Continuous Flight Auger Pile 485
12.16 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock 487
12.17 Pile Load Tests 493
12.18 Elastic Settlement of Piles 497
12.19 Laterally Loaded Piles 502
12.20 Pile-Driving Formulas 514
12.21 Pile Capacity for Vibration-Driven Piles 520
12.22 Wave Equation Analysis 521
12.23 Negative Skin Friction 524
Group Piles 528
12.24 Group Efficiency 528
12.25 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay 531
12.26 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles 534
12.27 Consolidation Settlement of Group Piles 536
12.28 Piles in Rock 538
12.29 Summary 539
Problems 539
References 543
13 Drilled-Shaft Foundations 546

CHAIYA/Shutterstock.com

13.2 Types of Drilled Shafts 547
13.3 Construction Procedures 548
13.4 Other Design Considerations 554
contents xi
13.5 Load Transfer Mechanism 555

13.6 Estimation of Load-Bearing Capacity 556
13.7 Load-Bearing Capacity in Granular Soil 558
13.8 Load-Bearing Capacity in Granular Soil Based
on Settlement 561
13.9 Load-Bearing Capacity in Clay 568
13.10 Load-Bearing Capacity in Clay Based on Settlement 570
13.11 Settlement of Drilled Shafts at Working Load 575
13.12 L
ateral Load-Carrying Capacity—Characteristic Load
and Moment Method 576
13.13 Drilled Shafts Extending into Rock 583
13.14 Summary 588
Problems 589
References 590
14 Piled Rafts: An Overview 592

1Roman Makedonsky/Shutterstock.com

14.2 Load-Settlement Plots of Unpiled and Piled Rafts Under
Different Design Conditions 594
14.3 Poulos–Davis–Randolph Simplified Design Method 595
14.4 Case Study: Burj Khalifa Tower in Dubai 600
14.5 Summary 602
Problems 602
References 602
15 Foundations on Difficult Soil 603

CHAIYA/Shutterstock.com
Collapsible Soil 604

15.2 Definition and Types of Collapsible Soil 604
15.3 Physical Parameters for Identification 606
15.4 Procedure for Calculating Collapse Settlement 608
15.5 Foundations in Soil Not Susceptible
to Wetting 609
15.6 Foundations in Soil Susceptible to Wetting 611
Expansive Soil 612
15.7 General Nature of Expansive Soil 612
15.8 Unrestrained Swell Test 615
15.9 Swelling Pressure Test 617
15.10 C
lassification of Expansive Soil on the Basis
of Index Tests 621
15.11 Foundation Considerations for Expansive Soil 624
15.12 Construction on Expansive Soil 626
Sanitary Landfills 630
15.13 General Nature of Sanitary Landfills 630
15.14 Settlement of Sanitary Landfills 631
15.15 Summary 633
Problems 633
References 634
xii contents
Part 4
Lateral Earth Pressure and Earth
Retaining Structures 637
16 Lateral Earth Pressure 638
Operation Shooting/Shutterstock.com
16.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest 640
Active Pressure 644
16.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure 644
16.4 A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—Granular
Backfill 649
16.5 Generalized Case for Rankine Seismic Active Earth
Pressure—Granular Backfill 653
16.6 Rankine Active Pressure with Vertical Wall Backface
and Inclined c9 2 f9 Soil Backfill 655
16.7 Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure 658
16.8 Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge 665
16.9 Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Conditions—Granular
Backfill 668
16.10 A ctive Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition (Vertical
Backface of Wall and c9 2 f9 Backfill) 672
Passive Pressure 676
16.11 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 676
16.12 R
ankine Passive Earth Pressure—Vertical Backface and
Inclined Backfill 679
16.13 Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure 681
16.14 C
omments on the Failure Surface Assumption for
Coulomb’s Pressure Calculations 683
16.15 C
aquot and Kerisel Solution for Passive Earth Pressure
(Granular Backfill) 684
16.16 S
olution for Passive Earth Pressure by the Lower Bound
Theorem of Plasticity (Granular Backfill) 686
16.17 Passive Force on Walls with Earthquake Forces 688
16.18 Summary 691
Problems 691
References 693
17 Retaining Walls 694

Jarous/Shutterstock.com
Gravity and Cantilever Walls 697

17.2 Proportioning Retaining Walls 697
17.3 Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
to Design 698
17.4 Stability of Retaining Walls 699
17.5 Check for Overturning 701
17.6 Check for Sliding Along the Base 703
17.7 Check for Bearing Capacity Failure 706
17.8 Construction Joints and Drainage from Backfill 714
contents xiii
17.9 omments on Design of Retaining Walls

C
and a Case Study 717
17.10 G
ravity Retaining-Wall Design for Earthquake
Conditions 720
Mechanically Stabilized Retaining Walls 722
17.11 Soil Reinforcement 723
17.12 Considerations in Soil Reinforcement 723
17.13 General Design Considerations 727
17.14 Retaining Walls with Metallic Strip Reinforcement 728
17.15 S
tep-by-Step-Design Procedure Using Metallic Strip
Reinforcement 734
17.16 Retaining Walls with Geotextile Reinforcement 738
17.17 R
etaining Walls with Geogrid Reinforcement—
General 744
17.18 D
esign Procedure for Geogrid-Reinforced Retaining
Wall 746
17.19 Summary 748
Problems 749
References 750
18 Sheet-Pile Walls 752

Aisyaqilumaranas/Shutterstock.com

18.2 Construction Methods 756
18.3 Cantilever Sheet-Pile Walls 757
18.4 Cantilever Sheet Piling Penetrating Sandy Soil 758
18.5 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating a Sandy
Soil 764
18.6 Cantilever Sheet Piling Penetrating Clay 767
18.7 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating Clay 772
18.8 Cantilever Sheet Piles Penetrating Sandy Soil—A Simplified
Approach 775
18.9 Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls 779
18.10 F
ree Earth Support Method for Penetration of Sandy
Soil—A Simplified Approach 780
18.11 F
ree Earth Support Method for Penetration of Sandy
Soil—Net Lateral Pressure Method 782
18.12 D
esign Charts for Free Earth Support Method (Penetration
into Sandy Soil) 785
18.13 M
oment Reduction for Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls
Penetrating into Sand 789
18.14 C
omputational Pressure Diagram Method for Penetration
into Sandy Soil 792
18.15 Field Observations for Anchor Sheet-Pile Walls 795
18.16 Free Earth Support Method for Penetration of Clay 797
18.17 Anchors 802
18.18 Holding Capacity of Deadman Anchors 804
18.19 Holding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Sand 804
18.20 H
olding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Clay
(f 5 0 Condition) 811
xiv contents
18.21 Ultimate Resistance of Tiebacks 811

18.22 Summary 812
Problems 812
References 813
19 Braced Cuts 814

Aisyaqilumaranas/Shutterstock.com
19.2 Braced-Cut Analysis Based on General Wedge Theory 817
19.3 Pressure Envelope for Braced-Cut Design 820
19.4 Pressure Envelope for Cuts in Layered Soil 822
19.5 Design of Various Components of a Braced Cut 823
19.6 Case Studies of Braced Cuts 831
19.7 Bottom Heave of a Cut in Clay 835
19.8 Stability of the Bottom of a Cut in Sand 839
19.9 Lateral Yielding of Sheet Piles and Ground
Settlement 843
19.10 Summary 845
Problems 845
References 846
Answers to Problems 847
Index 851
Preface
S
oil mechanics and foundation engineering have developed rapidly during the
last seventy years. Intensive research and observation in the field and the labo-
ratory have refined and improved the science of foundation design. Originally
published in the fall of 1983, Principles of Foundation Engineering is now in the
ninth edition. It is intended primarily for use by undergraduate civil engineering stu-
dents. The use of this text throughout the world has increased greatly over the years.
It has also been translated into several languages. New and improved materials that
have been published in various geotechnical engineering journals and conference
proceedings, consistent with the level of understanding of the intended users, have
been incorporated into each edition of the text.
New to This Edition

Based on the increased developments in the field of geotechnical engineering, the
authors have added three new chapters to this edition. The ninth edition of Principles
of Foundation Engineering contains a total of 19 chapters. Listed here is a summary
of the major revisions from the eighth edition and new additions to this edition.
●●
Numerous new photographs in full color have been included in various chap-
ters as needed.
●●
The Introduction Chapter (Chapter 1) has been entirely revised and expanded
with sections on geotechnical engineering, foundation engineering, soil explo-
ration, ground improvement, solution methods, numerical modeling, empiri-
cism, and literature.
●●
Chapter 2 on Geotechnical Properties of Soil includes new sections on the
range of coefficient of consolidation and selection of shear strength parameters
for design. All of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 3 on Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration has an im-
proved figure on soil behavior type chart based on cone penetration test.
Approximately half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 4 on Instrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical Engineering
is a new chapter that describes the use of instruments in geotechnical projects,
such as piezometer, earth pressure cell, load cell, inclinometer, settlement
plate, strain gauge, and others.
●●
Soil Improvement (Chapter 5) has some details on typical compaction re-
quirements as well as improved figures in the section of precompression. About
half of the problems at the end of the chapter are new.
●●
Chapter 6 on Shallow Foundations: Ultimate Bearing Capacity has new
sections on a simple approach for bearing capacity with two-way eccentricities,
and plane strain correction of friction angle.
●●
Chapter 7 on Ultimate Bearing Capacity on Shallow Foundation: Special
Cases has a section on ultimate bearing capacity of a wedge-shaped founda-
tion. About half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 8 on Vertical Stress Increase in Soil has a new section on stress
below a horizontal strip load of finite width and infinite length. The majority of
the end-of-chapter problems are new.
xv
xvi preface
●●
In Chapter 9 on Settlement of Shallow Foundations, Section 9.3 on settle-
ment based on the theory of elasticity has been thoroughly revised with the
addition of the results of the studies of Poulos and Davis (1974) and Giroud
(1968). In Section 9.6, which discusses the topic of settlement of foundation
on sand based on standard penetration resistance, Terzaghi and Peck’s method
(1967) has been added. Elastic settlement considering soil stiffness variation
with stress level is given in a new section (Section 9.7). Other additions include
settlement estimation using the L1 – L2 method (Section 9.9) (Akbas and
Kulhawy, 2009) and Shahriar et al.’s (2014) method to estimate elastic settlement
in granular soil due to the rise of ground water table (Section 9.10). The section
on tolerable settlement of buildings has been fully revised. More than half of the
end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 10 on Mat Foundations, the reinforcement design portion for the
mats was removed to concentrate more on the geotechnical portion. All end-of-
chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 11 on Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is a new chapter.
It provides the design philosophies of the allowable stress design (ASD) and
load and resistance factor design in a simple way.
●●
Chapter 12 on Pile Foundations has a new section defining point bearing and
friction piles (Section 12.5). Section 12.5 on installation of piles has been thor-
oughly revised. Factor of safety for axially loaded piles suggested by USACE
(1991) has been incorporated in Section 12.8 on equations for estimating pile
capacity. The analysis by Poulos and Davis (1974) for estimation of elastic
settlement of piles has been included in Section 9.17. About half of the end-of-
chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 13 on Drilled Shaft Foundations, several figures have been im-
proved to aid in better interpolation for solving problems. More than half of the
end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 14 on Piled Rafts—An Overview is a new chapter. It describes
optimizations of the advantages of pile foundations and raft foundations for
construction of very tall buildings.
●●
In Chapter 15 on Foundations on Difficult Soil, all but two of end-of-chapter
problems are new.
●●
Chapter 16 on Lateral Earth Pressure has two new sections on (a) general-
ized case for Rankine seismic active pressure—granular backfill (Section 16.5),
and (b) solution for passive earth pressure by lower bound theorem of plasticity
(Section 16.15). The section on passive force on walls with earthquake forces
(Section 16.7) has been expanded. All end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 17 on Retaining Walls, a new section (Section 17.10) on gravity
retaining wall design for earthquake conditions has been added. Discussion on
the properties of geotextile has been expanded along with some new geotextile
photographs. More than half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 18 on Sheet-Pile Walls has three new sections added: (a) cantilever
sheet piles penetrating sandy soil—a simplified approach (Section 18.8);
(b) free earth support method for penetration of sandy soil—a simplified ap-
proach (Section 18.10); and (c) holding capacity of deadman anchors (Section
18.18). All end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 19 on Braced Cuts, all end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Each chapter now includes a Summary section. New and revised example
problems are presented in various chapters as needed.
Instructor Resources
A detailed Instructor’s Solutions Manual containing solutions to all end-of-
chapter problems, an Image Bank with figures and tables in the book, and Lecture
Note PowerPoint Slides are available via a secure, password-protected Instructor
Resource Center at https://login.cengage.com.
prefacE xvii
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Acknowledgments
●●
We are deeply grateful to Janice Das for her assistance in completing the revi-
sion. She has been the driving force behind this textbook since the preparation
of the first edition.
●●
Special thanks are due to Rohini Sivakugan for her help during the preparation
of the manuscript for this edition.
●●
It is fitting to thank Rose P. Kernan of RPK Editorial Services. She has been
instrumental in shaping the style and overseeing the production of this edition
of Principles of Foundation Engineering as well as several previous editions.
●●
We also wish to thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage who worked in
the development of this edition. Especially, we would like to extend our thanks
to Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Angie Rubino, Associate Content
Developer; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager; and Alexander Sham, Product
Assistant.
Braja M. Das
Nagaratnam Sivakugan
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prefacE xix
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Preface to the SI Edition
This edition of Principles of Foundation Engineering, Ninth Edition has been adapted
to incorporate the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités
or SI) throughout the book.
Le Système International d’Unités

The United States Customary System (USCS) of units uses FPS (foot−pound−second)
units (also called English or Imperial units). SI units are primarily the units of the
MKS (meter−kilogram−second) system. However, CGS (centimeter−gram−second)
units are often accepted as SI units, especially in textbooks.
Using SI Units in this Book

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS (U.S. Customary Units)
or FPS (foot-pound-second) units used in the US Edition of the book have been
converted to SI units throughout the text and problems. However, in case of data
sourced from handbooks, government standards, and product manuals, it is not only
extremely difficult to convert all values to SI, it also encroaches upon the intellec-
tual property of the source. Some data in figures, tables, and references, therefore,
remains in FPS units.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced values can be
converted from FPS units to SI units just before they are to be used in a calculation.
To obtain standardized quantities and manufacturers’ data in SI units, readers may
contact the appropriate government agencies or authorities in their regions.
Instructor Resources
The Instructors’ Solution Manual in SI units is available on the book’s website at
http://login.cengage.com. A digital version of the Solutions Manual, Lecture Note
PowerPoint slides for the SI text, as well as other resources are available for instruc-
tors registering on the book’s website.
Feedback from users of this SI Edition will be greatly appreciated and will help
us improve subsequent editions.
Cengage Learning
xxi
About the Authors
Dr. Braja Das is Dean Emeritus of the College of Engineering and Computer Science
at California State University, Sacramento. He received his B.Sc. degree with honors
in Physics and B.Sc. degree in Civil Engineering from Utkal University, India; his
M.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Iowa, Iowa City; and his Ph.D. in
Geotechnical Engineering from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. He is the
author of a number of geotechnical engineering texts and reference books and more
than 300 technical papers. His primary areas of research include shallow founda-
tions, earth anchors, and geosynthetics.
Dr. Das is a Fellow and Life Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
a Life Member of the American Society for Engineering Education, and an Emeritus
Member of the Stabilization of Geomaterials and Recycled Materials Committee of
the Transportation Research Board of the National Research Council (Washington
DC). He has previously served as a member on the editorial board of the Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering of ASCE, a member of the editorial board of Lowland
Technology International Journal (Japan), as associate editor of the International
Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering (ISOPE), and as co-editor of the Journal
of Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (Springer, The Netherlands). Presently
he is the editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
(Taylor & Francis, U.K.). He has received numerous awards for teaching excellence,
including the AMOCO Foundation Award, the AT&T Award for Teaching Excellence
from the American Society for Engineering Education, the Ralph Teetor Award from
the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the Distinguished Achievement Award for
Teaching Excellence from the University of Texas at El Paso.
Dr. Das is widely recognized in his field and has been invited as a keynote speaker
to multiple conferences worldwide. His prolific career has taken him to Australia,
Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador,
India, Korea, Bolivia, Venezuela, Turkey, the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus,
United Arab Emirates, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom. He has also been named
as the first Eulalio Juárez Badillo Lecturer by the Mexican Society of Geotechnical
Engineers. The Soil-Structure Interaction Group of Egypt established an honor lec-
ture series that takes place once every two years in Egypt. The first lecture was deliv-
ered during the Geo-Middle-East Conference in July 2017.
Dr. Nagaratnam Sivakugan received his Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering

from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, with First Class Honors. He earned
his MSCE and Ph.D. from Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA. Dr. Sivakugan’s
writings include eight books, 140 refereed international journal papers, 100 refereed
international conference papers, and more than 100 consulting reports. As a regis-
tered professional engineer of Queensland and a chartered professional engineer, Dr.
Sivakugan does substantial consulting work for the geotechnical and mining industry
in Australia and overseas, including the World Bank. He is a Fellow of the American
Society of Civil Engineers and Engineers Australia. He has supervised 14 Ph.D.
students to completion at James Cook University, Queensland, Australia, where he
was the Head of Civil Engineering from 2003 to 2014. He is an Associate Editor
for three international journals and serves on the editorial boards of the Canadian
Geotechnical Journal and the Indian Geotechnical Journal.
xxii
2.1 grain-size distribution 1
1
Introduction
Firma V/shutterstock.com
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2 1.6 Numerical Modeling 4

1.2 Foundation Engineering 2 1.7 Empiricism 5
1.3 Soil Exploration 2 1.8 Literature 5
1.4 Ground Improvement 3 References 6
1.5 Solution Methods 4
2 CHapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering
G
eotechnical engineering, also known as geomechanics, is an emerging area
in civil engineering. It deals with soil mechanics, with some emphasis on
rock mechanics, where we apply engineering principles, such as the theory
of elasticity, Mohr’s circle, and continuum mechanics, to develop simple solutions
that can be applied to geotechnical and foundation engineering problems. When
dealing with problems related to geomaterials, which include soil, aggregates, and
rocks, some knowledge of geology is always an advantage.
A thorough understanding of the geotechnical engineering fundamentals
is a prerequisite for studying foundation engineering. These include phase rela-
tions, soil classification, compaction, permeability, seepage, consolidation, shear
strength, slope stability, and soil exploration. These areas are covered in Principles
of Geotechnical Engineering (9th Edition) in good detail. The main points are dis-
cussed very briefly in Chapters 2 and 3 in Part 1 of this text.
A new chapter on geotechnical instrumentation is included in this edition as
Chapter 4 in Part 1. When projects become complex or the design or construction
methods are nonstandard, it is often advisable to use instruments and measure the
loads, stresses, deformations, and strains at critical locations and monitor them over
a certain period to ensure the performance of the structure is satisfactory. This new
chapter gives an overview of the major instruments used in geotechnical engineering.
1.2 Foundation Engineering

Every civil engineering project has some geotechnical or foundation engineering
component. This includes all earth and earth-supported structures, namely, founda-
tions and earth-retaining structures, the two broad categories discussed in this book.
The related chapters are bundled into Parts 3 and 4, respectively. Under foundations
(Part 3), shallow foundations and deep foundations are discussed. In this edition, a
new chapter is introduced on the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method,
which is quite different compared to the traditional allowable stress design (ASD)
method that has been used by geotechnical engineers for decades. The LRFD was
initially brought into practice by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) in the 1960s.
It is widely used in structural engineering and is becoming popular in foundation
engineering applications such as footings, piles, and retaining walls. The main differ-
ence between LRFD and ASD is the way the safety factor is applied.
A new introductory chapter on piled-raft foundations is included in this edition
(Chapter 14). Piled rafts exploit the advantages of piles and rafts, two different types
of foundations. For tall buildings, they appear to give economical solutions com-
pared to those given by rafts or piles alone.
Retaining walls, sheet piles, and braced cuts are covered under earth-retaining
structures in Part 4.
1.3 Soil Exploration

All geotechnical designs require knowledge of the soil and rock properties in the
vicinity of the structure. These are determined through a soil exploration (also known
as site investigation) program that consists of (a) in situ tests, (b) sampling at the
1.4 Ground Improvement 3
Figure 1.1 Soil exploration program (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook

University, Australia)
site, and (c) laboratory tests on the samples taken from the site. Based on the soil
exploration data, a simplified soil profile can be developed, which can be the basis
for geotechnical designs. Figure 1.1 shows drilling in progress as part of a subsoil
investigation.
The heterogeneous nature of the ground conditions and the spatial variability in
the soil properties make it difficult to assign the design parameters to a simplified soil
model. Every borehole and its associated tests can cost thousands of dollars to the
client, and it is often the case that our wish list is longer than what the budget permits.
Therefore, it is prudent to plan the soil exploration program to extract the maximum
possible data from the ground that is relevant to the project at a reasonable cost.
Due to budgetary constraints, it is sometimes necessary to strike a balance between
laboratory and in situ tests. The same parameters can be determined by laboratory or
in situ tests. Some good geotechnical judgment is required here to select the right tests.
Laboratory and in situ tests must complement each other. One should never be chosen
at the expense of the other. They have their own advantages and disadvantages.
1.4 Ground Improvement

When designing a beam or a bridge, an engineer has the luxury of specifying the
strength of concrete. The same thing applies to most engineering materials. When it
comes to soil, the situation is different. Once the site is identified, one has to design
the structure to suit the soil conditions. Any attempt to replace the soil with a better-
performing soil can be an expensive option. However, the existing ground can be
improved through one of the many ground improvement techniques.
Very often, the soil conditions at a site do not meet the design requirements
in their present form. The soil may be too weak, undergo excessive deforma-
tions, and/or lead to possible failure. Even if the soil at the surface is suitable,
the subsoil conditions may be unfavorable. Designing the structure or facility
to suit the existing soil conditions is not necessarily the best option. Instead,
improving the ground and looking for more economical alternatives can save
millions of dollars.
Compaction is a simple and inexpensive ground improvement technique that
works on all types of soil. Figure 1.2 shows some soil compaction in progress for
a highway construction project. The other ground improvement techniques include
4 CHapter 1 Introduction
Figure 1.2 Soil compaction for a highway construction project (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan,
James Cook University, Australia)
vibroflotation, dynamic compaction, blasting, preloading, vertical drains, lime/cement

stabilization, stone columns, jet grouting, and deep mixing. They are discussed briefly
in Chapter 5 (Part 2).
1.5 Solution Methods

In geotechnical or foundation engineering, there are three ways of solving a problem.
They are:
●●
analytical methods
●●
physical modeling
●●
numerical modeling
For simple problems, similar to those discussed in textbooks, it is possible to apply
the geotechnical engineering principles and the closed form solutions available in the
literature. This applies to situations where the soil conditions are relatively uniform
and the boundary conditions are well defined. In some instances, it is also possible
to build a small scale model that can be tested in the laboratory to investigate the dif-
ferent scenarios. This is known as physical modeling. In larger projects, where the
soil conditions and the boundary conditions are complex, it is difficult to apply the
geotechnical theories and arrive at closed form solutions. Here, numerical modeling
becomes a valuable tool. Once the model is developed, it can be used to carry out
a thorough sensitivity analysis, exploring the effects of different parameters on the
performance of the structure.
1.6 Numerical Modeling

Soil is a particulate medium. For simplicity it is treated as a continuum, which is as-
sumed to follow one of the many constitutive models such as Mohr–Coulomb, linear
elastic, nonlinear elastic, Cam Clay, or Drucker–Prager. These constitutive models
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and at a mile’s distance. The weavers allege, in excuse of their retreat, that the
butcher squadron had been ordered up to assist the tailors, and that they did not
incline to engage with these men of blood.’—C. M.
A circumstance somewhat like the Tain 1733. Oct. 30.
entertainment, in honour of Governor Macrae, took
place in Edinburgh, on this king’s birthday, which was observed with unusual
rejoicings, on account of the recent stimulus to loyalty from the marriage of the
Princess Royal to the Prince of Orange. ‘David Campbell, his Majesty’s Tailor for
Scotland, came to this kingdom from Jamaica, purely on design to solemnise the
day. He accordingly entertained at his lodgings in the Abbey his Majesty’s Blue
Gowns [a set of licensed beggars, corresponding in number to the king’s years,
which were now fifty], and at night he kept open table, where several gentlemen
were entertained, all the royal healths were drunk, and those of every remarkable
person of the illustrious name of Campbell, with the sound of trumpet and other
music.’—C. M.
The Caledonian Mercury gives a droll, chirping Oct.
account of an association which, it is easy to see, had
in view the prevention of an over-severe excise system for Scotland. Yesternight,
says the paragraph, ‘there came on, at the Parrot’s Nest in this city, the annual
election of office-bearers in the ancient and venerable Assembly of Birds; when the
Game-cock was elected preses; the Blackbird, treasurer; the Gled, principal clerk;
the Crow, his depute; and the Duck, officer; all birds duly qualified to our happy
establishment, and no less enemies to the excise scheme. After which an elegant
entertainment was served up; all the royal and loyal healths were plentifully drunk
in the richest wines; the glorious 205; all the bonny birds, &c. On this joyful
occasion nothing was heard but harmonious music, each bird striving to excel in
chanting and warbling their respective melodious notes.’ The glorious 205, it may
be remarked, were those members of the House of Commons who had recently
thrown out a bill for increasing the tax on tobacco.
‘John Park, some time dempster to the Court of 1734. Mar. 6.
Justiciary, and who lately stood a trial there for
horse-stealing, was whipped through the city, pursuant to his sentence; by which
also he stands condemned to transport himself, 1734.
never again to return to Scotland, on pain of being
whipped quarterly till he is again transported. He is a very old man, with a
graceless gray head, gray beard, and but one hand, having left the other in some
scrape.’—C. M.
‘When Mr Adam Fergusson, minister of Killin, Apr. 19.
came to Perth to intimate the sentence of the
commission (which looses Mr William Wilson’s pastoral relation in that burgh),
Mr Fergusson was met in the suburbs by several of the inhabitants, who fell upon
the gentleman, though vested with supreme authority, and attended by several
armed men; yet they were all severely cudgelled, and obliged to retire, re infectâ.’—
C. M.
‘Died here, the Rev. Mr John Maclaren, one of the July 12.
ministers of the city; esteemed a well-meaning man,
and void of hypocrisy.’—C. M.
‘On Saturday was se’nnight [Dec. 28, 1734], died at 1735. Jan. 9.
Balquhidder, in Perthshire, the famous Highland
partisan, Rob Roy.’—C. M.
‘Died, in the 12th year of her age, the Lady Jane Jan. 24.
Campbell, fourth daughter to his Grace the Duke of
Argyle.... His Grace has no male issue, but several daughters living, and it is the
peculiar right of this family, that when they marry any daughters, their vassals are
obliged to pay their portions, and are taxed in order to it, according to the number
of their cattle.’—C. M.
We find at this time a beginning to that system of Aug. 18.
emigration to America by which the Highlands were
so much depopulated during the eighteenth century. ‘The trustees for the colony of
Georgia have projected a settlement of Highlanders from this country, and have
actually sent round for Inverness and Cromarty a ship commanded by Captain
Dunbar, to take in 160 men, women, and children, who are to be settled on the far
boundary of the river Alatamaha, who will be a gallant barrier in case of a war with
France and Spain. And Mr Oglethorpe, with the other trustees, are applying to the
society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge to send a minister along
with them who speaks Irish, with proper encouragement; and we are assured the
society are so well satisfied with the project, that they have amply instructed their
committee of directors to close in with it.’—C. M.
‘The annual friendly meeting of the gentlemen of 1736. Jan. 19.
the name of Wilson, was held at the house of Jean
Wilson, spouse to Arthur Cumming, periwig-maker, opposite to the City Guard;
the Right Hon. Alexander Wilson, Lord Provost of the city, preses. There were
present about forty gentlemen and others of that clan, who were served at supper
by persons of the name. The entertainment was sumptuous, and choice wines went
merrily round.’—C. M.
‘A very uncommon chain of events happened here Jan. 21.
[Lanark] t’other week. Elizabeth Fairy was
proclaimed in order to marriage on Sunday, was accordingly married on Monday,
bore a child on Tuesday; her husband went and stole a horse on Wednesday, for
which he was banished on Thursday; the heir of this marriage died on Friday, and
was decently interred on Saturday; all in one week.’—C. M.
‘The 4th inst., several young gentlemen of this Feb. 9.
place [Montrose] acted Mr Allan Ramsay’s
celebrated Pastoral Comedy, for the diversion of the gentlemen and ladies of and
about this town, with all the dresses suitable, and performed it with so much spirit
and humour, as agreeably surprised the whole audience; to oblige whom they re-
enacted it and the farce of the Mock Doctor two succeeding nights. The money
taken, after deducting the necessary charges, being very considerable, was
distributed among the poor.’—C. M.
‘This week, several gentlemen laid a wager that a Mar. 13.
horse, twenty-six years old, belonging to Mr. Pillans,
brewer, should not draw 101 stone-weight up the West Bow to the Weigh-house;
and yesterday it was surprisingly performed, one of the wagerers riding on the top
of all.’—C. M.
Nine unfortunate young women—‘very naked and July 9.
meagre beings’—‘made an amende honorable
through the several streets of the city [of Edinburgh], 1736.
the hangman attending them, and drums beating to
the tune of Cuckolds-come-dig.’—C. M.
While Allan Ramsay was preparing his playhouse, an Italian female rope-dancer,
named Signora Violante, performed in Edinburgh and some other Scottish towns.
It was announced that she danced a minuet on the rope, as well as it could be done
on the floor—danced on a board placed loosely on the rope—danced on the rope
with two boys fastened to her feet—danced with two swords at her feet—the rope
being no thicker than penny whip-cord. In Edinburgh, the scene of her
performances was the ‘Old Assembly Hall.’—C. M.
‘A grand convention was held of the adherents to 1738. Mar. 22.
the seceding ministers of the Church of Scotland, in
a square plain on Braid Hills, two miles south of this city. About 10 before noon,
Mr Thomas Mair, minister of Orwel, in Kinross-shire, opened the service of the day
(standing in a pulpit reared up within a tent), with a sermon from Jeremiah i. 5. At
noon, Mr William Wilson, one of the ministers of Perth, preached from Ezekiel
xxii. 24, and afterwards baptized ten children, brought thither some 20, some 30
miles off. At four afternoon, Mr Ralph Erskine, one of the ministers of
Dunfermline, preached from Hosea xxiii. 9, &c. The apparent tendency of these
sermons was to excite devotion and fervour, a renewal of solemn engagements, to
deprecate sin in general, and those of this corrupt age in particular: and it was
observed that it was no proper expedient either to wash away sin, or indemnify the
sinner, to purchase indulgences at the hand of the kirk-treasurer, and some other
tenets that savoured of a popish tincture were soundly lashed. There were about
5000 hearers at each sermon (I mean of the household of faith), some of whom
from South Britain and Ireland, besides the ungodly audience, consisting of many
thousands, some of whom set fire to furze; others hunted the hare around ’em to
create disturbance, a certain huntsman having laid a plot to carry off the collection.
The convention dispersed at 7 at night.’—C. M.
In consequence of a butcher’s dog going mad, and Apr. 7.
biting some others of her species, the magistrates of
Edinburgh ordered the slaughter of all the butchers’ dogs in the city, and,
commanding the seclusion of all other dogs whatsoever, put a shilling on the head
of every one which should be found abroad. There then took place a crusade
against the canine species, which seems to have been nearly the sole Scottish
incident reported in London for the year. ‘The street cadies went very early into
obedience to this edict; for the drum had scarce gone round to intimate the same,
when they fell a-knocking on the head all suspicious or ill-affected curs, some of
which they hanged on sign-posts, &c.; and with difficulty could they be restrained
from killing the dogs that lead the blind about the streets, or attacking the ladies
with their lap-dogs. A detachment of the City Guard was ordered down to the
butcher-market, when they made very clean havoc of all the dogs there. Saturday,
at noon, the town-officers being provided with large oaken clubs, went a dog-
hunting, and killed every cur they could see or hear of; so that nothing was to be
seen but chasing, hacking, and slashing, or heard other than the lamentation of
butchers’ wives, &c., for the loss of Credit, Honesty, Turk, Twopenny, Cæsar, &c.’
Three days later, the magistrates of Leith ordered all the dogs of their town to be
put to death. Accordingly, the curs were driven into the harbour, and drowned, or
else knocked on the head. ‘Several gentlemen and others,’ it is reported, ‘have sent
off their dogs to the country, and a certain writer has despatched his favourite
Tipsy to Haddington in a cloak-bag. Patrick Kier in Multries-hill having tied up his
dog, the beast gnawed the rope, and getting loose, rushed into the room on his
master, and bit him severely. The dog was immediately killed, and Mr Kier carried
to the sea and dipped.’—C. M.
Lord Lovat having occasion at this time to travel 1740. July 30.
from his house of Beaufort, in Inverness-shire, to
Edinburgh, with his two daughters, made an effort to get his coach ready, and,
after two or three days spent in its repair, set out on 1740.
his journey. Passing through Inverness without
stopping, he came the first night to Corriebrough. To pursue his own narrative, as
given in a letter to a friend:[772] ‘I brought my wheel-wright with me the length of
Aviemore, in case of accidents, and there I parted with him, because he declared
that my chariot would go safe enough to London; but I was not eight miles from
the place, when on the plain road, the axle-tree of the hind-wheels broke in two, so
that my girls were forced to go on bare horses behind footmen, and I was obliged to
ride myself, though I was very tender, and the day very cold. I came with that
equipage to Ruthven late at night, and my chariot was pulled there by force of men,
where I got an English wheel-wright and a smith, who wrought two days mending
my chariot; and after paying very dear for their work, and for my quarters two
nights, I was not gone four miles from Ruthven, when it broke again, so that I was
in a miserable condition till I came to Dalnakeardach, where my honest landlord,
Charles M‘Glassian, told me that the Duke of Athole had two as good workmen at
Blaire as were in the kingdom, and that I would get my chariot as well mended
there as at London. Accordingly, I went there and stayed a night, and got my
chariot very well mended by a good wright and a good smith. I thought then that I
was pretty secure till I came to this place. I was storm-stayed two days at Castle
Drummond by the most tempestuous weather of wind and rain that I ever
remember to see. The Dutches of Perth and Lady Mary Drummond were
excessively kind and civil to my daughters and to me, and sent their chamberlain to
conduct me to Dumblain, who happened to be very useful to us that day; for I was
not three miles gone from Castle Drummond, when the axle-tree of my fore-wheels
broke in two, in the midst of the hill, betwixt Drummond and the bridge of Erdoch,
and we were forced to sit in the hill, with a boisterous day, till Chamberlain
Drummond was so kind as to go down to Strath, and bring wrights, and carts, and
smiths to our assistance, who dragged us to the plain, where we were forced to stay
five or six hours till there was a new axle-tree made, be that it was dark night
before we came to Dumblain, which is but eight miles from Castle Drummond, and
we were all much fatigued. The next day, we came to Lithgow, and the day after
that we arrived here, so that we were twelve days on our journey by our
misfortunes, which was seven days more than ordinary.’
‘Friday [Jan. 7], died William Mackintosh of 1743. Jan. 10.
Borlum, Esq., aged upwards of 80 years of age. He
has been prisoner in the Castle these 15 years for his accession to the Rebellion
1715.’—E. E. C.
‘On Thursday last [Jan. 13], died the Honourable Jan. 17.
Colonel John Erskine of Carnock. He was a True Old
Whig.’—E. E. C.
‘Friday, the place of one of the Principal Clerks of Jan. 17.
this city was conferred on Mr William Forbes, writer,
he paying, as a consideration for the same, in room of Mr Home deceased, £1410
sterling.’—E. E. C.
Apr. 14.
‘Thursday last, died at Sanquhar, William Kelloch, aged 111 years. He served the
town as one of their common officers 96 years, and his son, now living, has served
in the same station 70 years. He was a very honest man, had his senses to the last,
and never made use of spectacles.’—E. E. C.
‘Notwithstanding the late execution of Margaret May 9.
Stewart for child-murder, yet we are told that two
more new-born children have since been found dead, with marks of violence on
them.’—E. E. C.
INDEX.
Aa-na-Mullich, skirmish at, between the government troops and the

Mackenzies, 463.
Aberdeen, King’s College, grants a diploma to a quack doctor, 262.
Aberdeen, pope burned in effigy at, 4;
disturbances at Church of, on account of doxology, 103;
woollen manufactures at, 156;
popish meeting dispersed at, 203.
Abernethy forest, cutting of, superintended by Aaron Hill, 547.
Adair, John, mathematician, engaged in making maps of Scotland,
42.
Advertisements, curious, in Edinburgh Gazette in 1707, 325.
Advocates’ Library, established under Parliament House, 245.
African Company, established, 121;
expedition to Darien, 206;
restitution of its losses, 259.
Agricultural improvements, introduced into Scotland by Elizabeth
Mordaunt, an English lady, 419;
promoted by a society, 484.
Agricultural Improvers, Society of, 484;
implements invented, 503.
Aikenhead, Thomas, tried and executed for blasphemy, 160.
Allardice, Catharine, a misspelled letter by, 595.
Anatomy first proposed to be taught in Edinburgh, 105.
Ancrum Bridge rebuilt by kirk collection, 134.
Anderson, James, editor of Diplomata Scotiæ, encouraged in his
work, 318;
appointed postmaster for Scotland, 400;
lets a house to Sir R. Steele, 418.
Anderson, Mrs, printer of the Bible, 364.
Angus, an Episcopal clergyman, deposed, 78.
Apostasy from Protestant faith punished, 214.
Apparel, act of parliament for restraining expenses of, 149;
old fashions of dress enumerated, 148;
extravagances of, denounced, 448, 482;
cost of various articles, 571.
Arbuthnot, Lady, her jointure, 57.
Archbishop of Glasgow imprisoned, 12;
permitted to live at certain places, 167.
Archers, Royal Company of, 495.
Argyle, John, Duke of, takes command of government troops (1715),
389.
Argyle, seventh Earl, and first Duke of, 1;
his debauched life, 191;
befriends the Master of Lovat, 187.
Arithmetic, a mechanical invention for, 210.
Arms being got from abroad, James Donaldson proposes to
manufacture them at home, 311;
edict against carrying arms, 497.
Arnot, Sir David, assault by, 157.
Assembly, General, clergy of, at first plainly dressed, 148.
Assembly in Edinburgh for dancing purposes, 480.
Aston’s company of players, 518, 544, 550.
Astrology practised by John Stobo, 85.
Atheistical books imported into Edinburgh, 160.
Atmospherical phenomena, 366, 442, 480.
Auchensaugh, covenant renewed at, in 1712, 376.
Auchterarder, riot at, on reading of funeral-service, 366.
Baillie, Captain William, imprisoned debtor, liberated by Privy

Council, 28.
Baird, Archibald, imprisoned for housebreaking, 64.
Balcarres, Earl of, imprisoned at Revolution, 11;
replaced in confinement, 19;
story of Dundee’s ghost having appeared to, 19.
Baldoon park for rearing cattle, 152.
Balfour of Denmill, mysterious disappearance of, 346.
Bane, Donald, a prize-fighter, 522.
‘Bangstrie’ at Earlshall, Croshlachie, Ellieston, &c., 157–159.
Banishment petitioned for by various culprits, 116.
Bank-notes for twenty shillings commenced, 212.
Bank of Scotland established, 128;
temporarily suspends payment in 1704, 306;
run upon in 1715, 402;
last stoppage in 1728, 544;
sets up four branches, 577.
Bank, Royal, of Scotland, established, 537;
causes a stoppage in the Bank of Scotland, 544.
Banking, primitive style of, by a shopkeeper in Glasgow, 577.
Baptism, inconsistencies regarding, 370.
Barbreck’s Bone, for cure of madness, 262.
Bargarran’s daughter (Christian Shaw), her case, 167;
thread spun by her, 510.
Barrisdale, Macdonell of, 615.
Bass, siege of, 95.
Bath of hot air (a hummum) established at Perth, 260.
Bayne, James, wright, ruined by his concern in rebuilding Holyrood
Palace, 29.
Beardie [Walter Scott]‘s marriage, 37;
attends a funeral at Glasgow, 387.
Bell, Sir John, of Glasgow, episcopal worship at his house disturbed,
273.
Bible in Irish language, first printed, 39.
——, printing of, in Scotland (1712), 364.
Bills of Exchange, treatise upon, printed, 278.
Births, ceremonies at, 572.
Bishops expelled from the Convention in 1689, 5.
Black-foot, a, litigation by one for remuneration, 191.
Black Mail in the Highlands, 498, 612, 614.
—— Watch, the, 498, 581, 610.
Blackwell, a preceptor, libels Lady Inglis of Cramond, 89.
Blair of Balthayock and Carnegie of Finhaven, 190.
‘Bloody Baillie,’ a witness on Porteous Mob, 601.
Blythswood, Campbell of, cousinred with Sir Walter Scott, 37.
Boig, Adam, starts the Edinburgh Courant, 314.
Books burnt at Cross, 276.
——, licenses for printing, 52, 220.
Boswell of Balmouto, a rash Jacobite, 84.
Botanic Garden established in Edinburgh, 81;
extension of, 142.
Brand, Alexander, in trouble for making ‘donatives’ to Privy Council,
176;
proposes scavengering of Edinburgh, 592.
Brewers of Edinburgh in rebellion, 509.
Bride’s clothes, their cost, 240.
Bridge, William, an English coppersmith, 33.
Bridgman, or Evory, a pirate, seizes a man-of-war, 150.
Broich, James, sad tale of his ship taken by a privateer, 22.
Brown, Dr Andrew (Dolphington), is licensed to print a treatise of
his own on fevers, 52.
Brown, Jean, of Potterrow, a religious visionary, 430.
Brown, Rev. George, his Rotula Arithmetica, 210.
Browny, a spirit, 284.
Bruce, Captain Henry, imprisoned for defending Holyroodhouse, 13.
Bruce, David, and other boys, carried out to sea in an open boat,
355.
Bruce, Peter, confined at the Revolution, 12;
transfers right of making playing-cards, 34.
Buchanan, David, servant of Lord Dundee, 15.
Bugs in Glasgow, 542.
Bullock, fat, at Dalkeith, 479.
Burghs, royal, convention of, curious details, 51.
Burleigh, Master of, murders Stenhouse, a schoolmaster, 326.
Burnet, Captain, of Barns, his unscrupulous recruiting, 43.
Bute, Earl of, his law-case against his stepmother, 375.
Cairns, a boy, murdered, 547.

Caldron, a copper, law-case about, 77.
Callender, John, master-smith, his account against exchequer, 47
note.
Cambuslang, religious demonstrations at, 607.
Cameron, Sir Evan, of Locheil, 288.
Cameronian regiment raised in 1689, 8.
Cameronians, the, proceedings of, 376, 532.
Campbell of Cessnock’s parks for rearing cattle, 153;
his plan for shot-casting, 155.
Campbell of Lawers, murdered at Greenock, 473.
Campbell of Lochnell’s funeral, 387.
Canongate, duels in, 466.
—— Tolbooth, mutiny of prisoners in, 71;
petition from keeper of, 80;
mutinies of recruits in, 182, 601.
Card-playing, law against, 296.
Cards, playing, manufacture of, a monopoly, 34.
Cardross, Lord, and Sir John Cochrane, case between, 191.
Carmichael of Bonnyton, his quarrel with opposite neighbours, 73.
Carstares, William, the king’s adviser, 107;
his death, 403.
Catarrh, infection of, at St Kilda, 181.
Catholics, troubles of, after the Revolution, 25;
severe treatment of priests, 82;
act against in 1700, 205;
worship interrupted in Edinburgh, 108;
at Aberdeen, 203;
again in Edinburgh, 204, 466;
Catholic priest banished, 362;
gentlemen troubled, 295;
priests numerous and bold, 383;
seminary for priests at Scalan, 205;
Catholic books seized and burned, 146.
Cattle, breeds of, efforts to improve, at Baldoon and elsewhere, 152.
Cattle fair of Crieff, 338.
—— ‘lifting’ in the Highlands, 30, 420, 486, 498, 610, 614.
Cayley, Captain John, shot by Mrs M‘Farlane, 412.
Cess, evasion of, in the Highlands, 91.
Chancellor of Shieldhill fined for a riot, 73.
Charteris, Colonel Francis, gambling anecdote of, 296;
his death, 579.
Child-murder, imputed, cases of, 19, 27, 625.
Children of the upper classes, provision for, in various instances, 55.
Choille Van, skirmish at, 468.
Christian Knowledge, Society for Propagation of, 252.
Claim of Right, some articles violated, 10.
Claret, &c., price of in Scotland, at beginning of 18th century, 183,
270.
Cleland, William, appointed lieutenant-colonel of Cameronian
regiment, 9.
Clerical uniform recommended, 147.
Cloth-manufacture, woollen, 155.
Clubs of a censurable character, 521, 543.
Cluny Macpherson establishes a guard in lieu of ‘Black Watch,’ 611.
Coal-pits at Tranent, mode of draining, 472.
—— -works, railway at Prestonpans, 472.
Cockburn, Andrew, post-boy, robbed, 32.
—— ——, an Episcopalian minister at Glasgow, his chapel destroyed
by a mob, 367.
Cockburn, Justice-clerk, quarrels with Earl of Ilay and Sir David
Dalrymple, 402.
Cockburn, Mr, of Ormiston, an improver of agriculture, 485.
Cock-fighting introduced, 266.
Coin of Scotland at the Union, 330.
Coldingham, kirk discipline of, 92;
episcopal meeting-house, 93;
witches of Coldingham, 94.
Collegium Butterense at Aberdeen, 230.
Colliers in Fife and Lothian, as slaves, 248.
Combats with swords in public, 522.
Commerce as affected by the Union, 336, 338.
—— and Manufactures in Scotland, subsequent to Revolution, 336,
416.
Common Prayer, Book of, two clergymen maltreated for using, at
Dumfries, 65;
Rev. James Greenshields prosecuted for using, 350.
Companies formed for manufactures, 88.
Concert of music in Edinburgh in 1695, 89;
by Edinburgh amateurs, 432.
Condition and habits of Scottish people, change for the better, 568;
hospitality, 570;
dress, &c., 571.
Copyrights of books, granted by Privy Council to printers and
booksellers, 220.
Cornwell, Christopher, servitor, imprisoned, 15.
Coronation of George I., rejoicings at, 414.
Corporation privileges, troubles arising from, 75.
Correction-houses for mendicants built, 219.
Courant, Edinburgh, commenced, 314.
Courant, Edinburgh Evening, newspaper started (1718), 438.
Covenant sworn at Auchensaugh, 376.
Covenanters’ heads, re-interment of, 532.
Cowbin, estate of, ruined by drifted sand, 119;
Kinnaird of Culbin petitions for exemption from cess, 119;
inscription on family tombstone, 120.
Craig, Margaret, a poor girl, drowns her infant, 19.
Craigcrook, romantic story of a murder connected with, 333.
Crawford, Earl of, president of parliament, 1;
superintends torture of a prisoner, 40.
Crawford, John, Morer’s account of, 271.
Crieff, cattle-fair of, described, 338.
Crighton, Captain John, his restraint relaxed and renewed, 67;
liberated, 68.
Criminalities connected with the sexual affections, 59.
Criminals condemned to become soldiers, 64.
—— banished without trial, 115, 211.
Cromdale, dispersion of Highlanders at, 2.
Culloden, Lady, the body forgotten at her funeral, 309.
Culreach, system of in Scotland, 236.
Curiosities, House of, at Grange Park, 99.
Customs, attacks on officers of, 215, 589, 594.
Dalnaspidal, fête at, by General Wade, 561.

Dalrymple, Sir John, his enmity against Highland Jacobites, 61;
his concern in massacre of Glencoe, 62.
Dalyell, Sir Thomas, of Binns, treated for lunacy, 297.
Dancing Assembly established, 479;
meetings for in provincial towns, 590.
Darien Expedition, 107, 206.
Davidson, Robert, of Ellon, Aberdeenshire, petitions Council in
consequence of having had his house destroyed, 108.
Davidson, William, ‘writer,’ incarcerated for false news, 72.
Dearth in Scotland, 136, 195, 348, 606.
Debauchery in Edinburgh, 312.
Dee, bridge over at Black Ford, erected, 277.
Defoe visits Scotland (1706), 322;
conducts the Courant newspaper, 324, 325;
his account of the Equivalent, 328;
quoted regarding trade of Scotland, 336;
his illiberal remark on Greenshields’s case, 351.
Deportment, Rules of Good, by Petrie, 455.
Dickson, Margaret, her trial, execution, and subsequent recovery,
500.
Dickson, Sir R., of Sorn-beg, refuses to pay for wines to gratify the
officers of state, 188.
Dies and punches for coining, 141.
Dingwall, poverty-stricken in 1704, 52;
deputation from Inverness visits the town to report on its trade,
52;
effect of cheap whisky at, 133.
Dirty Luggies in Edinburgh, 593.
Disarming of the Highlanders, 497;
General Wade’s letter to Lord Townsend, 528.
Dogs, mad, 624.
Don river dried up in several places, 442.
Don, Sir James, of Newton, receives permission to travel into
England with horses and arms, 50.
Donaldson, James, commences Edinburgh Gazette (1699), 313;
which stops (1707), but is recommenced, 324;
his invention for manufacture of arms, 311.
Donatives to Privy Council, custom of giving, 177.
Douglas, Cameronian regiment formed at, 8.
Douglas, Captain, convicted of assault, 60.
Douglas, Duchess of, her style of speech, 507.
Douglas, Duke of, murders Mr Ker, 506.
Dow Loch, story of the, 263.
Doxology attempted to be introduced in church, 103.
Dress, old, articles of, enumerated, 148;
a constant fashion of, proposed in parliament, 149;
description of, 269;
changes of, 571.
Drove-road for cattle at New Galloway, 153.
Drum, Lady of, petitions to be left unmolested by Irvine of Murtle,
144.
Drum, Laird of, taken in care for weakness of mind, 22.
Drummond, George, founds the Royal Infirmary, 557.
Drummond, Lord, popish baptism of his child, 383.
Drummond, May, a preaching Quaker lady, affecting case of, 559.
Dudds, Dr, a quack mediciner, 261.
Duel between Matthew M‘Kail and William Trent in King’s Park,
Edinburgh, 149;
other duels, 543, 566.
Duels, military, their prevalence, 405.
Duff, Laird of Braco, checks lawless proceedings of the gipsies of
Moray, 234.
Dumfries, riot at, from reading Book of Common Prayer, 65.
Dun, Lord, a judge, anecdote of, 293.
Dunbar, Sir David, of Baldoon, his breeds of cattle, 152.
Dundee, Jacobitism in, 415;
grain riots at, 452;
dancing assembly at, 590.
Dundee, Lady, 97.
——, Viscount of, 1, 16, 19.
Dundonald, Countess of, her death, 356.
Dunkeld, Bishop of, speaks pathetically of James VII., 5.
Dupin, Nicolas, engaged in the linen-manufacture and paper-
making, 86;
his inventions, 102.
Dutch Guards’ officer, wounded in duel, 543.
Dysart, Rev. John, of Coldingham, his rigorous discipline, 92.
Earlshall, violences at, 157.

Earthenware manufacture, 156.
Earthquake at Selkirk, 543;
at Glasgow, 581.
East Indiaman, loss of, near island of Lewis, 551.
Echo, a literary paper proposed, 621.
Eclipse of the sun, April 22, 1715, 399.
Edie, David, apostate from Protestant faith, 214.
Edinburgh, dirty state of, 593.
——, great fire in (1700), 225.
——, Lord Provost of, inflicts capital punishment, 568.
Edinburgh; see the entire volume passim.
Edmondstone of Newton, banished for concern in murder of the
Master of Rollo, 119.
Edmondstone, William, comes into collision with Row of Inverallan,
49.
Education in practical arts recommended (1726), 530.
Eglintoun, Earl of, beggars at his funeral, 555.
Egyptians, or gipsies, 233.
Election for Ross-shire, on a Saturday, 341;
one at Fortrose, strange proceedings at, 465.
Election of Peers at Holyrood, incident at one, 403.
Elphinstone, Alexander, fights a duel with Lieutenant Swift, 566.
Episcopal clergy, rabbled out at the Revolution, 6;
persecuted, 78, 229, 273, 350, 366, 405;
two relieved by Principal Carstares, 404.
Episcopal meeting-houses at Eyemouth, &c., suppressed, 229;
one at Glasgow destroyed by a mob, 368;
remarkable number of, in Edinburgh, in 1715, 405;
increase of, in the North, 480.
Episcopalians, their troubles regarding Book of Common Prayer, 65,
366.
‘Equivalent Money,’ at the Union, 259, 328;
its disposal, 444.
Equivocating prayers, 78.
Erskine, disgraceful scenes at parish-church of, 69.
Erskine, Mrs, widow of minister of Chirnside, petitions for relief,
181.
Erskine, Thomas, a Quaker brewer, 467.
Exchange Coffee-house (Edinburgh) circulates ‘seditious news,’ and
is shut up in consequence, 72.
Exchequer, Scottish, extreme poverty of, 45.
Excise and Customs, small amount of before Union, 339;
curious anecdote of the transmission of excise revenue to London,
341.
Excise law victims revenge themselves, 594.
Fae, Sergeant, undertakes to catch robbers, 83.

Fairfoul, David, a Catholic priest, confined, 25.
‘Fair Intellectual Club,’ 574.
Fallowing first introduced into Scotland, 419.
Famines in Scotland, 136, 195, 348, 606.
Fast on account of sickness and scarcity, 160;
in apprehension of renewed scarcity, 233.
Fea of Clestran takes Gow, a pirate, 505.
Fearn church roof falls in, 608.
Ferintosh, whisky distilled at, free of duty, 133.
Fife, sickness in, 363.
Fire in Edinburgh, of 1700, 225.
—— Insurance Company first started, 446.
—— raising in Lanarkshire, 578.
Flaikfield, Mary, a poor woman, prosecuted by Merchant
Company, 76.
Fletcher of Salton’s statements and proposals regarding vagrant
poor, 218.
Flogging in schools (1700), boy whipped to death, 222.
Flood in west of Scotland (1712), 381.
Forbes, Duncan, Lord Advocate, suppresses a riot at Glasgow, 509.
Forbes, John, of Culloden, his convivial practices, 184.
Forbes of Culloden obtains permission to distil usquebaugh duty-
free, 133.
Foreigners prohibited from transporting labourers, 211;
distinguished foreigners visiting Edinburgh, 581.
Forfeited estates, commissioners of, meet in Edinburgh, 408;
further proceedings of commissioners, 443.
Forfeited estates in inaccessible situations, difficulty of dealing with,
458.
Forgery on Bank of Scotland by Thomas M‘Gie, 229;
by Robert Fleming, 356.
Forglen, Lord, his eccentric bequest, 533.
Forsyth, Matthew, cook, his miserable imprisonment, 90.
Fortrose, election at, and riot, 465.
Foulis, Messrs, of Glasgow, their elegant printing, 516.
France, gentlemen returned from, objects of suspicion, 216.
Fraser, Captain Simon (afterwards Lord Lovat), his wild
proceedings in Inverness-shire, 186, 254.
See Lovat.
Fraser, John, imprisoned for ridiculing the divine authority of the
Scriptures, 147.
Freebairn, the bookseller, 379.
Freemasonry, 600.
Free-trade hinted at, 243.
French fleet appears in Firth of Forth, 332.
—— Protestants, succour for in Scotland, 9.
French taught by a native, in Edinburgh, 449.
Friendly Society, the, for fire-insurance, 446.
Frost of 1740, 605.
Funeral at Glasgow, described by Walter Scott (‘Beardie’), 387;
of Campbell of Lochnell (1713), 387;
of Robertson of Struan, 526;
convivialities at one, 309,
give rise to a murder, 545.
Funerals conducted on a superb scale, 307;
Lord Whitelaw’s, 308;
Sir Hugh Campbell of Calder’s, 309;
Sir R. Monro’s, 560.
Galloway, Levellers of, 492;

state of tenantry of, 494.
Gambling in Scotland, act regarding, and notable instances of, 296.
Gambling Society, 543.
Gardiner, Colonel James, his pious character, 487.
Gardner, John, minister of Elgin, falls into a trance, 422.

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1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2

Part 1 Geotechnical Properties and Soil Exploration 7

2.2 Grain-Size Distribution 9

3 Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration 67

4 I nstrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical

4.1 Introduction 135

Part 2 Soil Improvement 145

Part 3 Foundation Analysis 205

Bearing Capacity 206

6.16 Summary 254

7  ltimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow

8 Vertical Stress Increase in Soil 302

8.1 Introduction 303

8.14 Summary 333

9 Settlement of Shallow Foundations 336

10 Mat Foundations 396

10.2 Combined Footings 397

11 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 427

11.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 431

12 Pile Foundations 438

13 Drilled-Shaft Foundations 546

13.1 Introduction 547

13.5 Load Transfer Mechanism 555

14 Piled Rafts: An Overview 592

14.1 Introduction 593

15 Foundations on Difficult Soil 603

Collapsible Soil 604

17 Retaining Walls 694

Gravity and Cantilever Walls 697

17.9  omments on Design of Retaining Walls

18 Sheet-Pile Walls 752

18.1 Introduction 753

18.21 Ultimate Resistance of Tiebacks 811

19 Braced Cuts 814

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Dr. Nagaratnam Sivakugan received his Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2 1.6 Numerical Modeling 4

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering

1.2 Foundation Engineering

1.3 Soil Exploration

Figure 1.1 Soil exploration program (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook

1.4 Ground Improvement

vibroflotation, dynamic compaction, blasting, preloading, vertical drains, lime/cement

1.5 Solution Methods

1.6 Numerical Modeling

4 I nstrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical

7 ltimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow

17.9 omments on Design of Retaining Walls