Lecture 6

LECTURE SIX: Temperature Measurement
Instrumentation
THE FOUR MOST MEASURED VARIABLES IN ANY
INDUSTRIAL PLANT
❖TEMPERATURE ❖LEVEL
❖PRESSURE ❖FLOW
❖ How could these variables be measured?
❑ By using sensors with :

▪ The switches send a digital signals
▪ Transducers when the measured variable
▪ Transmitters reaches a certain value.
▪ Switches
▪ Indicators/gauge ▪ The "switches" may trip for high
or low value.
Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 2

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
❖ The temperature is the most important variable in a chemical

process. Very often, the temperature should be controlled very
precisely like:
▪ In a reactor where the reaction outcome depends on

the temperature’
▪ Therefore, temperature need to be measured precisely
with a very accurate sensor to:
✓ Ensure safe and reliable operation of process equipment.
❖ Temperature sensors, such as thermocouples and resistance

temperature detectors (RTDs) are used to measure the
temperature of fluids, reactors and other process equipment.
INTRODUCTION
❖ Over the years different technologies have been invented to

measure the temperature in different specific applications.
❖ But why different technologies?
This is because of different applications which make

one technique better than the others for each specific
case and there’s no unique way recommended for all
applications.
❖ Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate

classes according to the principle on which they operate.

INTRODUCTION
❖ The principles and technologies that are potentially applicable to
industrial temperature measurement include the following:
▪ Thermal Expansion (e.g., Liquid in glass, Filled bulb, Bimetallic Strip)
▪ Thermoelectric Effect (e.g., Thermocouple)
▪ Resistance Change ( e.g., RTD, thermistor)
▪ Radiative Heat Emission (e.g., Pyrometer)
❖ The three dominant measurement devices used in automatic control

are thermocouples, resistance thermometers and thermistors
SCALES FOR TEMPERATURE
❖ SCALES ARE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS USED IN ALMOST ALL

THE COUNTRIES.
A) Fahrenheit scale: B) Centigrade or Celsius scale:
1) Abbreviated as (°F) 1) Abbreviated as (°C)
2) First to gain acceptance 2) Proposed in the mid 1700s by
3) Proposed in the early 1700s Celsius (Sweden)
by Fahrenheit (Dutch) 3) Freezing point- 0 °C, Boiling
4) Freezing point- 32 °C, point- 100 °C
Boiling point- 212 °C
❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS SCALES :
T(0F)= 1.8 x T(0C) +32

SCALES FOR TEMPERATURE
C) Rankine scale: D) Kelvin scale:

1) Abbreviated as (°R) 1) Abbreviated as (°K)
2) Proposed in the mid 1800s 2) Proposed in the late 1800s
by Rankine by Lord Kelvin
3) Freezing point- 491.6 °C, 3) Freezing point- 273.15 °C,
Boiling point- 671 °C Boiling point- 373.15 °C
4) Based on Fahrenheit scale 4) Based on Celsius scale
❖ RANKINE SCALE : ❖ KELVIN SCALE:
T(0R) = T(0F) + 459.67 0 K = -273.150C
T(0R) = 1.8 x T(K) T (K)= T(0C) + 273.15

WHAT IS A TEMPERATURE SENSORS AND
TRANSMITTER?
❖ The temperature sensor or transducer is a device that will
transform the Temperature into an electrical signal, no matter how
tiny the amount of this signal might be!
❖ The instruments used in an industry will usually have: the sensor

(transducer) and the transmitter.

WHAT IS A TEMPERATURE SENSORS AND
TRANSMITTER?
❖ Temperature Transmitter is a device that converts the low-level
signal (ohms or mV) generated by a Temperature Transducer into a
higher power level standard signal ranges ( 4 -20 mA, 1-5 V or
digital signal that can be transmitted over long distances.

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER?
❖ The signal from the Temperature Transmitter is sent to a Controller that

determines what action is required and generates an appropriate output
signal. Controllers are either a PLC or a DCS in process control today.

LOCAL INDICATORS FOR TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
1. LIQUID EXPANSION THERMOMETERS
CLASS FILLED PRINCIPLES
FLUID
I Liquid filled Volumetric
(other than Expansion
Mercury)
II Vapour filled Pressure
Generation
III Gas filled Pressure
Generation
IV Mercury filled Volumetric
Expansion
MEASUREMENT
1. LIQUID EXPANSION THERMOMETERS
▪ They are installed in thermometer wells,

positioned along the lines.
▪ These are used to measure the
temperature in exceptional
circumstances, like during instrument test
or incase of failure of other
measurement systems
▪ The indication of the instrument depends
considerably on it position
MEASUREMENT
❖ In industrial temperature measurement, primarily two types of dial
thermometers are used: bimetal and gas-actuated thermometers.
❖ Which measuring principle should be used depends on several factors,
such as response time, temperature limits & application range.
Gas actuated Bimetal Gas actuated

Bimetal

MEASUREMENT
2. BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS
▪ Bimetal thermometers operate with a
measuring system in the form of a helical or
spiral tube.
▪ The measuring system consists of two sheets

with different expansion coefficients, which
are inseparably joined.
▪ Through the mechanical deformation of the

bimetal strip, a rotational movement results,
caused by temperature changes.
▪ This movement is transferred through a

pointer shaft to the pointer of the
thermometer.
MEASUREMENT
3. GAS ACTUATED THERMOMETERS
▪ The measuring system of gas-actuated
thermometers consists of a stem,
capillary and Bourdon tube in the case.
▪ These parts are combined to form a

single unit. The entire measuring system
is filled with an inert gas under pressure.
▪ Any change in temperature causes a

change in internal pressure in the stem.
▪ The pressure deforms the measuring

tube and the deflection is transferred to
the pointer via a movement.
MEASUREMENT
Advantages
Due to their simpler design, bimetal thermometers are considerably

less expensive, and measurement result is independent of ambient
temperature. An important advantage of gas-actuated thermometers is
their fast response time and changes in ambient temperature affect the
measurement result and these can be partially compensated.
MEASUREMENT
❖ Because of the rapid change in pressure in the closed system of the gas-
actuated thermometer, temperature can be displayed almost
instantaneously.
❖ Via a capillary with a length of up to 60 metres or more, gas-actuated

thermometers can also be mounted remotely from the measuring point. Liquid
filling in a case of the gas-actuated thermometers is possible even at medium
temperatures above 250 °C.
MEASUREMENT
▪ Bimetallic thermometers on the other can
only be read directly at their measuring point
▪ Gas-actuated thermometers enable a
significantly greater span than bimetal
thermometers.
▪ Gas-actuated thermometers enable a
significantly greater span than bimetal
thermometers.

THERMOCOUPLE (TC)
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF TC
❖ When two dissimilar wires are joined at both ends two bimetallic
junctions are formed
❖ Based on physical characteristics called “Thermoelectric Effect (Seebeck

Effect)”, when these junctions are placed at different temperatures, EMF is
generated by electric current flow which can be interpreted as an
indication of the temperature.
SEEBECK THERMO-EMF CIRCUIT.
❖ The thermocouple developed electromotive force (EMF) is given by

𝑒 = 𝑆 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏
where S is the sensitivity of the thermocouple in V/°K and Ta and Tb are
temperatures of the two junctions.
❖ Thermocouples are useful because they can measure temperature over a

wide range, from really cold temperatures like -200oC up to super hot
temperatures like 2000oC!

APPLICATIONS OF TC
Using a thermocouple to monitor the By using a thermocouple to measure
temperature inside a furnace or kiln, the temperature, workers can control
the workers can make sure that the the efficiency of the boiler and make
temperature stays within a certain sure it’s working the way it should.
range.

THERMOCOUPLE (TC)
❖ Thermocouple: Converts
thermal energy into electrical
energy.
❖ A thermocouple is an
extremely simple device used
to measure temperature.
❖ Thermocouples tend to be
inexpensive, durable, and can
be fabricated into a variety of
shapes and sizes.
❖ It can measure a wide range

of temperatures.
THERMOCOUPLE (TC)
❖ A thermocouple is made up of two
dissimilar metal wires. The metal
wires are connected together in
only one place, typically the tip of
the thermocouple.
❖ Lots of manufacturers call that junction by different names and is the

point where the dissimilar metals are joined to measure the
temperature.

TC COLD JUNCTION
❖ The wiring terminals on the

measuring instrument are most often
called the Cold Junction.
❖ While the Hot Junction refers to the

tip of the thermocouple that will be
exposed to the heat source of
interest,
❖ the cold junction refers to the

thermocouple wire connections that
happen right at the measuring
instrument, which typically is not
exposed to the same thermal energy.

THERMOCOUPLE (TC)
❖ The wires at the opposite end from the
sensing junction are then left available to
connect to some kind of measuring
instrument like;
▪ a temperature transmitter,
▪ a simple electronic display unit, or
▪ even directly to a PLC thermocouple

input card.
❖ Thermocouples cover a range of

temperatures from -2620C to 27600C

TC OPERATION PRINCIPLES
❖ TC generate a small voltage when they are exposed to heat.
❖ A thermocouple works based on the movement of the electrons in its

metal wires due to the heat difference between the hot and cold
junctions.
Movement of electrons in metal wires away from

heat source
❖ If the two wires of the thermocouple

were made up of the same type of
metal, electrons in both wires would
move away from the heat at roughly
the same rate, so you couldn’t really
measure the difference in the charge
of the two wires.
slower electrons won’t build

electrons that move more ends up as much of a charge, so it’s
up being more -nve charged called the positive wire lead.
❖ That difference in charge between the positive and negative wire leads
can be measured and used to calculate the heat at the hot junction.
❖ This difference in charge, also called a voltage, can be measured.

COLD/REFERENCE JUNCTION COMPENSATION
❖ The thermocouple signal is based on the difference in temperature

between the hot and cold junctions.
❖ But a small signal correction has to be made to convert that

temperature difference into an absolute temperature.
Temperature Difference between

the hot and cold junctions
COLD/REFERENCE JUNCTION COMPENSATION
❖ When the measuring junction is at temperature TH and the reference

junctions are at temperature TC, the EMF developed is given by this
equation:
𝑒𝑜 = 𝑆 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
❖ The output voltage e0 will be proportional to the measuring junction

temperature TH only when the reference junction temperature TC is at
0°C, so that
𝑒𝑜 = 𝑆𝑇𝐻
Hence the importance of cold junction compensation

REFERENCE JUNCTION COMPENSATION
❖ For example, if the temperature in a reactor is 700 °F, but the outside
ambient temperature at the location of the measurement instrument cold
junction is 70 °F, the thermocouple millivolt will only show a temperature
of 664 °F.
Signal difference at both

junctions of TC
❖ Describing the amount of voltage produced for given temperatures at the

measurement junction with the reference junction held at the freezing point of
water (0oC = 32oF).
❖ With the reference junction maintained at the freezing point of water, and
thermocouple tables referenced to that specific cold junction temperature,
❖ the voltmeter’s indication will simply and directly correspond to the

temperature of measurement junction J1 at all times.
❖ A practical way to compensate for the reference junction voltage

is to include an additional voltage source within the thermocouple
circuit;
❖ equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity to the reference

junction voltage to precisely counter the reference junction
voltage, .
❖ resulting in the full (measurement junction) voltage appearing at

the measuring instrument terminals.
o This is called a reference junction compensation or cold

junction compensation circuit.

𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝑱𝟏 − 𝑽𝑱𝟐 + 𝑽𝒓𝒋𝒄

𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝑱𝟏
𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝑱𝟏 + 𝟎 (𝒊𝒇 𝑽𝒓𝒋𝒄 = 𝑽𝑱𝟐 ൯
❖ An electronic ice bath (point module) for a reference junction

compensation for un-compensated instruments such as standard
voltmeters.

FOR REACTOR EXAMPLE: the reactor will now read the true 700 °F,
and the reading won’t change day or night as long as the reactor
temperature doesn’t change.

TYPES OF TC AND TC VOLTAGE
❖ Based on the “range” of temperature measurement, “sensitivity” and some

other factors in each application, different types of Thermocouples are
available
❖ Thermocouples come in different shapes and sizes, and each type is made
with different combinations of metals for sensing.
❖ For example, one common type is called Type K, and it’s made with a wire
of nickel and chromium. Another type is called Type J, and it’s made with a
wire of iron and constantan (which is an alloy of copper and nickel).
❖ A Type-K thermocouple is probably the most commonly used

thermocouple in industrial applications because it responds predictably
across a very wide range of temperatures (say around -330 °F to around
+2460 °F).

STANDARD THERMOCOUPLE TYPES AND
RANGES

THERMOCOUPLE TABLES
❖ The more heat you apply to the metal wires, the more the electrons
want to move around, and the more they move away from the heat.
❖ With the two different types of metal wire, the difference in the voltage
will increase and decrease with changes in heat at the sensing point.

THERMOCOUPLE TABLES
❖ The thermocouple Voltages are very small. The actual change in voltage per
degree Celsius is minuscule. For example, for a Type K, the change is about
41 µV/°C. Also, interestingly, all T/C voltages are 0 mv at 0 °C.
❖ The thermocouple tables simply give the voltage that results for a
particular type of thermocouple when the reference junctions are at a
particular reference temperature, and the measurement junction is at a
temperature of interest.
❖ However, in most cases the TC voltage does not fall exactly on the table
value.
❖ When this happens you must interpolate between the table values that
bracket the desired value.
TYPE T TC TABLE ❖ For example, for type T
thermocouple (Table B-2) at
200oC with 0oC reference, the
voltage produced is as follows:
𝑽 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒐 𝑪
= 𝟗. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝑽 (𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝑻, 𝟎𝒐 𝑪ሻ
❖ Again, a voltage of 17.82 mV

measured with a type T
thermocouple with a 0oC
reference, will give a
temperature of
𝑻 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟐 𝒎𝑽 = 𝟑𝟗𝟓𝒐 𝑪

CLASS EXERCISE 1
A voltage of 6.50 mV is measured with a type T thermocouple at a

0oC reference. Find the temperature of the measured junction. ANS
= 145.82oC.
150oC 6.703 mV
𝑥 − 1000 𝐶 6.50𝑚𝑉 − 4.277𝑚𝑉
=
150𝑜 𝐶 − 1000 𝐶 6.703 𝑚𝑉 − 4.277𝑚𝑉
XoC 6.50 mV
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟖𝟐𝒐 𝑪
100oC 4.277 mV

CLASS EXERCISE 2
A Chromel/Alumel thermocouple is assumed to have a nearly linear

operating range up to 1100°C with an EMF of 45.15 mV at this
temperature. The thermocouple is exposed to a temperature of
840°C. The cold junction temperature is estimated to be 25°C.
Calculate the voltage measured without reference junction
compensation.

CONSTRUCTION & TIP STYLES OF TC
❖ The wires of TC are encased in a probe, which is just some kind of

protective sheath and some insulating material to help protect the wires.
❖ Thermocouple probes come in Ungrounded, Grounded, and Exposed

Junction tip style. The style of thermocouple probe you select will also be
based on your application.

Slower response Fast response Fastest response
Accurate Vulnerable to electrical noise
Vulnerable to breakage

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR (RTD)
INTRODUCTION
What is an RTD?
Resistance Temperature Generally has greater

Slowly becoming the
Detectors (RTDs) are stability, accuracy and
preferred temperature
sensors used to repeatability when
measurement device in
measure temperature compared to many industrial
thermocouples
applications because of
high accuracy and
These temperature sensors use the changes therefore suitable for
in the electrical resistance of metals wires precisions applications.
to measure the changes in the temperature
INTRODUCTION
▪ RTD’s use a specific type of metal that, depending on the resistance

measured in that metal, can determine its temperature
❖ The actual measurement occurs at the element. There are many different
types of RTD elements:
✓ Thin-Film Element
✓ Wire wound Element
✓ Coiled Element
✓ and many others

THIN-FILM RTD (RT)
❖ Thin-film RTD sensing elements are constructed by depositing a thin film

of resistance metal onto a ceramic substrate (base piece) and trimming
the metal to specifications.
❖ Sensing elements of thin-film construction are typically less expensive

than those of wire-wound construction because less resistance metal is
required for construction.
❖ However, thin-film RTDs tend to be less stable over time, typically have a
more limited temperature range, and may be more susceptible to damage
from rough handling.
This sensor element is rated for use

between -58 to 842 °F (-50 to 450 °C).

WIRE-WOUND RTD
❖ Wire-wound RTD sensing elements are constructed by coiling a

platinum (or other resistance metal) wire inside (internally wound) or
around (externally wound) a ceramic mandrel (spindle).
❖ Wire-wound RTD elements are very sturdy and reliable. Compared to

thin-film RTD elements, their accuracy tends to be higher, and their time
response (how quickly the output reflects the temperature change) is
several seconds faster than thin-film RTD elements.
❖ Wire-wound RTD elements work well for a wide variety of applications,

although they may fail in high-vibration applications.
The wire-wound RTDs can be designed

for -321 to 1112 °F (-196 to 600 °C).
HOW RTD WORKS
❖ It is based on the correlation between metal temperature and resistance
❖ As the temperature of a metal increases, the metals resistance to flow of

electricity increases.
HOW RTD WORKS
❖ Based on the resistance that is measured in a given type of metal, we can

determine what the temperature is.
❖ The value of resistance measured in ohms and equivalent temperature

can be converted based on this resistance value.
❖ The most common metals used RTD’s are platinum, nickel or copper.
❖ The Platinum 100 RTD is the most common element in industry and is
referred to as the Pt-100 RTD. The resistance of the RTD is 100 ohms at
0º C (32º F), the reference point.

HOW RTD WORKS
❖ For most metals the change in electrical resistance is directly proportional

to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of temperatures.
❖ This constant factor called the temperature coefficient of electrical

resistance (short formed TCR) is the basis of resistance temperature
detectors.
❖ The temperature coefficient of the RTD sensor is the average

changes of resistance over the temperature range 0 °C to 100 °C and
normally denoted by the α0
𝛼𝑜 = 𝑅100 − 𝑅𝑜 Τ 𝑅𝑜 × 100
where R100 = Resistance at 100 °C (ohm)
R0 = Resistance at 0 °C (ohm)
HOW RTD WORKS
❖ As per the above equation relationship between temperature and
resistance may be expressed as,
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 𝑡
Where Rt = Resistance of RTD sensor at temperature t °C (ohm)
R0 = Resistance at 0 °C (ohm)
α0 = Temperature co-efficient of RTD sensor at 0 °C
Platinum is typically used as RTD metal sensing element.
Advantages of platinum are

1. linear resistance vs Temperature
2. Chemically Inert
3. Stable over temperature

RTDS IN INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
❖ One typical industrial application

of RTDs is to measure
temperature in food processing
plants. In these plants, an RTD may
be hooked up to a thermometer
located inside a cooking vat.
❖ As the temperature of the food

changes, the RTD senses the
change in resistance and sends a
signal to the thermometer, which
can then display the temperature
on a screen for the workers to
see.

PLATINUM RTD

CLASS EXERCISE ON RTD SENSOR
A PT100 RTD Sensor measures 100 Ω at 0 °C and 139.1 Ω at 100

°C. Calculate its temperature coefficient, Calculate the resistance at
40 °C and when the resistance is 116 Ω, find the temperature.
Calculate Temperature Coefficient

Temperature Coefficient (α0) = (R100 – R0)/(R0 x 100) = (139.1 – 100) / (100
x 100) = 0.00391 /°C
Calculate Resistance of RTD Sensor at 40 °C

Rt = R0 ( 1 + α0t) ⇒ R40 = 100 (1 + 0.00391 x 40) = 115.64 Ω
Calculate Temperature of RTD Sensor when the resistance is 116 Ω

Rt = R0 ( 1 + α0t) ⇒ 116 = 100 (1 + 0.00391 x t) ⇒ t = 0.16 / 0.00391 =
40.92 °C
PLATINUM RTD
❖ PT 100 means that resistance of the element
at reference temperature (0º C) equal to 100
Ω while PT 1000 resistance equal to 1 kΩ.
• Example: Platinum
• Has a linear temperature-
resistance characteristics
• Reproducible over a wide
range of temperature The most common Pt100 RTD used in industry
is one that changes resistance at the rate of
• Most stable
about 0.385 ohms for every degree Celsius rise
• Positive slope in temperature.
PLATINUM RTD
❖ The equation is only approximate, so to know the true temperature at
any measured resistance, we will need to consult a published standard
table of resistance for a Pt100 (385) sensor.
❖ The table below shows a Pt100 (385) temperature vs. resistance

numerical values in a few points:

COMPONENTS AND CONSTRUCTION OF RTD
SENSOR
❖ A Pt100 RTD is typically constructed by winding a thin platinum wire
around a non-conductive core which helps support the thin wire.
❖ The entire assembly is encased in a sheath to protect the sensor and to

give it stability.
In industrial applications, RTDs are
commonly placed inside protective
metal tubes called thermowell. The
length of the RTD and the design of
the thermowell are design parameters
determined by the instrument
engineer.

SENSOR
❖ The Sensing Element is the actual temperature

sensing unit which is located at the tip of the
temperature sensor on the end that is exposed to
the process temperature.

SENSOR
Protecting Tube/Sheath
▪ This tube protects the sensing element from the
moisture and outside environment. This
protecting tube is made mostly of stainless steel.
▪ Packed with magnesium oxide that surrounds the
sensing element.
▪ The sensor packing decreases that impact of
process vibration on the sensing element to
ensure more accurate measurement
Process Connection/Threaded Adapter

Process connection includes the standard fitting.
One end is adaptor threads into a thermowell or
directly into process piping, the other end is
typically threaded into a temperature transmitter.
SENSOR
Lead Wires
They are attached to the sensing element and then
pass through the sensor sheath. Lead wires connect
the sensing element either directly to DCS or to a
temperature transmitter connected to a DCS.
Cold End Termination

RTD sensor can terminate with the controller like
PLC, Closed-loop, PID, etc. through this cold end
termination.

SENSOR
❖ PT100 RTDs can be constructed from a single platinum wire, giving a
sensor with two leads.
❖ These leads can be connected to a special I/O card designed to accept

RTD inputs, or the leads can be connected to a temperature transmitter,
which will output a standard 4-20 mA signal.

RTD WIRE CONFIGURATION
❖ Since it is a passive device, an external electrical current should be applied
to it and then the voltage drop across it can be measured. This voltage is a
good indication of the temperature.
❖ The distance between the temperature sensing point and measuring

system calls for wiring and since the real wiring has its own resistance,
some measurement error sneaks in hereby!
RTD WIRE CONFIGURATION
❖ Unlike thermocouples, RTDs require a small amount of current to

prevent power dissipation and excess heat
▪ Small self-heating inaccuracies is possible.
❖ To measure this resistance value, the RTD sensor

must be connected with the instrument using
insulated copper wires.
❖ Like platinum, copper also has a resistance value. This

lead wire resistance value of copper wire may impact
the resistance value of the RTD sensor contribute
measurement errors.
❖ Three and four lead wires option help to eliminate

this error.
WIRE LEAD TYPES OF RTD
2-Wire RTD
❖ 2-Wire RTD is used where the approximate
value of temperature is required. The cable
lead resistance is also added which will cause
an error in measurement.
❖ Only used with short wires where high

accuracy is not required.
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= 𝑾𝟏𝑹 + 𝑾𝟐𝑹 + 𝑹𝑻𝑫𝒓
Good for close application, at the
transmitter
3-Wire RTD
This type of RTD is widely used in industrial
applications. There is a lead resistance in each
arm which will cancel out the cable resistance
as long as both leads resistance are the same.
The third wire provides avenue for removing
the average lead wire resistance.
Good for further distance 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

applications. Remote from the = 𝑾𝟏𝑹 + 𝑾𝟐𝑹 + 𝑹𝑻𝑫𝒓
transmitter − 𝑾𝟐𝑹 + 𝑾𝑹𝟑 = 𝑹𝑻𝑫𝒓
4-Wire RTD
Four-wire RTD configuration is the most
accurate temperature measurement setup. When
there is a high accuracy needed this type of RTD
is used. This device measured and removed lead
resistance in both sets of leads.
In this configuration, resistance of lead wires
cancels even if they are in different length and
compositions.
Best application and usually uses 20 mA

driving current and a voltage measurement
THERMISTORS
INTRODUCTION
What is a Thermistor?
❖ A Thermistor is simply a resistor sensor that can measure temperature

based on how its resistance changes when the temperature changes.
Two different styles
NTC (negative temperature coefficient)

As temp. increases, resistance will drop
PTC (positive temperature coefficient)

As temp. increases, the resistance will also increase
❖ NTC Thermistors are more commonly used for temperature

measurement

INTRODUCTION
❖ Like RTDs, by passing a current through a thermistor, the
voltage across a thermistor is read and thus determined its
temperature.
❖ They are inexpensive and accurate in measuring temperature. But

they do not operate well in extreme conditions such as very high or
very low temperatures.
❖ Unlike RTDs, thermistors have a higher resistance (anywhere from 2,

000 – 10, 000 Ohm) and a much higher sensitivity (≈200 Ohm/oC).
❖ A thermistor is made of a mixture of semiconductor powder

compounds (e.g., NiO, Mn2O3 and Co2O3), which are shaped as
cylinders, disks, or beads.

THERMISTORS
❖ The material is compressed, sintered at a high temperature, provided

with two leads and insulated.

THERMISTORS IN INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS
❖ One common use of thermistors is in HVAC systems, which stands for
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.
❖ Inside the air conditioning system, there’s a little thermistor that
measures the temperature of the air that’s coming out of the vents.
❖ If the temperature is too warm, the thermistor sends a signal to the air
conditioner to tell it to kick into high gear and start cooling the air down
more quickly.

THE USE OF THERMOWELLS
❖ All temperature sensors such as RTD, Thermocouple, Thermistors, etc.

are susceptible to damage from flow, pressure, corrosion, abrasion,
turbulence, etc.
❖ A thermowell is a closed-end metal tube that encapsulates and protects a

sensor from process flow, pressure, vibration, and corrosion.
❖ Thermowells are recommended whenever a temperature element is to

be inserted into a process where;
▪ corrosion, pressure, abrasion, or shear forces may threaten the life
of the element.
❖ In addition, thermowells allow for a defective instrument to be removed

without shutting down or draining the process.

THE USE OF THERMOWELLS
The thermowell and protection tube design and material,

the process heat transfer coefficient, and the fit of the
sensor determine the temperature measurement speed of
response more than the sensor type.
❖ The variety of design features renders thermowells suitable for various
applications and environmental conditions. Three factors affect the
choice of material:
▪ Type of corrosive environment the thermowell will be exposed to

▪ Temperature and pressure limits of the material
▪ Compatibility with the process piping or vessel material to ensure
solid, non-corroding welds and junctions

MOUNTING OF THERMOWELLS
❖ Thermowells can be threaded, welded, or bolted (flanged style) onto the

process pipe or vessel wall process connection to accept thermocouples,
RTDs, temperature gauges or filled systems.

❖ Thermowells are threaded onto the process piping or vessel, which

enables them to be easily installed and removed. Threaded thermowells are
the weakest type of thermowell.
Welded thermowells are permanently welded onto the process pipe or

vessel.
▪ Thus, removal is very difficult and requires cutting the thermowell out of the system.
▪ Welded thermowells are the strongest type of thermowell and are used with fluids
of high velocity, high temperature, or high pressure.
▪ Welded thermowells are necessary for applications that require a leak-proof seal.
❖ Flanged thermowells are bolted onto a pipe or vessel and can be easily
removed or installed.
▪ Flanged thermowells are used in corrosive environments, as well as in high-velocity,

high-temperature, or high-pressure applications.
▪ Flanged thermowells are the most expensive type of thermowell.

Flanged thermowells are commonly used in chemical plants because of
concern of the long-term integrity of threaded connections for
corrosive and harsh process conditions. Hazardous chemicals and high
pressures and temperatures may require welded connections.

THERMOWELLS STEM DESIGN
❖ The stem of a thermowell is the part that is inserted into the process
stream. Stems can be tapered, straight, or stepped.
❖ The performance of a thermowell varies with its stem design.
❖ In general, a tapered or stepped stem provides a faster response, creates

less pressure drop, and is less susceptible to conduction error and
vibration failure.

THERMOWELLS STEM DESIGN
❖ The choice of stem design is based on:

▪ Process pressure
▪ Time response required
▪ Permissible conduction error
▪ Wake frequency—frequency of alternating side-to-side movement
of a fluid; depends on properties of the fluid
▪ Drag force—resistance to motion of a solid shape through a body
of fluid
▪ Price
• Thermowells with straight stems have the slowest time response
because they possess the most material at the tip (largest diameter).
Thermowells with stepped stems have the fastest time response
because they possess the least material at the tip (smallest diameter). A
small diameter also results in the least amount of drag force.

COMPARISON BETWEEN RTD AND TC
❖ In the process industry as a whole, 99% or more of the temperature

loops use thermocouples (TCs) or resistance temperature detectors
(RTD).
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) has a much
better sensitivity and repeatability, a lower and more
predictable drift, and a higher signal level than a
thermocouple (TC).
❖ Sensitivity and repeatability are 2 of the 3 most important components

of accuracy.
❖ The other most important component, resolution, is set by the transmitter.

Drift is important for extending the time between calibrations.
❖ RTDs have better linearity over temperature ranges.

WHY USE A TC RATHER THAN AN RTD?
❖ TCs function at higher temperatures than RTDs (above 850°C

[1500°F]).
❖ TCs are typically less expensive than RTDs and more resistant to
vibration damage but the life cycle costs are higher.
❖ TCs have a faster response time than RTDs but this is only a
consideration for bare elements (direct immersion of the element
without a thermowell) in very fast temperature change processes
(process time lag < 10 seconds). Bare elements are not used in
industrial chemicals or elevated temperatures due to safety concerns.
The main reasons to use a TC instead of a RTD

are high temperatures and high vibration.

ACCURACY, RANGE, AND SIZE OF
TEMPERATURE SENSING ELEMENTS

IMPACT ON THE OVERALL CONTROL LOOP
❖ The time response is how long it takes a system to come into

thermal equilibrium with its surrounds. That is, how long it takes a
sensor to read the actual temperature.
❖ The response of a thermocouple is related to the size of the wire and any
protective material used with the sensor.
❖ Many industrial thermocouples use thick wire or are encased in stainless

steel sheathing, and may have time constants as high as 10 to 20 seconds.
❖ Conversely, thermocouples made from very small gauge wire can have
time constants as small as 10 to 20 milliseconds.
❖ The response time can be specified under conditions of good and poor
thermal contact, so the application environment can be accounted for.
A TYPICAL TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP
❖ Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process

fluid, temperature loops tend to be relatively slow.
❖ Feedforward control strategies are often used to increase the speed of

the temperature loop response. RTDs or thermocouples are typical
temperature sensors.
❖ Temperature transmitters and controllers are used, although it is not

uncommon to see temperature sensors wired directly to the input
interface of a controller.
❖ The final control element for a temperature loop is usually the fuel valve
to a burner or a valve to some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes, cool
process fluid is added to the mix to maintain temperature



The use of transmitters instead of TC or RTD input cards is
recommended to greatly improve accuracy and maintainability,
by matching the calibration and nonlinearity compensation to
sensor, narrowing the span, reducing noise, and offering
diagnostics.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION

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LECTURE SIX: Temperature Measurement

❖ How could these variables be measured?

❑ By using sensors with :

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 2

❖ The temperature is the most important variable in a chemical

▪ In a reactor where the reaction outcome depends on

✓ Ensure safe and reliable operation of process equipment.

❖ Temperature sensors, such as thermocouples and resistance

❖ Over the years different technologies have been invented to

❖ But why different technologies?

This is because of different applications which make

❖ Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 4

❖ The three dominant measurement devices used in automatic control

❖ SCALES ARE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS USED IN ALMOST ALL

❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS SCALES :

T(0F)= 1.8 x T(0C) +32

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 6

C) Rankine scale: D) Kelvin scale:

❖ RANKINE SCALE : ❖ KELVIN SCALE:

T(0R) = T(0F) + 459.67 0 K = -273.150C

T(0R) = 1.8 x T(K) T (K)= T(0C) + 273.15

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 7

❖ The instruments used in an industry will usually have: the sensor

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 8

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 9

❖ The signal from the Temperature Transmitter is sent to a Controller that

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 10

▪ They are installed in thermometer wells,

Gas actuated Bimetal Gas actuated

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 13

▪ The measuring system consists of two sheets

▪ Through the mechanical deformation of the

▪ This movement is transferred through a

▪ These parts are combined to form a

▪ Any change in temperature causes a

▪ The pressure deforms the measuring

Due to their simpler design, bimetal thermometers are considerably

❖ Via a capillary with a length of up to 60 metres or more, gas-actuated

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 18

❖ Based on physical characteristics called “Thermoelectric Effect (Seebeck

❖ The thermocouple developed electromotive force (EMF) is given by

❖ Thermocouples are useful because they can measure temperature over a

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 21

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 22

❖ It can measure a wide range

❖ Lots of manufacturers call that junction by different names and is the

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 24

❖ The wiring terminals on the

❖ While the Hot Junction refers to the

❖ the cold junction refers to the

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 25

▪ a simple electronic display unit, or

▪ even directly to a PLC thermocouple

❖ Thermocouples cover a range of

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 26

❖ A thermocouple works based on the movement of the electrons in its

Movement of electrons in metal wires away from

❖ If the two wires of the thermocouple

slower electrons won’t build

❖ This difference in charge, also called a voltage, can be measured.

Wednesday, 20 March 2024 Temperature Measurement Instrumentation 30

❖ The thermocouple signal is based on the difference in temperature

❖ But a small signal correction has to be made to convert that