Transformer

Electrical Machines
(3-1-0-4)
Chapter-2 Transformers
January 18, 2023

Transformer
Theory of Transformers Introduction
Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagrams Classification
Performance Indices
Transformers
Heart of your power system

Life expectancy of 20 years
Most costliest component in the substation
Setup/stepdown voltage/current
Constant power and frequency
Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Transformer
Performance Indices
Classification: Number of phases
Based on number of phases, it is classified as

Single phase
Three phase

Transformer
Performance Indices
Classification: Position of winding and core
Based on relative position of winding and core, it is

classified as
Core type transformer (a)
Shell type transformer (b)

Transformer
Performance Indices
Core type transformer: Interleaved and concentrated

winding, High voltage

Transformer
Performance Indices
Shell type transformer: Sandwitch type windings, Low

voltage
Insulation requirement is more in Shell type and for the same

reason LV is wound nearer to the core in case of core type
Transformer
Performance Indices
Three phase transformers

Transformer
Performance Indices
Classification: Method of cooling
Based on method of cooling

Air cooled (Natural & Blast)
Oil cooled (Natural & Blast)
Forced oil cooling
Oil and water cooled
Forced oil and water cooled
The above list in the ascending order of faster rate of heat
dissipation.

Transformer
Performance Indices
Classification: Method of cooling

Transformer
Performance Indices
Breather: Silica Gel

Transformer
Performance Indices
Radiator and Radiator fans
Sometime in 2010 @ Kadapa Traction Substation

Transformer
Performance Indices
Conservator and Indicator
Sometime in 2010 @ Kadapa Traction Substation

Transformer
Performance Indices
Control unit

Transformer
Performance Indices
Classification: Based on service conditions
Power transformer
Near generating stations
Energised based on load conditions and always operated at
full load
Higher efficiency (>95 %)
Distribution transformer
Near to consumer side
Energised through out a day and loaded around 50 %
(average)
50-70 % efficiency

Transformer
Performance Indices
Distribution Transformer

Transformer
Performance Indices
July 2010
END-LECTURE-5
Transformer Ideal Transformer-no load
Theory of Transformers Ideal Transformer with load
Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagrams Equivalent circuit: ideal case
Performance Indices Practical Transformer
Elementary Theory of Transformer
Ideal Transformer
No winding losses
Permeability is infinite
No leakage flux
Two purely inductive coil wound on a loss-free core
It is impossible to realize Such a transformer in practice.

Ideal Transformer on No-load

v1 = vm cos(ωt) = vm sin(ωt+900 )
i1 = Im sin(ωt)
φ1 = φm sin(ωt)
dφ
e1 = −N1 = −N1 φm ωcos(ωt)
dt
RMS value of induced emf,
E1 = 4.44N1 (Bm A)f e1,max N 1 φm ω
E1 = √ = √
2 2

dφ
e2 = −N2 = −N2 φm ωcos(ωt)
dt
RMS value of induced emf,
e2,max N 2 φm ω
E2 = √ = √
2 2
N2 φm 2πf
E2 = √
2
E2 = 4.44N2 (Bm A)f


I1 lags behind v1 by 90 degree (pure inductive coil)
I1 is in phase with φ1
e1 lags behind the φ1 by 90 degree
V1 and E1 are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity
E1 and E2 are in phase with each other
Induced emf per turn is same on both sides
E1 E2
= = 4.44Bm Af
N1 N2


Transformation ratio
E2 N2
= =k
E1 N1
To maintain Bm constant, the ratio v/f has to be maintained

constant
E1 V1
Bm ∝ ∝=
f f
Keeping v1 constant, if f↓, then Bm ↑ results in increase in
magnetising current

Ideal Transformer on load
Iirrespective of condition of load, the net flux passing through

the core is approximately the same as at no-load.so the
transformer can be treated as constant flux device
N1 I10 = N2 I2
N1 I2 E1
= 0 =
N2 I1 E2
E1 I10 = E2 I2
Load component of primay VA = secondary VA.
If I0 is neglected, then I1 = I10
N1 I1 = N2 I2 E1 I1 = E2 I2
The transformation ratio is given by
E2 N2 I1
= = =K
E1 N1 I2
if N2 > N1 , K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up

transformer.
if N2 < N1 , K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down
transformer.

Equivalent circuit: Ideal case

we need to obtain the equivalent model there by we can
apply the circuit laws.
we want to remove this transformer and replace it with
some equivalent circuit.
This is obtained byreplacing secondary elements with the
equivalent values to the primary or vice versa
The current flowing in the secondary is given by
E2
I2 =
ZL
The reflected current in the primary side is given by
N2
N2 E2 N1 E1 E1
I20 = I2 = N = N1
= 2
N1
N2 ZL N2 ZL
1
N1
N2 ZL

Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer

to the other in this fashion is called referring the impedance
to the other side
Impedance transform as the square of the turns ratio.
2
N1
ZL0 = ZL
N2
Current can be transferred/referred to primary as
N2
I20 = I2
N1
Voltage can be referred to primary as
2
N2 N1 N1
V20 = I20 ZL0 = I2 ∗ ZL = V2
N1 N2 N2
The KVA consumed by the referred circuit is given by
N1 N2
V20 I20 = V2 ∗ I2 = V2 I2
N2 N1

Equivalent circuit: Ideal case Summary
In an ideal transformer
Voltages are transformed in the direct ratio of turns
Currents in the inverse ratio
impedances in the direct ratio squared
Voltamperes are unchanged

Practical Transformer
The supply voltage expression becomes.
di1
v1 = i1 r1 + L1
+ e1
dt
The induced emf in the coil-2 e2 is given by
di2
e2 = v2 + r2 i2 + L2
dt
Still magetizing current is not considered in the model, that
is current taken by the practical transformer to setup the
flux when the secondary current is zero.
This can be incorporated by assuming the magnetising
inductance across the coil-1 (Lm ).
The effect of finite permeability is obtained by assuming
the magnetisation inductance.
When the ferromagnetic material is subjected to a varying

voltage: eddy current loss and hysterisis loss occurs.
These losses can be approximated by including fictitious
resistance across the coil in the model.
The sum of magnetizing current and current through the
lossy resistance is called i0 (= im + iw ), no load current.
Magnetising component of load current is
Im = I0 sinφ0
Working component or active component or iron loss

component is given by
Iw = I0 cosφ0

The total no load current is given by

q
I02 = Iw2 + Im
2
I0 = Iw2 + Im
2
The no load power factor is given by

Iw
cosφ0 =
I0

Iw
φ0 = cos−1
I0
The no load power is given by
No load power = V1 I0 cosφ0 = V1 Iw

Phasor diagram of practical transformer at no load

Im or Iµ is generally 4-6% of full load current and Iw is 1 to

2% of full load current.
No load current is 5 (in case of power transformer) to 8%
(in case of distribution transformer) of full load current

Transformer
Equivalent circuit of the practical transformer
Theory of Transformers
Phasor diagrams
Equivalent circuit and Phasor diagrams
Losses in the Transformer
Performance Indices
Equivalent circuit
The current in the secondary circuit is given by

E2
I2 =
ZL + r2 + jX2
The referred current in the primary is
E1
I20 = N1 2
(N 2
) (ZL + r2 + jX2 )
The current I20 will flow provided the impedance as given in

the numerator is added to the primary replacing the
transformer.
Therefore we can replace ideal transformer and secondary
circuit can be replaced with the equivalent impedance.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Equivalent circuit
The referred value of r20 , X20 , ZL0 to the primary can be

obtained as.
2 2 2
0 N1 0 N1 0 N1
r2 = r2 , X2 = X2 , Zl = Zl
N2 N2 N2
The power loss in the referred values is

2 2
N2 N1
Power loss = I20 r20 = I2 ∗ r2 = I22 r2
N1 N2
The power consumed by the secondary circuit is not

changed after referring the elements to the primary.

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Equivalent circuit
The referred voltage to the primary is
V20 = I20 ZL0
2
0 N2 0 N1
I2 = I2 , ZL = ZL
N1 N2
Subsituting the above values,
2
0 0 0 N2 N1 N1
V2 = I2 ZL = I2 ∗ ZL = V2
N1 N2 N2
The KVA consumed by the referred circuit is given by
N1 N2
V20 I20 =
V2 ∗ I2 = V2 I2
N2 N1
The VA of the equivalent circuit is same as that of VA rating
of the original circuit.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Equivalent circuit of transformer
END-LECTURE-7
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Introduction to phasors
A phasor is a complex number that contains the amplitude
and the phase of a sinusoidal oscillation.
As a complex number, a phasor z can be expressed as
z = x + jy = r ∠φ
z = rejφ = r (cosφ + jsinφ)
p
where j = −1; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part
of z; r is the magnitude of z
q
r = |z| = x 2 + y 2
The phase of z, φ is given by
y
φ = tan−1
x
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Operations on phasor
The phasor z can be represented in rectangular form as

z = x + jy or in polar form as z = r ∠φ = rejφ .
Addition and subtraction of phasors are better performed in
rectangular form; multiplication and division are better
done in polar form.
Given complex numbers,
z = x +jy = r ∠φ z1 = x1 +jy1 = r1 ∠φ1 z2 = x2 +jy2 = r2 ∠φ2
Addition:
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + j(y1 + y2 )
Subtraction:
z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + j(y1 − y2 )

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Operations on phasor
Given complex numbers,

z = x +jy = r ∠φ z1 = x1 +jy1 = r1 ∠φ1 z2 = x2 +jy2 = r2 ∠φ2
Multiplication:
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ∠(φ1 + φ2 )
Division:
z1 r1
= ∠(φ1 − φ2 )
z2 r2
Square root: √ √
z= r ∠(φ/2)

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Phasor Diagram
Obtain the following phasor by pictorial representation

~ + jA
A ~
~ − jA
A ~
~ +B
A ~
~ + jB
A ~
~
2A
~ + jB
A ~ + jA
~

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Transformer Phasor Diagram

Phasor diagram of transformers are discussed:
Considering only core losses
No load
R-load
L-load
C-load
Considering the core losses and winding resistances
R-load
L-load
C-load
Considering the core losses, winding resistances and
leakage reactances
R-load
L-load
C-load
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Transformer with different input wave shapes
Consider an ideal transformer

DC source: There wont be any change in magnetic field
which results in zero induced emf (e1 = e2 = 0). Because
of less impedance, the current value will be large even for
the small dc.
With square voltage wave: The current through the
primary is given by Z
1
i= vdt
L
Current −− > Triangular Flux −− > Triangular
Induced emf −− > Square

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Transformer with different input wave shapes

Consider an ideal transformer
With square current wave:
Current −− > Square
Flux −− > Square (change from +1 to -1 in short time)
Induced emf −− > Impulse
With triangular voltage wave:
Current −− > parabolic
Flux −− > parabolic
Induced emf −− > Triangular
With triangular current wave:
Current −− > Triangular
Flux −− > Triangular
Induced emf −− > Square
END-LECTURE-8&9
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Hysterisis losses (in the core)

Eddy current losses (in the core)
Core losses (in the windings)
Stray load losses (Copper and iron parts)
Dielectric losses (Insulating material)

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Hysterisis loss
The area under the hysterisis loop gives the hysterisis loss
per cycle.
If the frequency is 50 Hz, then there are 50 no of loops and
the total hysterisis loss is given by
Ph = Area of hysterisis loop × frequency

n n
Ph = kh fBmax = (kh Bmax )×f
n
where, kh Bmax is the area of the loop in one cycle.

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Hysterisis loss
There are two cases with respect to Bmax

V
case-1: f is constant, then Bmax is constant
wh ∝ f
V
case-2: f is not constant, then Bmax is not constant
x
wh ∝ Bmax f
x
V1
wh ∝ f
f
For x=1.6,
wh ∝ V1 1.6 f −0.6
By keeping the voltage constant, if the frequency of the
operation is reduced, then the hysterisis loss increases.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Eddy current loss

The eddy current loss is due to the circulation current in
the transformer core.
It is directly proportional to the conductivity of the core.
1
We ∝ Ie2 Rce ∝ σ 2 ∝σ
σ
It can be reduced by reducing the conductivity of the core
material by adding silica content in the core
About 4% of silica is added, above that the core
becomes brittle. To reduce the conductivity further, the
core is laminated.
The effective area of the core is reduced which results in
increase in the resistance offered to the flow of eddy
currents so we decreased.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Eddy current loss

case-1: Vf is constant, then Bmax is constant
we ∝ f 2
V
case-2: f is not constant, then Bmax is not constant
2
we ∝ Bmax f2
wh ∝ V1 2
By keeping the voltage constant, if the frequency of the
operation of the transformer is reduced, then the Bmax
varies (not constant) but there is no change in the we .
The total iron loss in the transformer increases (due to
increase in the hysterisis loss)
Iron loss remains same irrespective of the load condition
and hence, they are called constant losses.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Copper loss
It depends on the current flowing through the circuit so it

an variable loss.
Total copper loss
= I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 R01 = I22 R02
The full load copper losses
= I12 R01 or I22 R02
Full load copper loss is proportional to the I12

The copper losses at 1/2 FL = (1/2)2 .R01 =
1
4 × FL copper loss
The copper loss at x fraction of the load = x 2 × FL copper
loss.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Stray losses
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the
transformer. These leakage fluxes link the metallic
structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses
in them.
The stray load losses are very low in air-cored
transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank.
For all practical purposes, 0.5 % of total output can be
taken as stray load losses.

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Dielectric losses
Dielectric loss normally taken place in insulating material of

transformer such as in interwinding insulation and also in
transformer oil.
Dielectric loss is independent of the load and it considered
as constant loss. It depends on the applied voltage
For all practical purposes, 0.25 % of total output can be
considered as dielectric losses.

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Tests on Transformers
The equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primay

or secondary is useful only if the values are known.
To find the equivalent circuit parameters, the following tests
are carried out
It is also possible to estimate the equivalent circuit
parameters from design data and dimensions but in most
cases, users will not have access to design data and there
are certain assumptions in design data.
Inorder to get the accurate values, there are two tests,
Open Circuit test or no-load test (to find the shunt circuit
parameters)
SC test (to find the series branch parameters)

Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Open circuit test
To find the constant losses in the transformer and to find

the shunt branch impedances
Rated voltage is obtained on the LV side and HV side kept
open.
Since the no-load current is less, copper loss in the
primary winding is negligible.
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Open circuit test

The power measured by the wattmeter is given by
W0 = V1 I0 cosφ0
W0
cosφ0 =
V1 I0
q
sinφ0 = 1 − cos2 (φ0 )
The working component and magnetising component is given
by
Iw = I0 cosφ0
Iµ = I0 sinφ0
The value of R0 and X0 is given by
V1 V1
R0 = X0 =
Iw Im
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Short circuit test
The LV side is shorted and the remaining circuit is same as

that of no load test
The test has to be performed at rated current and on the
HV side
Voltage required to attain the rated current is very small
and it is one of the main reason for performing test on HV
side
Transformer
Phasor diagrams
Performance Indices
Short circuit test
The wattmeter W measures only the full load copper loss

for the whole transformer, both primary and secondary
copper loss.
2
W = Isc R01
W
R01 = 2
Isc
Vsc
Z01 =
Isc
q
X01 = Z01 2 − R2
01
The referred values corresponds to the side where the

meters are connected.
END-LECTURE-10
Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Sumpner’s test
Two identical transformers are required

Back to back test
To pre-determine the efficiency of the transformer
Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Efficiency of transformer
The efficiency of transformer is given by

output power
η= × 100
input power
The difference between the input power and output power
is the losses. Hence, it can be written as
output power
η= × 100
output power + losses
The losses can be divided into two parts:core losses and
copper loss
output power
η= × 100
output power + core losses + copper loss

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Efficiency of transformer
Core loss depends on the source voltage and frequency. In
power system, these two are generally constant. hence,
the core loss remains constant.
The output power is given by
output power = V20 I20 cosφ
core loss = Pi = V 21 /R0 = constant
Copper loss = Pcu = I202 Req = I22 Req
V20 I20 cosφ

η=
V20 I20 cosφ + Pi + I202 Req
V20 cosφ
η= Pi
V20 cosφ + I20
+ I20 Req

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Condition for maximum efficiency
Efficiency is based on power output by watts and not in

volt-amperes, although losses are proportional to VA.
Hence, the efficiency also depends on the power factor
Case:1 cosφ constant, the condition for maximum
efficiency with respect to current I20
dη
=0
dI20 φ=constant
−Pi
+ Req = 0
I202
Pi = I202 Req = Pcu

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Case:1 cosφ constant, the condition for maximum

efficiency with respect to current I20
Pi = I202 Req = Pcu
Constant losses = Variable losses

The output current corresponding to the maximum
efficiency is s
Pi
I20 =
Req

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices

Case:2 If there is only x fraction of load then the condition
for maximum efficiency is as follows:
For x fraction of load, copper loss is given by Pcu = I202 Req
0
I2 2 V 2 I2 2

Pcu,x
= = = x2
Pcu I2,fl V2 I2,fl
The efficiency at a fractional load x is given by
x × (kVA)rated cosφ
ηx =
x × (kVA)rated cosφ + Pi + x 2 Pcu
The condition for maximum efficiency is given by
Pi = x 2 Pcu
The fraction of load at which maximum efficiency can be
obtained is s
Electrical Machines Dr. D.P i
Harimurugan, EE - NITJ
Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Case:2 If there is only x fraction of load

The fraction of load at which maximum efficiency can be
obtained is s
Pi
x=
Pcu
This realisation helps in design of the transformer.
Ideally, the transformer must operate at load which gives
maximum efficiency.
The KVA correspond to maximum efficiency is given by
s
Pi
KVA corresponds to ηmax = Full load kVA
Pcu

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Case:3 Now if the current is constant and power factor is

varying, the condition for maximum efficiency is obtained
by
dη
=0
dφ2 I2 =constant
φ2 = 0 =⇒ cosφ2 = 1
By keeping current constant, if the load power factor is
varied, then the efficiency is maximum at unity power
factor.

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
All day efficiency
The transformer efficiency varies depending on the load.

We cannot infer much by calculating the efficiency at a
particular load.
Loading of a transformer varies over a day. In a season at
least, the loading of the transfromer remains same.
The more useful parameter in analysing the performance
of the transformer is the all day efficiency.
Energy output over a day

All day efficiency =
Energy input over a day
END-LECTURE-11

Transformer
Sumpner’s test
Efficiency
All day efficiency
Performance Indices
Per-Unit Impedance
Parameter values fall in a narrow numerical range

The ideal transformer turns ration becomes 1:1 and hence
the ideal transformer can be eliminated.
For complicated systems involving many transformers of
different turns ratio, this advantage is a significant one.
Actual Quantity
Quantity in per unit =
Base value of quantity
For a single phase system,
Pbase , Qbase , VAbase = Vbase Ibase

Vbase
Rbase , Xbase , Zbase =
Ibase

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Electrical Machines

January 18, 2023

Heart of your power system

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Number of phases

Based on number of phases, it is classified as

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Position of winding and core

Based on relative position of winding and core, it is

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Position of winding and core

Core type transformer: Interleaved and concentrated

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Position of winding and core

Shell type transformer: Sandwitch type windings, Low

Insulation requirement is more in Shell type and for the same

Classification: Position of winding and core

Three phase transformers

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Method of cooling

Based on method of cooling

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Method of cooling

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Breather: Silica Gel

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Radiator and Radiator fans

Sometime in 2010 @ Kadapa Traction Substation

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Conservator and Indicator

Sometime in 2010 @ Kadapa Traction Substation

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Classification: Based on service conditions

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Elementary Theory of Transformer

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on No-load

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on No-load

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on No-load

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on No-load

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on No-load

To maintain Bm constant, the ratio v/f has to be maintained

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Ideal Transformer on load

Iirrespective of condition of load, the net flux passing through

if N2 > N1 , K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Equivalent circuit: Ideal case

Electrical Machines Dr. D. Harimurugan, EE - NITJ

Equivalent circuit: Ideal case

Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer

Equivalent circuit: Ideal case