EE 467

Power Systems Operation & Control

UNIT 2 – Frequency and Active Load Control
Dr E. K. Anto

Jan 2014

kwakuantoh@yahoo.com//0208201565; 0243225858
 Learning Objectives
• Understand the concept of automatic load-frequency control
(ALFC), and the dependence of power system frequency on active
(or real) power demand
• Appreciate the methods used to increase the transmittable
real/active power in transmission lines, i.e., how to increase the
transmission capacity
• Appreciate the control or management of active power in the
generation and transmission systems
• Understand the dependence of power system losses on load flows,
and how these losses can be reduced
• Solve examples on active power generation in plants, as well as
active power flows in lines
2
 •Start of UNIT 2

3
 2.1: Introduction – Objectives of NORMAL/STEADY-
STATE system operation
1. Maintenance of active power balance

2. Control of frequency

3. Maintenance of reactive power balance

4. Control of voltage profile

5. Maintenance of “optimum” generation schedule (economic

dispatch)

6. Maintenance of “optimum” power routing (load flow analysis)

4
 2.1: Introduction (2) – GUIDING EQUATION between
generation, demand and losses
• In normal or steady-state power system operation, the
following equation must be maintained:

GENERATION=DEMAND + LOSSES

• Any imbalance between this equation will affect EITHER

frequency regulation OR voltage regulation

• Under steady-state or normal conditions

➢Frequency control is an issue of active power balance between
generation and demand
➢Voltage control is an issue of reactive power balance between
generation and demand
5
 •Active Power (P-Generated)
Management in the Generation System
(For control of system frequency)

6
 2.2 Control of system frequency
• The CONTROL OF FREQUENCY is an issue of ACTIVE POWER
BALANCE between generation & demand

• As the active load of the power system varies, the speed N s of the
synchronous generators tends to change

• This change in speed gives rise to a change in frequency of the

system in accordance with the relation N s  Ppoles
f =
120
• The change in speed is sensed by the speed governors, which
operate to activate the controls
7
 2.2 Control of frequency (2)
• The automatic control of power system frequency under
normal state of operation is closely intertwined with the
problem of real power balance between generation and
demand.

• A sudden shift in frequency is a sure sign of real power

generation-demand imbalance

• The automatic load frequency control (ALFC) system is a

control system that is employed to accomplish the task of
regulating/controlling the frequency
8
 •The A.L.F.C. System

9
 2.3 The A.L.F.C. System – SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Steam / Water

PQ
Valve / Gate Turbine Generator

Actuating f
signal

Transducer Sensor / Comparator

∆f = f - freq freq

• The parameter that best gives a clue about imbalance

between the real power generation and demand is the
frequency.
• And so the generation-load control or regulation is initiated by
measuring the frequency
10
 2.3 The ALFC System (2) – THE PROCESS
• A frequency sensor-comparator senses the actual system
frequency and compares it with a reference frequency f ref (50 Hz
in Ghana).

• A frequency error signal is generated, and is given by f = f − f ref

• A transducer amplifies the error signal into an actuating

command which is sent on to the input to prime mover, i.e.,
turbine

• The input may be EITHER steam valve (in case of thermal plant),
OR gate (in case of hydro plant)

• Three (3) GENERATION-DEMAND CASES may be considered:

11
 2.3.1 Case 1: Demand EQUALS generation, that is,
PD = PG  f = f ref and f = 0
• If the load demand is practically met by the generation, there
will be no change in speed of the generating unit, and

N s  Ppoles
• Hence the frequency f = or f  N s does not change.
120

• f = 0 thus implies the actual system frequency equals the

reference frequency and the demand is well balanced by
generation

• ACTION: In this case, NO CHANGES WILL NEED TO BE EFFECTED in

the generation
12
 2.3.2 Case 2: Demand LESS THAN generation, that is,
(Generation Surplus) PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0
• If the demand is significantly less than generation, then the
generating unit will tend to increase in speed

• Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to increase

• A positive error frequencyf  0 signal thus indicates a reduction

in demand

• ACTION: corrective measure involves a REDUCTION IN THE

GENERATOR OUTPUT , i.e., closing of the steam valve (or gate).
13
 2.3.3 Case 3: Demand EXCEEDS generation, that is,
(Generation Deficit) PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0
• If the demand is significantly more than generation, the
generating unit will tend to decrease in speed

• Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to decrease

• A negative error frequency signal thus indicates an increase in

demand over generation.

• ACTIONS: Three (3) CORRECTIVE MEASURES are possible

14
 2.3.3 Case 3: Demand exceeds generation (2)
Corrective ACTIONS/MEASURES

1. Increase in generator output, (through, opening steam valve

or gate)

2. Importation of power (from neighbouring country – provided

power is available; this also reinforces the essence of power
system interconnection)

3. Load shedding (as last resort!!!)

15
 •The Turbine-Governor Control System

16
 2.4 Turbine-Governor Control System for Active Load
Regulation
• Let an increase in turbine mechanical power Pmech result from
an increase in the reference power setting Pref , and a
decrease in frequency f

• For small and slow (static or steady-state) increments, we can

write
1
•
Pmech = Pref − f (Eqn1)
R

• R is referred to as regulation or droop constant

• Two (2) network cases may be considered

17
 2.4.1 Case 1: INFINITE (IDEAL)NETWORK, f = 0

• An infinite network is a network whose frequency is

independent of changes in power output of individual
generator

• In other words, frequency is hypothetically or ideally assumed

to be constant, that is, f = 0

• The turbine-governor control Eqn (1) reduces to

Pmech = Pref (infinite network)

18
 2.4.1 Example 1- Infinite network
• A 100 MW generator is operated into an infinite network. How
would you make this generator increase its turbine power by 5
MW?

• Solution 1:
• Since the network is infinite,f = 0

• Thus from the Eqn 1, Pmech = Pref = 5 MW

• IMPLICATION: Simply give a raise signal of 5 MW to the speed-

changer motor
19
 2.4.2 Case 2: FINITE (REAL) NETWORK, Pref = 0

• A finite network is one whose frequency is variable.

• However, the speed-changer setting is kept constant, that is,

Pref = 0

• The turbine-governor control Eqn 1 reduces to

1
Pmech = − f (finite network)
R

20
 2.4.2 Example 2- Finite network
• Consider the 100 MW generator of Example 1. It has a regulation parameter of
4% (0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power change, if the frequency
drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference power setting unchanged?
• Solution 2
• Reference power setting is unchanged (finite system) implies that Pref = 0
• Thus, Pref = 0
• NOTE: R is given in per unit, and must be changed to actual Hz/MW value, so
• R = R pu  f
Pmech
f 50
• Substituting, R = R pu  = 0.04  = 0.02 Hz / MW
Pmech 100
1 1
• Hence, Pmech = − f = − (−0.1) = + 5 MW
R 0.02

• IMPLICATION: for a 0.1 Hz frequency DROP in a finite network, the turbine power
must INCREASE by 5 MW
21
 2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network
• Two generators are supplying power to a finite system. Their power
ratings are and . The frequency is 60 Hz and the
generator is half-loaded. The system load increases by 110 MW, and as
a result, the frequency drops to 59.5 Hz. What must the individual
regulations be, if the two generators should increase their turbine
powers in proportion to their ratings?
• Solution 3:
(a) For a finite system, . Furthermore, generators should increase
their turbine powers in proportion to their ratings. Thus

22
 2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network (2)
But

Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously, and

NOTE: the two generators must pick up extra 10 MW and 100 MW

respectively

(b) Regulation constant for smaller Unit 1 is

Expressed in per unit,

23
 2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network (3)

(c) Regulation constant for bigger Unit 2 is

Expressed in per unit,

NOTES:
(i) If we express the regulation in per unit, the regulation constant is the
same for both units
(ii)Generators working in parallel on the same network ought to have the
same regulation (expressed in per unit of their own ratings), in order to
share load changes in proportion to their size or ratings.
24
 •Active Power (P-Flow) Management in
Transmission System
(For Maximizing transmittable
power/transmission capacity AND
Minimizing line losses)

25
 2.5 Active Line Power Flow and Its Control
• Consider the simplified model of a transmission line (assumed
lossless)
• We refer to the known active power flow equation between
two ends of a line, having voltage V1 and V2 and separated
by a reactance X:
V1 V 2
Pflow = sin 
X
• DEDUCTIONS:
i. The active power flow depends on the product of the
magnitude of the end-point voltage phasors
ii. Because the product of the two voltages is always positive,
active power flow will always be positive
iii. That is, active line power flow will always be from sending-
end to receiving-end
26
 2.5 Active Power Flow and Its Control (2)
V1 V 2
Pflow = sin 
X
• DEDUCTIONS (CONTINUED)
i. A positive , that is, leading , results in megawatt
flow in direction left to right, i.e., from the sending-end to the
receiving-end.
ii. But if leads , the power becomes negative, that is,
power is transmitted in the reverse direction from right to left,
i.e., from the receiving-end to the sending-end.
iii. In short, real power flow is FROM the point with the most
leading angle TO the point with the most lagging angle

27
 2.5 Active Power Flow and Its Control (3)
V1 V 2
Pflow = sin 
X
• DEDUCTIONS (CONTINUED)
iv. Real power (MW) and reactive power (VAR) flows need not
be in the same direction
v. The maximum transmittable real power flow is given as
V1 V 2
Pflow(max) =
X
iv. This maximum value is also called the static stability or
thermal limit of the line

28
 2.5.1 Example 4: Maximum Permissible Active Power
Flow
• Find the maximum transmittable power over a 20-km line transmitting
1000 MW power at a transmission voltage of 20 kV. Assume the line
reactance , and neglect line resistance.
• Solution 4:
• Assuming no change in the sending-end and receiving-end
voltages, the maximum 3-phase transmittable power is
•

• NOTES:
i. This value is well below the intended power of 1000 MW to be
transmitted.
ii. What it means is that one cannot wheel a bulk power of 1000 MW
through this 20 kV LV line. It would rather require an HV line
29
 •Maximizing Transmittable Power or
Transmission Capacity

30
 2.6 How to increase the static stability limit
1. Increasing the transmission voltage
i. change of transmission voltage will demand change of line
insulators, tower heights, switchgear, etc
ii. expensive to undertake

2. Reducing the line reactance through

I. installation of another parallel line (right of way ROW
problems, availability of funds?)
II. conductor bundling
III. series compensation – addition of capacitance in series with
line

31
 •Active Line Power Losses and Its Control

32
 2.7 Active Line Power Losses and Its Control
• Refer to the deduced active line power loss equation:
2 Pav 2 + Qav 2
P loss  R  I av  R 2
Vav
• This loss formula reveals the following:
i. both real and reactive line power flows contribute to the
active power losses
ii. real line power losses are proportional to the sum of the
squares of the line flows (both real and reactive flows)
iii. Real power losses are inversely proportional to the square of
the voltage magnitude
iv. There is thus a double reason for the use of high transmission
voltages.
33
 •Minimizing Line Losses

34
 2.8 Measures to reduce active line power losses
• Refer to the deduced active line power loss equation:
2 Pav 2 + Qav 2
P loss  R  I av  R 2
Vav
1. Minimize the line flows P & Q
➢ P-flow minimization – via distributed generation with use of
renewable energy sources (RES) like solar PV systems, wind
plants, mini-hydro plants, etc.
➢ Q-flow minimization – via local compensation

2. Increase transmission voltage

3. Reduce line resistance – practically through reconductoring

/use of bigger conductor sizes
35
 •Active Power (P-Demand) Management
in the Distribution System
(Use of so-called Brown-Out Effect)

36
 2.9 Voltage and frequency dependency of loads
• An important feature characterizing all loads is their
dependency on voltage and frequency.

• During faults and other abnormal situations, the voltage may

vary greatly, resulting in major load fluctuations.

• Even minor changes in voltage and frequency can cause load

changes of practical significance.

• We shall discuss two important load types, namely, impedance

loads and motor loads.
37
 •Voltage Dependency of
Impedance Loads

38
 2.9.1 Voltage dependency of impedance loads
• Lighting, heaters and similar loads fall under the category of
impedance loads,
• It is desired to know by how many percent the real load will
change if the voltage on an impedance load is changed by a
certain percentage.
• Consider the relevant power equations:

• Clearly, the real and reactive loads are proportional to the

square of the voltage magnitude.
39
 2.9.1 Voltage dependency of impedance loads (2)
• For a small voltage change , we have for the real power

• OR

• (Eqn 2)

• Eqn (2) shows that a small relative change in voltage results in

twice the relative change in active power.

40
 2.9.1 Voltage dependency of impedance loads (3)
• Example 5
• Consider an inductive load of impedance . By how many
percent will the real load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%.
•
• Solution 5

•
• HENCE: a 1 % drop in voltage causes a 2 % drop in active load.

41
 •Frequency Dependency of
Impedance Loads

42
 2.9.2 Frequency dependency of impedance loads
• The reactance depends on the frequency according to the
relation
• Thus from Eqn (2), we have

• Or,

43
 2.9.2 Frequency dependency of impedance loads
(2)
• Rearranging the last expression, we obtain

• Noting that,

• The equation reduces to Eqn (3)

• NOTE:
The negative sign in Eqn (3) indicates that a relative increase in
frequency leads to a relative decrease in active load demand,
and vice versa.
44
 2.9.2 Frequency dependency of impedance loads
(3)-Example 6
• How would a 1% drop in frequency affect the real load in the
previous example, if the load is assumed to have a power factor
of 0.8?
• Solution 6:
• Using the relevant eqn,
•
• For a power factor, then
• Thus

• HENCE: 1 % reduction in frequency results in a 0.72 % increase in

load.
45
 •Voltage Dependency of
Motive/Motor Loads

46
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads
• Induction motor load dominates the group of motor loads.

• Its dependence upon voltage and frequency is somewhat

more complicated to analyse.
•
• We demonstrate it better with an Example 7.

• A 480 V 3-phase induction motor powers a compressor whose

torque is assumed to be speed-independent. The motor runs at
an initial speed corresponding to a per-unit slip of . How
will the motor load change, if the voltage drops by 1 %?
47
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads –
Solution 7
• The equivalent per-phase circuit of the induction motor is
shown below, neglecting the magnetizing impedance.

48
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads –
Solution 7 (2)
• The motor torque is

• For a constant power output, the relationship between

different slips for different voltages is given by the equation

• From the data, , ,

• The new slip is

• The real load drained from the network equals

49
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads –
Solution 7 (3)
• The stator (input) current is obtained as

• Using the numerical values given for the equivalent circuit, we

obtain

• NOTES:
i. The 1 % voltage drop causes a 0.84 % current rise, quite a
typical situation in the case of an induction motor.
ii. Remember the opposite situation in the case of an
impedance load.
50
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads –
Solution 7 (4)
• Finally, we obtain the following:

• NOTES:
i. The motor will reduce its power drain by only
(0.002x100%)=0.2 % power reduction in case of motor load
for a 1% voltage drop. This is the so-called brownout effect
ii. Compare the 2 % power reduction in the case of an impedance
load.

51
 2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor loads –
Solution 7 (5)
• NOTES:
iii. Impedance loads thus give a better power reduction than
motor loads under such brownout conditions.

iv. EXPLANATION OF “BROWNOUT EFFECT”:

The brownout effect is the phenomenon of intentional or
unintentional slight drop or reduction in system voltage,
which primarily has the effect of reducing power demand on
the system, and also results in reduced illumination
(brownout)

52
 •SELF ASSESSMENTS

53
 2.10 SELF ASSESSMENT
1)Discuss, with the aid of a schematic diagram, how the control of the power
system frequency is achieved by regulation of the generator output.
2)State any FOUR aims of power system operation.
3)Explain the relevance of series and shunt compensations in a power system
4)Two generators rated and are supplying power to a 50 Hz
finite system. If the system load increases by 180 MW, resulting in a drop in
frequency to 49.85 Hz, and the two generators should increase their turbine
powers in proportion to their ratings, determine the respective
i. generations of the two machines to accommodate the load increase.
ii. regulation constants of the machines.
5)Using (don’t deduce) the appropriate equations, explain how
i. transmission capacity of a line can be increased
ii. losses in a line can be reduced
6) Explain the “brownout effect”

54
 Thank You – End of Unit 2

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Jan 2014