Waves. Byju's

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
INTRODUCTION TO WAVES AND
WAVE EQUATION
What you already know What you will learn
• Mechanics • Introduction to waves

• Heat transfer • Motion of wave pulse
• Thermodynamics • Equation of plane progressive wave
BOARDS
Wave
The disturbance that carries energy and momentum without transfer of matter is known as a wave,
i.e., the wave motion involves the transfer of disturbance (energy) from one point to the other by
oscillating the particles of the medium about their mean positions, the particles of the medium do
not travel with the wave. When the wave passes by, only the disturbance is propagated.
Classification of waves based on the necessity of medium
1. Mechanical waves
The waves that need a medium to propagate are known as mechanical waves. It is an oscillation
of matter and is responsible for the transfer of energy through a medium.
Requirements for mechanical waves:
• Initial energy input (source of disturbance).
• A medium containing elements.
• Some physical mechanism through which elements of the medium can influence each
other.
Required characteristics of the medium:
• Elasticity: The medium needs to be elastic so that the particles can return to their mean
position which is the necessary condition for disturbance to be transmitted.
• Inertia: The medium needs to have inertia so that it can store energy and transport the
mechanical wave further.
2. Non-mechanical waves
The waves that do not need a medium to propagate are known as non-mechanical waves.
Example: Electromagnetic (EM) waves
Electromagnetic waves are generated by the oscillating electric and magnetic fields. EM waves
travel through a vacuum at the speed of v = 3 × 108 ms–1.
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

02
Classification of waves based on the vibration of the particles
1. Transverse waves Direc

tion o
y x f prop
If the particles of the medium vibrate in a agati
on
direction perpendicular to the direction of z
propagation of the wave, i.e., if the displacement
of the particles of the medium is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of waves, then Particle
these waves are known as transverse waves. motion
y
The transverse waves travel in the form of
crests (C) and troughs (T).
A C
Example: Waves on the surface of the water x
T
2. Longitudinal waves Direc

tion o
If the particles of the medium vibrate in the y x f prop
agati
direction of propagation of waves, i.e., if the on
z
displacement of the particle is parallel to the
direction of the propagation of waves, then
the waves are known as longitudinal waves. Partic
Such waves propagate as compressions and le mo
tion
rarefactions.
Rarefaction Compression
Example: Sound waves travel in air Particle

P
x
How do we describe the motion of a particle moving in a straight line?

The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given as y(t).
Example:
The particle of the medium executes a simple harmonic motion.
Equation of the particle performing SHM is given by, y = A sin(ωt + ϕ).

03
Motion of a Wave Pulse
In a wave, we know that as the disturbance propagates, the particles of the medium execute SHM.
So, for describing the SHM of different particles, we have to consider both the time and position of
each particle.
Therefore, y = f(x,t)
Where, y is the transverse position, x is the location
of particles along the direction of propagation of
the wave and t is the instant of observation. y
Let us assume a wave pulse that is propagating

along x-direction at time, t = 0.
The transverse position (y) of the elements of the
string located at various values of x can be written O x
as, y(x, 0) = f(x).
Now, at time t = t,
y
Let us assume that the wave pulse is propagating v
with velocity v. So, at time t, the distance travelled
by the wave is vt.
When the wave is moving in the positive x-direction,
y(x, t) = f(x – vt, 0)
O vt x
When the wave is moving in the negative x-direction,
y(x, t) = f(x + vt, 0)
The mathematical function representing the motion of travelling wave pulse is,
f(x, t) = y(x ± vt)
6
At t = 0, transverse pulse in a wire is described by the function, y = , where x and y
x +3
2
are in metres. Write the function y(x, t) that describes this pulse if it is travelling in the positive
x-direction with the speed of 4.50 ms–1.
Solution
At t = 0,
6
The position, y(x, t) = y(x, 0)y ==
x +3
2

04
For a wave moving along positive x-direction at time t,

6
y ( x , t ) =y ( x − vt , 0) =
( x − vt )
2
+3
Velocity of the wave, v = 4.5 ms −1
6
y ( x,t ) =
( x − 4.5t ) + 3
2
Equation of a Plane Progressive Wave
Let us consider a particle of the wave. After a time y

period T, the distance travelled by the particle is,
vT = 𝜆. +A
P 𝜆 = vT
Where, v = Velocity of the wave O
P x
T = Time period of the wave x
–A
𝜆 = Wavelength of the wave
When the wave pulse reaches O, the particle located T
at O will undergo SHM as,
y = A sin(ωt + ϕ)
The time taken by the wave pulse to reach P is,
x
t=
v
The equation of the wave is,
  x 
=y A sin  ω  t −  + φ 
  v 
Also,
2π
ω = 2π f
=
T
λ = vT
By substituting ω and v in the equation, we get the following :
 ωx 
=y A sin  ωt − +φ
 v 
  2π 2π xT  
=⇒ y A sin   t − ×  +φ
 T T λ  
  2π 2π  
⇒ y A sin   t −
= x +φ
 T λ  
⇒ y A sin ( (ωt − kx ) + φ )
=
2π
k
Where,= = Wave number
λ

05
Different forms of the plane progressive wave are as follows:

=y A sin ( (ωt − kx ) + φ )
=y A sin (ωt − kx )
 x  2π 
y=A sin  2π ft − 2π   Since ω =
2π f and k =
 λ  λ 
  t x   1
y=A sin  2π  −    Since f =
  T λ   T 
 2π   λ 
y =A sin  ( vt − x )   Since =v 
 λ   T 
 2π 
y= A sin ( k ( vt − x ) )  Since k = 
 λ 
 2π  x    x 
=y A sin   t = −   A sin  ω  t −  
T  v    v 

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
WAVE PARAMETERS
• Introduction to wave • Wave parameters

• Classification of waves • Variation of phase with time and distance
• Motion of wave pulse • Wave velocity and particle velocity
• Equation of a plane progressive wave • General wave equation
BOARDS
Wave Parameters
The wave equation is given as follows:

y = A sin ((ωt – kx) + ϕ)
1. Angular frequency (ω)

It is the angular displacement of any element of a wave per unit time.
2π
ω=
T
Unit: Radian per second
2. Angular wavenumber/Propagation constant (k)
It is the number of wavelengths per unit distance. It is also known as spatial frequency.
2π
k=
λ
Unit: Radian per meter
3. Phase constant (ϕ)
• It describes how displaced is the waveform from the equilibrium position.
• It represents the change in phase per unit length along the path travelled by the wave at
an instant.
• Unit: Radian per unit length y
Consider the displacement vs time graph of a
wave propagating in a medium. A
There are n number of particles present in the 3T
medium. When a wave passes through the 4
O
medium, the particles of the medium perform T T T t
SHM about their mean positions. 4 2
Let us consider the particle which was at mean
position at t = 0.

02
T
At t = , the particle has the maximum displacement, and its velocity becomes zero.
4
T
At t = , the particle comes back to the mean position and continues to go down.
2
3T
At t = , the particle again has the maximum displacement in another direction, its velocity
4
becomes zero, and it changes its direction.
At t = T, the particle reaches back to the mean position and completes one oscillation.
Corresponding to the position of the particle at any particular time, there is some angle associated
with the particle and this angle is known as the phase of the particle.
For a particle at t = 0, there can be different values of phase as shown in the graphs:
y y y
+A π +A π–ϕ +A π+ϕ
+ϕ –ϕ
O t O t O t
Positive initial phase constant: Sine curve starts from the left of the origin.
y = A sin (𝜔t – kx + ϕ)
Negative initial phase constant: Sine curve starts from the right of the origin.
y = A sin (𝜔t – kx – ϕ)
Let us consider a graph of wave motion and observe points A, B, C, D, and E.
y v=0 v=0
We can observe that particles at points A and E are in A E
the same phase, which means that their displacement +A
from the mean position is the same. Particles that
are in the same phase have the same displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and energy because particles O
B D t
of the medium execute SHM about their mean
positions. After one time period T, they will be in the
–A
same phase again and it will continue. C
Variation of Phase with Time
Two particles are in different phases, φt1 and φt2. The phase difference between them can be found
as follows:
=y A sin (ωt − kx + φ )
The first phase is given by,
φt1 = ωt1 − kx + φ
2π 2π
⇒ φt1 = t1 − x +φ
T λ
The second phase is given by,
φt2 BYJU'S.
© 2020, = ωtAll2 − +φ
kxreserved
rights
( )
The first phase is given by,
03
φt1 = ωt1 − kx + φ
2π 2π
⇒ φt1 = t1 − x +φ
T λ
φt = ωt 2 − kx + φ
2
2π 2π
⇒ φt2= t2 − x +φ
T λ
The phase difference is given as follows:
∆φ = φt2 − φt1
 2π 2π   2π 2π 
⇒ ∆φ =  t 2 − x + φ  −  t1 − x +φ
T λ  T λ 
2π
⇒=∆φ ( t 2 − t1 )
T
2π
⇒ ∆φ= ∆t
T
2π
⇒ Phase difference = × Time difference
T
Variation of Phase with Distance
Δx
y
= y A sin (ωt − kx + φ )
Let us consider two waves travelling along
the x-direction in a time difference of Δt with The first phase is given by,
phases φx1 and φx2, respectively, as shown in φx =ωt − kx1 + φ x
O1
the figure. 2π 2π
⇒ φ x1 = t− x +φ
T λ 1
φx =ωt − kx2 + φ
Path difference (Δx) 2
2π 2π
⇒ φ x2 = t− x +φ
It is the difference in the path traversed by two waves. T λ 2
= y A sin (ωt − kx + φ ) The phase difference is given as follows:
The first phase is given by, ∆φ = φx2 − φx1
φx1 =ωt − kx1 + φ  2π 2π   2π 2π 
⇒=∆φ  t − x2 + φ  −  t − x1 + φ 
2π 2π T λ  T λ 
⇒ φ x1 = t− x +φ
T λ 1 2π
The second phase is given by, ⇒=∆φ ( x 2 − x1 )
λ
φx2 =ωt − kx2 + φ 2π
⇒ ∆φ= ∆x
2π 2π λ
⇒ φ x2 = t− x +φ
T λ 2 2π
⇒ Phase difference = × Path difference
The phase difference is given as follows: λ
∆φ = φx2 − φx1
 2π 2π   2π 2π 
⇒= ∆φ  t − x2 + φ  −  t − x1 + φ 
T λ  T λ 
2π
⇒= ∆φ ( x 2 − x1 )
λ
04
What will be the path difference of two sound waves having a phase difference of 60° ?
λ λ λλ λ λ λ λ λλ λ λ
(A) 2λ (B) 2λ (C) 2λ 2λ
(D)
6 3 26 3 2 6 3 26 3 2
Solution
Given,
Phase difference, Δϕ = 60°
π
∆φ = rad
3
Also,
2π
∆φ = ∆x
λ
π 2π
⇒ = ∆x
3 λ
λ
⇒ ∆x =
6
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.
Velocity of a Sinusoidal Wave
Let us observe a wave travelling along the Δx

y
x-direction at time t = 0 and t = Δt with phases
φx1 and φx2, respectively, as shown in the figure. At t = Δt
We know that the general expression for the

O x
displacement of a wave is,
y = A sin(𝜔t – kx) At t = 0
To get the velocity of the wave, we have to
differentiate displacement equation.
sin(𝜔t – kx) = Constant
⇒ ωt − kx = Constant
Differentiating with respect to time,we get the following:
dt dx
ω −k = 0
dt dt
dx
⇒ω −k = 0
dt
dx ω
⇒ =
dt k
ω
⇒v=
k
Where, v = Velocity of the wave

05
As we know, wave function of a wave is, y = f (ax ± bt),

Coefficient of t
Velocity of the sinusoidal wave =
Coefficient of x
From the equation of displacement of wave,
y = f ( ax + bt ) = (ωt − kx )
Coefficient of t ω
Hence, the velocity of a sinusoidal wave = =
Coefficient of x k
NEET
Speed of a Particle in a Sinusoidal Wave
Let us consider a wave propagating along the x-direction and observe a particle at a distance x
from the origin.

v
y
A
vP
O x
–A
x
We know that each particle of the wave must follow the general expression for the displacement
of a wave.
y = A sin (𝜔t – kx)
Where, x is constant as we are focusing only on one particle.
The transverse speed of the particle in the sinusoidal wave is as follows:
∂y ∂
v=
P =
∂t ∂t
( A sin (ωt − kx ) )
⇒ vP ω A cos (ωt − kx )
=
The acceleration of the particle is given as follows:
∂
aP = ( vP )
∂t
⇒ aP = − ω 2 A sin (ωt − kx )
− ω2 y
⇒ aP = ( y =
A sin (ωt − kx ) )
Therefore, from the acceleration of a wave, we can observe that the particles of the medium are
executing SHM along the y-direction, whereas the wave is travelling along the positive x-direction.
Now, for all the particles at any particular instant, i.e., t = Constant,
∂y ∂
∂x ∂x
∂y
⇒ = − kA cos (ωt − kx )
∂x
∂y −k ∂y
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved(
=
⇒ =  vP ω A cos (ωt − kx ) )
∂x ω ∂t
06
∂y ∂
∂x ∂x
∂y ∂y ∂
⇒ = (−AkA (ωt(ω
sincos − tkx−) )kx )
∂x ∂x∂x
∂∂yy −k ∂y
=
⇒
∂∂xx
= − kA cos (ω=
ω ∂t
(t − vkxP ) ω A cos (ωt − kx ) )
∂y −k1∂∂yy
⇒ ∂y =
=
⇒ =(  vPv = ωωA cos (ωt − kx ) )
∂∂xx − ω v∂∂t t k 

∂y 1 ∂y  ω
⇒ ∂y = − ∂y   v =
⇒ ∂x = −vv ∂t  k
∂t ∂x
∂y ∂y
⇒ vP == −v
–Wave velocity × Slope of the wave curve
∂t ∂x
General Wave Equation
=y A sin (ωt − kx )
Differentiating with respect to x ,
∂y ∂
∂x ∂x
∂y
⇒ =− kA cos (ωt − kx )
∂x
Differentiating again with respect to x ,
∂2 y
⇒ − k 2 A sin (ωt − kx )
=
∂x 2
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y  ∂2 y 
⇒ 2 =   ay = − ω 2 A sin (ωt − kx ) 
=
∂x v ∂t
2 2
 ∂t 2

∂2 y ∂y
⇒ =v2 2
∂t 2
∂x
This is the general wave equation.

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
ENERGY CALCULATION IN WAVES
• Wave parameters • Speed of a transverse wave on a string

• Variation of phase with time • Total energy of a wave
• Variation of phase with distance • Energy density
• Wave speed and particle speed of a • Wave intensity
sinusoidal wave
A transverse wave is represented by, y = A sin(ωt – kx). For what value of the wavelength is
the wave velocity equal to the maximum particle velocity?
πA
(A) (B) πA (C) 2πA (D) A
2
Solution
The wave equation is given as, y = A sin(ωt – kx).

Given that,
v = ( vp )
max
ω
Wave velocity, v = ....(i)
k
dy
vp
Particle velocity,= = Aω cos (ωt − kx )
dt
For maximum particle velocity,
(v ) p max Aω (For v vmax , cos (ωt − kx ) should be equal to 1)
== ....(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we get the following:
ω
= Aω
k
2π
Wave number, k =
λ
λ
⇒ = A
2π
⇒λ =2π A
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

02
Speed of a Transverse Pulse on a String
The speed of a wave propagating along a string depends on the tension (T) and the mass per unit
length (or linear mass density μ) of the string.
Speed ∝ Tension of the vibrating source (T)
1
Speed ∝
Mass per unit length (μ)
Therefore, the speed of wave is,
T Elastic property
v
= =
µ Inertial property
Therefore, it can be concluded that the speed of the transverse pulse is the sole property of the
medium.
A string of length 5.5 m has a mass of 0.035 kg. If the tension in the string is 77 N, find the
speed of a wave on the string.
(A) 77 ms −1 (B) 102 ms −1 (C) 110 ms −1 (D) 164 ms −1
Solution
We have,
Tension of the string, T = 77 N
Length of the string, l = 5.5 m
Mass of the string, m = 0.035 kg
The speed of a wave propagating along the string is given as follows:
T
v =
µ
Mass per unit length is,
m 0.035
µ
= =
l 5.5
77 ×the
Substituting 5.5value of µ , we get the following:
⇒v =
770.035
× 5.5
⇒v =
0.035
⇒v = 110 ms −1
⇒ v =
Thus, 110 ms(C)
option
−1
is the correct answer.
NEET
Energy Calculation in Waves
Kinetic energy
As we know that when a wave propagates through a medium, the particles of the medium oscillate
in a sinusoidal wave and these oscillations are simple and harmonic in nature. Each particle has
some energy of oscillation. At the same time, the waves carry some amount of energy, which
results in an energy transfer.

03
Let us consider a small element of length dx and mass dm of a string when a wave propagates
through the string as shown in the figure. So, the KE associated with the small mass element, dm,
is as follows:
1
dK = dm v p2
2
( ) y
∂y
Also,=vp = ω A cos (ωt − kx )
∂t
Mass of the small element, dm = µ dx dm
Substituting the values of vp and dm, dx
we get the following: O x
1
dK = × µ dx × ω A cos (ωt − kx )
2 2 2
2
Kinetic energy per unit length,
dK 1
µ ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx )
dx 2
Potential energy
Let us consider a string. We will observe a particular element, ds, of the string at three different
situations as shown in the figure.
(i) Initially, the string is unstretched and there is no wave pulse generated in it.
(ii) At time t = 0, a wave pulse travels in it. Now, we can see that the element, ds, gets a change
(increase) in its length.
T
(iii) At time t = , a wave pulse travels in it and we can see that the length of element ds is the
4
same as in situation (i).
We can see that at t = 0, when a pulse travels
along the string, there is a slight elongation in
the length of element ds. dx
ds
= 2
dx 2 + dy 2
y O
y x
ds
dy
dx ds
O x t=0
x
y O
dx T
ds t =
dy 4
y O
dx x

04
The work done by the tension force, We know, y = A sin(ωt – kx)

dU = F (ds – dx) (Since (ds – dx) is the dy
displacement) = − Ak cos (ωt − kx )
dx
Here, the only force acting is tension (T).
Therefore, Also,
dU T ((ds
dU == T ds −− dx ((
dx))= = TT dxdx2 2+ +dydy ))
2 2 − dx
− dx v =
T
µ
(Since ds
= 2
dx 2 + dy 2 )
⇒T = v2 µ
 22 
 dy
dy  Substituting all the values, we get the
dU
dU = Tdx 1 +   − 1  ....(i)
1 + − 1
 dx
dx  following:
 
1
Since dy and dx are very small, we can use the = v 2 µ dx × × A2 k 2 cos2 (ωt − kx )
dU
binomial expansion: 2
The potential energy per unit length is given
(1 + x ) =1 + nx
n
as follows:
By applying the mentioned binomial dU 1
=
expansion in equation (i), we get the following: µω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx )
dx 2
 1  dy 
2
 If we compare the equations of kinetic energy
⇒ dU= Tdx  1 +   − 1  and potential energy, we can observe that they
 2  dx  
  are similar. This means that the kinetic energy
2
Tdx  dy  and the potential energy are in the same phase
⇒ dU =   unlike in SHM where PE decreases when KE
2  dx 
increases and vice versa.
Total Energy
Total mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy

1
Potential energy at= any instant, dU µω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx ) dx
2
1
Kinetic energy at= any instant, dK µ ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx ) dx
2
Total energy at any instant, dE= dK + dU
1 1
⇒ dE
= µ ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx ) dx + µ ω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx ) dx
2 2
⇒ dE µ ω A cos (ωt − kx ) dx
= 2 2 2
Average power transmitted,

dE dK dU
= P=
avg +
dt dt dt
dE 1 dx 1 dx
=Pavg = µω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx ) + µω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt − kx )
dt 2 dt 2 dt
dx
Where, = v is the velocity of the wave.
dt
1 1  1
⇒ PPavg == 1 µν
⇒ ω22 AA22 ++ 1 µν
µν ω ω22 AA22 Since
µν ω Since average
average value
value of cos22 xx == 1 
of cos
44 44  22 

avg
1
⇒ PPavg == 1 µν
⇒ µν ω
ω22 AA22
22
avg

05
Substituting ω = 2π f ,
2π 2 f 2 µν A2
⇒ Pavg =
Energy Density
Mathematically, the energy density can be found as follows:

dE dK dU
= +
dx dx dx
dE 1 1
⇒ = µ ω 2 A2 + µ ω 2 A2
dx 4 4
dE
⇒ 2π 2 f 2 µ A2
=
dx
Wave Intensity
The intensity of a wave is defined as the average amount of energy 2 flow2 in the medium per unit
Pavg 2π 2 fper
mvA
time per unit perpendicular area or the average= power
I transmitted
= unit area perpendicular to
the wave propagation. Area l × Area
We know, ⇒I = 2π 2 f 2 ρ vA2
⇒ Pavg = 2π 2 f 2 µν A2 mm
(Since ll ×× Area
== VV and =
Area = ρρ , density of
m the medium) VV
Also, µ = ,
l Therefore,
2π f mvA
2 2 2
I ∝ A2 and I ∝ f 2
⇒ Pavg =
l
Therefore,the wave intensity is given as follows:
Pavg 2π 2 f 2mvA2
= I =
Area l × Area
⇒I =2π 2 f 2 ρ vA2
The amplitude of a wave is doubled and the frequency is reduced to one-fourth. What will
be the intensity of the wave at the same point?
(A) Increased to double (B) Increased to four times

(C) Decreased to half (D) Decreased to one-fourth

06
NEET
III111 = AA
A1112fff1112
22 22
Solution == 222 222

III222 AA
A222 fff222
22 2 2
22
Given,
⇒ III111 = AAA111   fff111 
A
A22 == 22A ⇒
⇒ I = =   f 
A11 II222  AA A222   ff222 
f
ff2 == f11 I II11  AA 22
2

 4 ff 

22
2
2 44 ⇒ = A 1   4 4 f 2 
⇒
⇒ I = 1
= A   f 
11 22
Also, we know, II222 22 2AA111   ff222 
I ∝ A2 and I ∝ f 2
⇒ III111 =
⇒
⇒ =
44
= 4III222
⇒ I ∝ A2 f 2
Therefore, III111
⇒ III222 =
⇒
⇒ =
=
I1 A12 f12 444
= 2 2
I2 A2 f2 Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.
2 2
I1  A1   f1 
⇒ =
   
I2  A2   f2 
2 2
I  A1   4 f2 
⇒ 1 =   
I2  2 A1   f2 
⇒ I1 =
4 I2
I1
⇒ I2 =
4

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES: INTERFERENCE
• General wave equation • Principle of superposition

• Speed of transverse wave on a string • Interference of waves
• Energy calculation of a wave • Conditions for interference
• Total energy of a wave • Constructive and destructive
• Energy density interferences
• Wave intensity • Intensity of resultant wave
Superposition Principle of Waves
When two or more waves cross at a point, then the resultant displacement of the particle at that
point is equal to the vector sum of the displacement by the individual waves. This principle is
known as the principle of superposition of waves. y
ynet
Let us consider graphs of two waves with displacement
y1 and y2 that are superposing each other. y2
y1 x
Here, we can observe that the crest of one wave is
superposing with the crest of another wave. Similarly, O
the trough of one wave is superposing with the trough of
another wave.
The net displacement of the wave created after the superposition of these two waves is given as
follows:
  
ynet
= y1 + y2
For superposition of n waves,
    
ynet = y1 + y2 + y3 + ...... + yn
Two identical pulses in a stretched string have v = 2 cm s

–1
centres that are initially 8 cm apart and are moving

towards each other, as shown in the figure. The
speed of each pulse is 2 cm s–1. After 2 s, what will 8 cm
be the total energy of the pulses? v = 2 cm s–1
(A) Zero (B) Purely kinetic
(C) Purely potential (D) Partial kinetic and partial potential

02
Solution
The distance travelled by the first wave in 2 s is given as v = 2 cm s–1 t = 2 s

follows:
x=
1 v×t
⇒ x1 = 2 × 2 = 4 cm
The distance travelled by the second wave in 2 s is given as
follows:
x 2= v × t 8 cm v = 2 cm s–1
⇒ x 2 = 2 × 2 = 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm
After 2 s, both the waves will be at the same position.
When they interfere, the net displacement will be zero. Since there is no stretching, there is no
potential energy at this point.
Thus, PE = 0
However, the velocity of the wave pulses is not zero at that point. Therefore, the KE is greater than
zero.
i.e., KE ≠ 0
Hence,
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
⇒TE = KE + PE
⇒TE = KE
At this point, the total energy is purely kinetic.
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
BOARDS NEET
Interference of Waves
Coherent source
The sources that produce waves of the same frequency, Oscillator

wavelength, and have the constant phase difference are
known as coherent sources.
Incoherent source
The sources that produce waves of different frequency, wavelength, and have different phases are
known as incoherent sources.
• Conditions for interference
1. Two sinusoidal waves should be coherent.
2. They should move along the same direction.
Let us assume that two sources, S1 and S2, emit waves, and the waves pass through point P. We can
observe that the wave from source S2 has to travel some extra distance as compared to the wave
from source S1. This difference in path travelled by the waves causes phase difference.

03
Let the equation of wave from first source S1 be the

following: S1
y1 = A1 sin (ωt − kx )
=The A in ((ω
yy1 = equation
A1 ssin ωtt of
− x )+ φ )from source S is as follows:
kwave
− kx
2 2 2
=y2 A2 sin (ωt − kx + φ ) P
From the principle of superposition, we get,
    
ynet = y1 + y2 + y3 + ...... + yn
In this case, S2
y net= y= y 1 + y 2 ∆x
⇒=
= y⇒ Ay sin ωt (−ωkx
A1(sin
1
kxA) +sin
t −) + ωt (−ωkx
A2(sin
2 φ )+ φ )
t −+kx
y⇒ Ay1 sin
⇒=
= ωt (−ωkx
A1(sin kxA) +sin
t −) + A sin (ωt − kx ) cos φ + cos (ωt − kx ) sin φ 
2  2 ( ωt − kx ) cos φ + cos ( ω t − kx ) sin φ 

⇒ y⇒ = (yA= 1 (+AA1 2+cos
A2 φcos φ )(sin
) sin ωt (−ωkxt −) + kxA) +cos
2 ωt (−ωkx
A2 (cos kx )φsin φ.... ( i ....
t −) sin ) (i )
A1 (+AA1 2+cos
(Let A2 φcos
)= φA) =cos ) ( ii )
A αcos α .... ( ii....
And, A2 sin φ = A sin α .... ( iii )
By substituting these values in equation (i), we get the following:
=⇒ y A cos α sin (ωt − kx ) + A sin α cos (ωt − kx )
=⇒ y A cos α sin (ωt − kx ) + sin α cos (ωt − kx ) 
⇒ y A sin (ωt − kx + α ) ( sin ( A=
= + B ) sin A cos B + cos A sin B )
By squaring and adding equations (ii) and (iii), we get,
⇒ A22 cos sin2φα +=
= A212α++AA222cos A1 A+2 A φ +φA)222 sin
+ ( Aφsin φ )
2 2
⇒A 2( A coscos 2
1 2 2
⇒ A2 =2 A12 +2 A22 +2 2 A12A2 cos φ

⇒ A = A1 + A2 cos φ + 2 A1 A2 cos φ + A22 sin2 φ
⇒ A= 2 A12 +2 A22 +2 2 A1 A2 cos φ
⇒ A = A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
⇒ A= A1 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
⇒ A= A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
By dividing equation (iii) by equation (ii), we get the following:
By dividing equation ( iii ) by equation ( ii ) , we get the following:
A sin α A2 sin φ
=
tan (α ) =
A cos α A1 + A2 cos φ
y v y v y v
+ =
O x O x O x
=y 1 A1 sin (ωt − kx ) y 2 A2 sin (ωt − kx + φ )

= =
y y1 + y2
=y A sin (ωt − kx + α )

04
Geometrical Interpretation of Interference of Waves
Consider the following two waves:

=y1 A1 sin (ωt − kx )
=y2 A2 sin (ωt − kx + φ )
A2 A
Let us consider the amplitude of waves A1 and A2 to
be vectors of magnitude A1 and A2, and let the angle
between them be φ . The amplitude of the resultant φ
α
wave is given by,
A1
A= A + A + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
2
1
2
2
So, we can say that A is the result of two vectors A1 and A2 having angle φ between them.
The magnitude of the resultant wave depends on the phase difference between the waves that
are interfering.
=x1 a sin (ωt − kx + φ1 )

Two waves have equations, = x1 a sin (ωt − kx + φ1 ) and= x2 a sin (ωt − kx + φ2 ) . If in the
resultant wave, the frequency
= and
x2 amplitude
a sin (ωt −remains
kx + φ2 ) equal to the amplitude of superimposing
waves, then what is the phase difference between them ?
π 2π π π
(A) (B) (C) (D)
8 3 6 10
Solution
Given, 1
x1 a sin (ωt − kx + φ1 )
= ⇒ 1 + cos ( ∆φ ) = 1
⇒ 1 + cos ( ∆φ ) =2
= x2 a sin (ωt − kx + φ2 ) 2
1
Resultant amplitude, ⇒ 1 + cos ( ∆φ ) = 1
⇒ 1 + cos ( ∆φ ) = 2
Resultant amplitude ,, AA = =aacos= cos((∆∆φφ))
aa11 ++ aa22 ++ 22aa11aa22cos
22 22
mplitude , AResultant
=a = aamplitude
2
+ a 2
+ 2 a a =∆
( ) φ 2
1 2 1 2 1
Also , a
= a= a ⇒ cos ( ∆φ ) = −1
a Also,, a=
Also 11 = a
1
a=
22 = aa
2 ⇒ cos ( ∆φ ) = −2
2
a
a== aa11 + a22 + 2 a11 a22 cos(( ∆φ))
22
+ a 22
+ 2 a a cos ∆ φ The phase difference is given as follow:
2 + 2 a1 a2 cos ( ∆φ )
2 The phase difference is given as follows:
2π 4π
⇒⇒2 a == aa22 ++ aa22 ++ 22aa22cos
a
+ a + 2 a cos ( ∆φ )
2 cos ((∆∆φφ)) ∆φ = ,
3 3
22aa22((11 ++ cos ∆∆φφ))))

( ⇒⇒
1 + cos ∆φ
=
(= aa
)) cos ( (

05
Constructive Interference
We know that the resultant amplitude of the interference of two coherent waves with amplitudes
A1 and A2 is given as follows:
A=A= AA
1 1 ++AA
22
AA
2 2++22
22
1A
1A cosφφ
2 2cos
If φ φ= 1,
cos
cos = 1,
cos
⇒ ⇒φφφ= =2=
1,n2πnπ
⇒
⇒⇒ φ
A
AA =
== A
2A π == AA
= nmax
A = 11A++1 A+
A22A2
maxmax
⇒ A = Amax = that
Interference A1 + produces
A2 the greatest possible amplitude is known as constructive interference.
Path difference
2π
Phase = 2π2π××( (Path
Phasedifference
difference
= difference) )
Pathdifference
Phase = λλ × ((Path
Phasedifference
difference difference )
Path difference)
λ
22ππ
== 2λπ××( (∆∆xx) )
⇒22nnππ
⇒
⇒ 2nπ= λ × ( ∆x )
λ
Pathdifference
Path
Path difference =∆xx=
difference=∆ nnλλ
=
Path difference =∆x =nλ
y v y v y v
+ O =
O x x O x
y1 = A sin (ωt – kx) y2 = A sin (ωt – kx) ynet = 2A sin (ωt – kx)
Destructive Interference
We know that the resultant amplitude of the interference of two coherent waves with amplitudes
A1 and A2 is given as follows:
A=A= AA
1 1 ++AA
22
AA
2 2++22
22
1A
1A cosφφ
2 2cos
cosφφ == −−1,
cos
Amplitude 1, is minimum for, cos φ = −1,
⇒ φφ== (2
⇒ 1)ππ
(2nn ++ 1) ⇒ φ= (2n + 1)π
⇒
⇒A A == AAmin
A = A −A
min = A1 − A2 ⇒ A = Amin = A1 − A2
min 1 2
Interference that produces the minimum possible amplitude is known as destructive interference.
Path difference
2π
Phasedifference
Phase difference
= × ((Path difference )
Path difference)
λ
2π
⇒ 2nπ= × ( ∆x )
λ
Path difference =∆x =nλ
06
2π
= 2π ×× (Path
Phase difference
difference difference )
Path difference
Phase = λ ( λ
)
2π
⇒ (22nn++11)ππ== 2π ×× (∆∆xx )
⇒ ( ) λ ( ) λ
λ
Pathdifference
Path difference =∆ =(22nn++11) λ
=∆xx =
Path difference ( ) 2
2
y v y v y v
+ =
O x O x O x
=y 1 A sin (ωt − kx ) y 2 A sin (ωt − kx + π )

= y= 0
I ∝NEET A2
I ∝ A2 Intensity of Resultant Wave
⇒I= cA 2
⇒ I = 2 cA that the intensity of any sinusoidal wave is Iproportional net = I max = I1to + I2 +square2 I I2 its amplitude,
2
WeI ∝ know
A Inet ==Imax ==I1I1 ++Ithe ++22 I1I11 I2Iof
IWe I ∝∝Aknow,A
2
2
A= A1 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
2 2 I net I I
2
i.e.,
IWe ∝ A 2
max 2 2
((( )))
2
⇒ I ∝I know, A= 2 cA2 2 A =
2 2 A1 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 cos φ
2 2
= Inet I + I 22
⇒ ⇒I ∝I I=
Therefore, A= cAcA2 the net intensity changes as follows: Inet
=
= Inet I1I11 ++ I2I22
⇒ II =
Therefore, = cA2 the net intensity
⇒
We
⇒ I know,
=
cA
cA 2 A= A2122 ++ AA2222 ++changes
2AA1AA2cos as φfollows:
cos If I= I= I
We
IWe net =
know, I1 + IA
know, A = A
2 =+ 2 AI121 + IA
1 + 2φA1 A2 cosφφ
2 22cos
2 2 1 2 IfIfIfI= 1
1I= I=I=
2
I ,I
We We =
IWe know,
know,I1 + Ithe A ==+ 2 A
A A1I2 + A22cos
+ IA +22φAA1 A A2 cos φφ 1 2 2
net know,
Therefore, netAintensity
intensity 2 22 +changes1 2 cosas follows:
follows: Imax = 4I
Therefore,
If We I=
Therefore, know, I= the
2
A =
I net
the net 121
+
intensityA changes
+ 2 A
changes as
as φfollows:
1 A2 cos IImax ==44I I
Therefore,
Therefore,
1 2 the
the net
net
1
intensity
intensity
2
changes
changes as as follows:
follows: max
max
If I =
Therefore, I =
1= I 2+ Ithe+ net I 2 Iintensity coschanges as follows: For destructive interference, we get,
IIInet
= ITherefore,
net =
net = I1I1I +
2 ( 1
+ the
I+
I
2
2+ 2
cos+net
2φ )
Iintensity
1I I2
1 I2 cos
I cosφφφ
changes as follows: For
For destructive
Fordestructive interference,
destructiveinterference,
interference, wewe
we have,
get,
get,
= I net
IInet
net =2II= I 1 (+
1
+ I 2
1 I+2 cos + 2 I1
I
+ 2φ )I1 I22 cos φ
2
cos φ cos φ = − 1
IfIIfIf I= I=2+ II2I, + 2 I1
= Inet
If I=
net
net 1
1= II1=
1I= 2 I
1 I
2(
= 1 + 2I cos φ ) 1 I2 cos φ cosφφ = = −−11
cos
= If
IIfnet I=I=1 2I ( I=2
I
21 + cos φ )
1 2 II( =21 +Icos φ ) Inet = Imin =I +I −2 I I
IInet
=
=
= IIfnet I=1
22I I(I= 1
(
21 2
++Icosφcosφφ)) Inet
Inet ==Imin min
Imin ==I1I11 ++I2I22 −−22 I1I11 I2I22
2II (((11 cos φφ )
=IInet net
= 42IIcos 1+ + φcos
φφ))))
((( )))
=
= IInet
net
2 2 2
++ cos
2
I
=
=
= Inet = 2
Inet
net
netnet
4
2 I I( (
cos
1 1 +
2 I (1 + 2cos φ )coscosφ = I
Inet
=
= net
Inet
I −
I1I1 −− I2I2
1 I 2
22
= I 2 II (1 1+ + cos φ)
cosinterference,
=For
IFor net 2
net constructive (
constructive φ φ )
(1 2+22φφcosinterference,
)
φinterference,
we get,
= IInet
IFor
2 Icos
net =constructive
==444IIIcos wewe have,
get, IfIf I=
IfIfI= I=
I=
II
I,
1I= I=
1 2
cosI
net
net φ = 1 cos 22 2φ 2
4I cos2 φ
1 2
IInet
cos net φ =4
= = I1cos 2 φ2 Imin =0
max = 0
ForFor
IInet 4 I cos 2
Imax
=constructive
max = I2
net constructive interference,
I2 + 2 I1 Iwe
1 +interference,
we get,get, Imax
Imax ==00
For constructive 2 interference, we get, 2
For constructive
Forφφconstructive interference,
interference, we get,
we get,
=11
cos
( )
2
cos For
Icos =
constructive
I1 + I2 interference, we get,
= net φ = 1
cos
cos φ = 1 φ = 1
cos
If I= φ =I= 1 I
1 2
Imax = 4I
For destructive interference, we get,
cos φ = − 1
Inet = Imin = I1 + I2 − 2 I1 I2
( )
2
Inet
= I1 − I2
If I=
1 I=
2 I
I =0
01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
IN A STRING
• Principle of superposition • Waves at boundary

• Interference of waves • Reflection of a string wave from a fixed
• Constructive and destructive end
interferences • Reflection of a string wave from a free
• Amplitude and intensity of resultant end
wave • Reflection and transmission between
two strings
Waves at Boundary
When a wave incidents on an interface between two mediums, M1 and M2, and if the mediums on
either side of the boundary are the same, then the velocity of the incident wave remains the same
in M1 and M2. Waves travel relatively faster in rarer mediums than in denser mediums.
Incident Reflected
wave wave
Medium 1
θi θr
θt
Transmitted Medium 2
wave

02
Denser medium
A medium is said to be denser relative to the other medium if the wave travels slower in that
medium.
Rarer medium
A medium is said to be rarer relative to the other if the wave travels faster in that medium.
For a sound wave, vwater > vair, it means that water is a rarer medium relative to air for sound. While
for an electromagnetic wave, vair > vwater, it means that water is a denser medium relative to air for
electromagnetic wave.
The following table gives the information about different parameters of the incident, reflected, and
transmitted waves.
Incident wave
Reflected wave Transmitted wave
parameters
Speed (v = fλ) Same Change
Frequency Same Same
Wavelength Same Change
Amplitude Change Change
 2π 
Wave number  k = Same Change
 λ 
Phase Change/Same Same
The phase of the reflected wave depends on whether the incident wave is travelling from a rarer
medium to a denser medium or from a denser medium to a rarer medium. For a wave travelling
from a rarer medium to a denser medium, there is a phase change of 180°. However, for a wave
travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium, there is no phase change for a reflected wave.

03
Reflection of a String Wave from a Fixed End
Consider a wave pulse moving along the string

(rarer medium) from the free end of the string to
the fixed end of the string, which is on a support
(denser medium) in the positive x-direction and
getting reflected at the fixed end. Assume that
there is no transmission of wave into the denser
medium. When the pulse reaches the fixed end
of the string, the string produces an upward
force on the support. By Newton’s third law, the
support exerts equal and opposite force on the Incident wave
pulse. Hence, the pulse inverts upon reflection.
After the reflection, the wave travels in negative
x-direction. So, we can write equations for incident
and reflected wave as follows: Rarer Denser
=yi A sin (ωt − kx ) Medium Medium
− A sin (ωt + kx )
yr =
The negative sign in the expression of the
reflected wave suggests the phase change of Reflected wave
180° (It also refers the negative amplitude of the
reflected wave).
Reflection of a String Wave from a Free End
The free end of the string is connected to the massless ring on frictionless support as shown in
the figure. When the travelling pulse reaches the free end of the string, the ring is free to move up
and down about the frictionless support, i.e., it is considered as a rarer medium. It means that the
string is considered to be a denser medium. Diagram on the next page explains how there will not
be any phase change when the end is not fixed or the wave is travelling from a denser medium to
a rarer medium.
Free end
(ring)

04
When the pulse reaches the frictionless support, the wave pulse exerts force on the free end of
the string, causing upward acceleration of the ring. Then, the downward component of the tension
pulls the ring back down. In this case, the reflected pulse is not inverted.
The change of phase associated with reflected wave is zero when the end is free. Thus, the required
equations of the incident and reflected waves, respectively, are the following:
=yi A sin (ωt − kx )
=yr A sin (ωt + kx )

05
A pulse shown here is reflected from a

rigid wall, A, and then from the free end, B.
What will be the shape and direction of the B A
string wave after these two reflections?
B A B A
(A) (B)
B A
(C) (D)
B A
Solution
B A
At a fixed end, the wave is travelling from the 1st reflection

rarer medium to the denser medium. This
means that there will be a phase change of
π. Now, after getting reflected from wall A, it
B A
travels towards free end B with an inverted
shape. At the free end, the wave is travelling
from the denser medium to the rarer medium
(massless ring), i.e., no phase change occurs.
Hence, the resultant wave will be as shown in 2nd reflection
the figure.
B A
NEET
Reflection and Transmission between Two Strings
Let us consider a combination of light and a heavy string with mass per unit lengths of μ1 and μ2
(μ1 < μ2) as shown in the figure. The boundary between the two strings is neither completely fixed
nor completely free to move. Assume that there is no absorption of energy. Both reflection and
transmission will take place simultaneously at the boundary.
Rarer Medium μ1 < μ2 Denser Medium
μ1 μ2
Boundary

06
The tension in both the strings is the same, as there is no movement of the particles along the
x-direction.
T T
v1 = and v2
µ1 µ2
This clearly shows that v1 > v2.
Case I: The wave pulse travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium
When the wave pulse reaches the boundary, there will be a reflection in the rarer medium and
transmission in the denser medium. For a wave pulse that is travelling from the rarer medium to the
denser medium, at the boundary, there will be a phase change of 180° for the reflected wave. The
velocity remains the same, as it is reflected back to the same medium, i.e., vr = vi. Further, if velocity
remains the same, then wavelength λ and therefore, wavenumber k also remains the same. For the
transmitted wave pulse, vt < vi, and as velocity decreases, then wavelength λ also decreases and
therefore, wavenumber k also decreases.
After the reflection, the amplitude of the Rarer medium Denser medium
wave reduces as some part of the energy
gets transmitted to the denser medium. The
following diagram represents the condition of
reflection and transmission.
Boundary
Let for the rarer medium, the wavenumber be k1, and for the denser medium, the wavenumber be
k2. Then, the respective wave equations for reflection and transmission are as follows:
=yi Ai sin (ωt − k1 x )
− Ar sin (ωt + k1 x )
yr =
=yt At sin (ωt − k2 x )
 x
The equation of a plane progressive wave is =given by, y 0.6 sin 2π  t − . On reflection
 2
2
from a denser medium, its amplitude becomes of the amplitude of the incident wave.
3
Which of the following represents the equation of the reflected wave?
 x  x
(A) yr 0.6 sin 2π  t + 
= (B) yr =
− 0.4 sin 2π  t + 
 2  2
 x  x
(C) yr 0.4 sin 2π  t + 
= (D) yr =
− 0.4 sin 2π  t − 
 2  2

07
Solution
Since the wave is travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it will get inverted after
reflection, i.e., the amplitude will be negative. Thus, we can represent the equation of a reflected
wave as follows:
 x
yr = − Ar sin 2π  t + 
 2
2
 Ar= × Ai
3
2
⇒ Ar = × 0.6 =0.4
3
 x
∴ yr = − 0.4 sin 2π  t + 
 2
Case II: The wave pulse travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium
Denser Medium μ1 > μ2 Rarer Medium
μ1 μ2
Boundary
v1 < v2
As discussed in case I, there will be transmission and reflection of the wave at the boundary in
this case as well. When a pulse that is travelling on a heavy string reaches the light string, both
reflected and transmitted wave pulses will be similar. Hence, there will not be any phase change,
as the wave is travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium. The velocity of the wave pulse
will increase as it is going from a denser to rarer medium.
Boundary
Then, the respective wave equations for reflection and transmission are as follows:
For yi
= Ai sin (ωt − k1 x )
yr =Ar sin (ωt + k1 x ) and yt =At sin (ωt − k2 x )

08
For yi
= Ai sin (ωt − k1 x )
v1 yr =Ar sin (ωt + k1 x ) and yt =At sin (ωt − k2 x )
v1 v2
For
== yFor
i yAi i sinA(i ωsin
t −(ωkBoundary
t1 x−) k1 x )
yr =yAr r = Ar(ωsin
sin t +(ωkt1 x+) kand
1 x ) and sinAt(ωsin
yt =yAt t = t −(ωkt2 x−) k2 x )
For an incident wave having velocity v1 and transmitted wave having velocity v2 ,
 v − v1 
Ar =  2  Ai
 v1 + v2 
 2v2 
At =   Ai
 v1 + v2 
Along with this, to determine the value of k1 and k2, we use the following:
ω ω
= λ1 , v2 f=
v1 f= λ2 , v1 = , v2
k1 k2
2π 2π
=k1 = , k2
λ1 λ2
• When a wave enters a denser medium from rarer medium, the reflected wave gets
inverted at the boundary.
• If the wave enters a rarer medium from denser medium, the reflected wave does not
get inverted.
• The frequency and phase of transmitted wave always remain the same as the incident
waves.

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
STANDING WAVE ON A STRING
What you already know
• Principle of superposition and interference • Reflection and transmission between two

of waves strings
• Reflection of a string wave from a fixed
and free end
What you will learn
• Introduction to standing wave • Energy of a standing wave

• Standing wave on a string
Equation of Standing Waves
Consider two coherent waves with equal amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite directions,
their wave equations are as follows:
y1 = A sin (ωt − kx )
y2 = A sin (ωt + kx )
y y1 + y2
= v v
=⇒ y A sin (ωt − kx ) + A sin (ωt + kx ) +

C + D C − D
Using sin C + sin D =
2 sin   cos  , y1 = A sin(ωt – kx) y2 = A sin(ωt + kx)
 2   2 
  ωt − kx + ωt + kx   ωt − kx − ωt − kx  
y = A 2 sin   cos   AN AN
  2   2  2A
⇒ y= 2 A sin ωt cos kx
Or, y = 2 A cos kx sin ωt ....... ( i ) N N N N
I.e., y = R sin ωt –2A
Where, R = 2 A cos kx , is the resultant amplitude.
Equation (i) is also known as the equation of a standing wave. We can see that equation (i) is
analogous to the equation of SHM. Hence, the particles at a location x are oscillating simple
harmonically with angular frequency ω and amplitude of 2A cos kx. As the amplitude depends on
location(x), particles are oscillating with different amplitudes.

02
The points where amplitude is minimum are y

known as nodes and points where amplitude is 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
maximum are known as antinodes.
t=0
The figure represents the displacement vs x
position graph of a standing wave at different 2A
time periods.
T
t=
From the graph, it can be deduced that, x 4
(i) Certain particles of the medium which are –2A

at rest(no displacement) at all times lie along

the vertical line 0, whereas certain particles T
t=
displaced up to 2A lie along the vertical x 2
line 1 and the remaining particles of the 2A
medium were displaced from 0 to 2A. Hence,
displacement of the particles of the medium 3T
t=
varies with respect to position(x). x 4
(ii) The particles that are not displaced from their –2A
mean position are called nodes, while the
particles which have maximum displacement t=T
O x
are called antinodes. Nodes are completely at
rest. Antinodes are oscillating with maximum y
amplitude(2A). The points between a node
and an antinode have amplitude between 0 AN AN
and 2A. In the figure, N represents nodes and N N
AN represents antinodes. N N
x
(iii)
For different waves, the position of nodes
and antinodes may not be the same but λ
the separation distance between any two
λ
4
λ 2
consecutive nodes or antinodes is always N N N N
2
and the distance between any node to next x
λ
antinode is always .
4 N N N N x
AN
Standing wave
2A AN AN
When two harmonic waves of equal frequency
and amplitude travelling through a medium in
opposite directions superimpose each other, it N N N N
results in a stationary or a standing wave.
–2A
The energy is confined in the region of
superposition of two waves. Hence, these waves
do not transfer energy through the medium and it
is represented as shown in the figure.

03
A stationary wave is represented by, y = A sin(100t) cos(0.01x), where y and A are in mm, t is
in seconds and x is in metres. Find out the velocity of this wave.
(A) 104 ms–1 (B) Zero (C) 102 ms–1 (D) 1 ms–1
Solution
y = A sin (100t ) cos ( 0.01x )

 y = A sin (ωt ) cos ( kx )
=So , ω 100
= rad s −1 , k 0.01 m−1
ω 100
∴v = = = 104 ms −1
k 0.01
Standing Wave on String
When a wave pulse is generated in a string of one free end and one fixed end, the pulse travels up
to the fixed end of the string and reflects back from the fixed end of the string. As the incident and
the reflected waves interfere, they form a standing wave along the string.
yi = A sin (ωt − kx )
yr = − A sin (ωt + kx )
From the principle of superposition,
y yi + yr
=
=⇒ y A sin (ωt − kx ) − A sin (ωt + kx )
C + D C − D
Using sin C − sin D =
2 cos   sin  ,
 2   2 
  ωt − kx + ωt + kx   ωt − kx − ωt − kx  
y = A 2 cos   sin  
  2   2 
⇒ y= − 2 A cos ωt sin kx
Or, y = − 2 A sin kx cos ωt
I.e., y = R cos ωt
Where, R = Resultant amplitude = –2A sin kx
The figure on the next page represents the displacement vs position graph of a standing wave at
different time periods.

04
y 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
2A AN
t=0
N x
λ
–2A 2 λ
4 T y
t=
x 4
2A
T ≡ x
t=
x 2
–2A
3T
t=
x 4
2A
t=T
x
–2A
As we can see, certain particles of the medium which are at rest (no displacement) at all time lie
along the vertical line 0, whereas certain particles displace up to 2A lie along the vertical line 1 and
the remaining particles of the medium are displacing from 0 to 2A.
Hence, displacement of the particles of the medium varies with respect to position(x). But we saw
in the earlier standing wave graph, that the very first point is an antinode whereas in this case, the
very first point is a node, this implies that the positions of nodes and antinodes may not be same
for different waves but the distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes and distance
between any consecutive node and antinode always remains the same.
The vibrations of a string of length 60 cm fixed at both ends are represented by the
πx 
equation, y = 4 sin   cos ( 96π t ), where x and y are in cm and t in seconds. The maximum
 15 
displacement at x = 5 cm is:
(A) 2 3 cm (B) 3 2 cm (C) 2 cm (D) 3 cm
Solution
Given that,
πx 
y = 4 sin   cos ( 96π t )
 15 
For maximum amplitude at a position x , we have,
πx 
A = 4 sin  
 15 
x 5= cm, Ax = 5 cm ?
At x = 5 cm,
πx 
y = 4 sin  cos ( 96π t )
 15 
05
For maximum amplitude at a position x , we have,
πx 
A = 4 sin  
 15 
x 5= cm, Ax = 5 cm ?
At x = 5 cm,
π 
Ax = 5 cm = 4 sin  
3
⇒ Ax = 5 cm =
2 3 cm
NEET
Energy of a Standing Wave
Velocities of the particles are maximum at the mean positions, i.e., the kinetic energy is maximum
and potential energy is zero. In this case, the total energy is equal to the kinetic energy.
At extreme positions, the potential energy is maximum, and the kinetic energy is zero. Hence, the
total energy is equal to the potential energy.
y y
O x O x
At mean position At extreme position
Energy of a standing wave in one loop
The particles of the wave are performing SHM with different amplitudes depending on their
positions(x). Let us take one loop of a standing wave and consider an element of mass dm, thickness
dx at a distance x from the origin of the loop. As we know that the KE will be maximum at mean
position,
TE = KEmax
1
d ( KEmax ) = × dm × vp2 ,max
2 y
dm
µ =
dx
Or, dm = µ dx
And, y = − 2 A sin kx cos ωt
O
∂y x
v=
p = 2 Aω sin kx sin ωt
∂t
2 Aω sin kx
⇒ vp ,max =
So , vp2 ,max = 4 A2ω 2 sin2 kx λ
1 2
∴ d ( KEmax ) =µ dx × 4 A2ω 2 sin2 kx
2
⇒ d (TE ) = 2 A2ω 2 µ sin2 kx dx
λ
TE 2
© 2020, (TE All) =rights

∫ dBYJU'S. ω µ ∫ sin2 kx dx
2 Areserved
2 2
0 0
p , max
06So , vp ,max = 4 A ω sin kx

2 2 2 2
1
∴ d ( KEmax ) =µ dx × 4 A2ω 2 sin2 kx
2
⇒ d (TE ) = 2 A2ω 2 µ sin2 kx dx
λ
TE 2
y
∫ d (TE ) = 2A ω µ ∫ sin kx dx
2 2 2
0 0
λ
TE = 2 A2ω 2 µ ∫
2
[1 − cos 2kx ] dx
0
2 dm
O
λ
x dx x
 sin 2kx  2
⇒= TE A ω µ  x −2 2
 2k  0 λ
1 2 2 2
∴ TE = λA ω µ
2

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
WAVES
NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION IN A STRING
• Interference of waves • Normal modes of vibration in a string

• Standing waves in string • Fundamental mode of vibration
• Energy of a standing wave • Harmonics and overtones
Recap
• If a wave enters a denser medium, then the reflected wave becomes inverted.
• If a wave enters a rarer medium, then the reflected wave does not become inverted.
• The transmitted wave is never inverted.
• The equation of the standing wave in the string is as follows:
y = –2A sin(kx) cos(⍵t)
• The energy of the standing wave in one loop is as follows:
1
TE = λ A2ω 2 µ
2
Standing Waves in String
When both ends of a string are fixed
Consider that a string of length L is stretched between

two fixed supports. When we pluck the string in the N N
middle, a wave is set up in the string. The disturbance
travels in both the directions while being reflected at
each end. The incident and the reflected waves interfere
to produce a stationary transverse wave. For a stationary L
wave to exist, the fixed ends must be nodes.

02
NEET
Normal Modes of Vibration of a String
Fundamental mode y
𝜆1
The mode with minimum frequency for which the AN

standing waves can be produced in a string is known as A B
the fundamental mode. The frequency corresponding x
to the fundamental mode is known as the fundamental 𝜆1
frequency. 2 Fig. 1
Standing waves with the smallest possible wavenumber between two fixed node points A and B
are shown in Fig. 1. When a string of length L vibrates in a single loop with its ends fixed (nodes),
it is known as the fundamental mode of vibration. The portion between two consecutive nodes is
known as the loop. Let the wavelength of the wave be λ1.
𝜆
So, the minimum distance between two nodes is 1 .
2
In the case of the fundamental mode, the standing waves produced in the string are shown in Fig. 2.
Given, the length of the string is L.
𝜆1
Therefore, 2
λ1
L=
2
⇒ λ1 =
2L
v
The frequency of the wave is, f1 = .
λ1
L
T
The velocity of the wave is, v = . Fig. 2
µ
By substituting the values of λ1 and v, we get the following:
1 T
⇒ f1 =
2L µ
First overtone y
𝜆2
On increasing the frequency of vibration of the string
of length L, if it vibrates in two loops, then this mode is
known as the second harmonic or first overtone. A B
x
Consider a part of the wave consisting of two loops
between two fixed nodes A to B, as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3

03
In the case of the first overtone mode, the standing 𝜆2 𝜆2

waves produced in the string are shown in Fig. 4. 2 2
Therefore,
2λ
L= 2
2
2L
⇒ λ2 = = L
2 L
v
The frequency of the wave is, f2 = Fig. 4
λ2
T
The velocity of the wave is, v =
µ
2 T
⇒ f2 =
2L µ
Second overtone
3𝜆3
y
If the string of length L vibrates in three loops, then 2
this mode is known as the third harmonic or second
overtone.
A B
Consider a part of the wave consisting of three loops
between two fixed nodes A to B, as shown in Fig. 5. x
In the case of the second overtone mode, the standing Fig. 5

waves produced in the string fixed at both the ends are
shown in Fig. 6. Therefore, 𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3
2 2 2
3λ
L= 3
2
2L
⇒ λ3 =
3
v
The frequency of the wave is, f3 = . L
λ3
Fig. 6
T
The velocity of the wave is, v = .
µ
3 T
⇒ f3 =
2L µ

04
General equation of frequency
Integral multiples of the fundamental frequency are known as its harmonics. In general, the
frequency of a string of length L vibrating with n number of loops between two fixed ends is given
by,
nv n T
=fn =
2L 2L µ
Where, fn = nth harmonic or (n – 1)th overtone
Where n in fn and λn represent the order of the harmonics, for example, f1 and λ1 is frequency and
wavelength of first harmonic, respectively.
First harmonics
1 T
Or f1 =
Fundamental frequency 2L µ
𝜆
2
Second harmonics
2 T
Or f2 =
First overtone 2L µ
𝜆
Third harmonics
3 T
Or f3 =
Second overtone 2L µ
3𝜆
2
nth harmonic
n T
Or fn =
(n – 1)th overtone 2L µ
n𝜆
2

05
When one end is fixed and the other end is free
The free end is always an antinode, while the fixed end

is a node.
Fundamental mode
y
The mode with a minimum frequency of oscillation for 𝜆1
which the standing waves can be produced in a string
of length L, fixed at one end (node) and free at the other
(antinode), is known as the fundamental mode. O
x
The minimum distance between a node and an antinode 𝜆1
𝜆1
is . 4
4
In the case of the fundamental mode, the standing waves 𝜆1
produced in the string are shown in the figure. 4
Therefore,
λ1
L=
4
⇒ λ1 =4L
v L
λ1
T
µ
By substituting the values of λ1 and v , we get the following:
v 1 T
⇒ f1 = =
4L 4L µ
Where, f1 = Fundamental frequency or first harmonic
First overtone
If a string of length L vibrates with one full loop and a half loop, then this mode is known as the first
overtone or third harmonic.
3λ
Now, for the first overtone, the second antinode is at 3 .
4

06
In the case of the first overtone mode, the standing y

𝜆3
waves produced in the string are shown in the figure.
Therefore,
3λ O
L= 3 x
4
4L
⇒ λ3 =
3 3𝜆3
v 4 3𝜆3
λ3 4
T
µ
By substituting the values of λ3 and v , we get the following:
3v 3 T
⇒ f3 = =
4L 4L µ L
Where, f3 = First overtone or third harmonic
Second overtone
If a string of length L vibrates in two full loops and a half loop, then this mode is known as the
5𝜆
second overtone or fifth harmonic. Now, for the second overtone, the third antinode is at 5 .
4
In the case of the second overtone mode, the standing y
waves produced in the string are shown in the figure. 𝜆5
Therefore,
5λ O
L= 5 x
4
4L
⇒ λ5 =
5 5𝜆5
v
λ5 4
5𝜆5
T
The velocity of the wave is, v = . 4
µ
By substituting the values of λ5 and v, we get the
following:
5v 5 T
⇒ f5 = =
4L 4L µ L
Where, f5 = Second overtone or fifth harmonic

07
General equation of frequency y

𝜆
Integral multiples of the fundamental frequency
are known as its harmonics.
O
In general, the frequency of a string of length L x
vibrating with n number of loops and a half loop
between one fixed and other free end is given by,
𝜆
f ( 2n + 1 ) =
(2n + 1) T (2n + 1)
4
4L µ
Where, f 2n + 1 = n overtone or (2n + 1)th harmonic
th
A string of length l is fixed at both the ends. It is vibrating in its third overtone with maximum
l
amplitude a. Find the amplitude at a distance from one end.
3
3a a
(A) a (B) 0 (C) (D)
2 2
Solution
The equation of a standing wave is given by,

y = 2A sin(kx) cos(⍵t)
Maximum amplitude, 2A = a
Since the string is fixed at both the ends, the frequency of the third overtone is given by,
v 4 T
f 4 =4 × v =4 T
f 4 =4 × 2l =2l µ
2l 2l µ
ω
Also, v = ω 4
Also, v = k4
ω k
⇒ k =4
ω
⇒ k =v4
2vπ f
⇒k= 4
2π f
⇒k =v4
2πv 4v
⇒k= ×
2πv 42vl
⇒k= ×
4vπ 2l
⇒k=
4πl
⇒k=
l l
=
By substituting k and x = in equation y a sin ( kx ) cos (ωt ) , we get the following:
3l
By substituting= k and x = in equation y a sin ( kx ) cos (ωt ) , we get the following:
 4π l  3
= y a sin  ×  cos (ωt )
 4πl l 
3
  3l  3 
y = − a
© 2020, BYJU'S.   cos (ωt )
All rights
23 reserved
l
08 l
=
By substituting k and x = in equation y a sin ( kx ) cos (ωt ) , we get the following:
3
 4π l 
 l 3
 3
y = − a cos (ωt )
 2 
 
This is the equation of SHM.
l
The amplitude of the wave at x = is as follows:
3
3a
A=
2
In normal modes of vibration of a string tied at both the ends, the difference in frequencies
of the fifth harmonic and the second overtone is 54 Hz. Calculate the fundamental frequency
of vibration.
(A) 36 Hz (B) 27 Hz (C) 18 Hz (D) 9 Hz
NEET
Solution
Since the string is fixed at both the ends, the second overtone implies the third harmonic.
Therefore, we have,
f5 – f3 = 54 Hz
v
Fundamental frequency, f1 =
2l
3v
Second overtone, = f3 = 3 f1
2l
5v
Fifth harmonic, =f5 = 5 f1
2l
Therefore,
5 f1 − 3 f1 =54 Hz
⇒ 2 f1 =
54 Hz
54
⇒ f1 = Hz
2
⇒ f1 = 27 Hz

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SOUND
INTRODUCTION TO SOUND
• Introduction to waves and wave equation • Definition of sound

• Transverse waves • Propagation of sound waves
• Longitudinal waves • Pressure wave equation
Sound
Sound is a longitudinal wave. It means that the direction of its propagation is along the direction of
movement of the particles of the medium. A longitudinal wave consists of two attributes travelling
through a medium: compressions and rarefactions.
Rarefaction
Compression
Compression: Compression is a region of high density
where the particles of the medium are more close to
one another than they are in any other region.
Rarefaction: Rarefaction is a region of low density
where the particles of the medium are widely spread.
Particle
Propagation of sound
A vibrating tuning fork is capable of creating a longitudinal wave. As the tines of the fork vibrate
back and forth, they push on the neighbouring air particles. Due to the longitudinal motion of the
air particles, there are regions in air where the air particles are compressed together and other
regions where the air particles are spread apart. These regions are known as compressions and
rarefactions. Sound propagates in a medium in the form of compressions and rarefactions. These
particles perform simple harmonic motion(SHM) in the medium.
Compression
Rarefaction
Compression and rarefaction carry sound forward

02
Graphical representation of sound waves
For graphical representation of the sound waves, we consider two mediums: undisturbed medium
and disturbed medium.
Undisturbed medium: In this medium, the particles do not vibrate, i.e., they are at their mean
positions.
Disturbed medium: As a longitudinal wave (sound) passes through a medium, the particles of
the medium get disturbed and deviate from their mean positions. This deviation is also known as
displacement.
The displacement vs time graph of the particles is shown in the figure below.
Undisturbed
Disturbed
A0
O x
As the particles execute SHM, the equation of motion of these

–A0
particles can be written as follows:
A0
y = A0 sin(kx – ωt)
When waves propagate through a medium, the compression and rarefaction of the particles show
the variation of pressure in the medium.
Compression is the region of high pressure, and rarefaction is the region of low pressure. It shows
that sound waves consist of a repeating pattern of high-pressure and low-pressure regions moving
through a medium. These are sometimes referred to as pressure waves.
y ∆P
x x
O O

03
Displacement wave: y(x, t) = A0 sin(kx – ωt)

Pressure wave: ∆P = –∆P0 cos(kx – ωt)
∆P → Change in pressure due to the disturbances (compressions and rarefactions).
As we can see, there is a 90° phase difference. When a particle has a displacement of zero, the
pressure is either at a maximum or a minimum value. High pressure at a point occurs when the
neighbouring particles come towards that point (compression). For this, ∆P is positive. Low pressure
occurs when the neighbouring particles move away from that point (rarefaction). For this, ∆P is
negative.
NEET
Pressure Wave Equation
Let us consider a small part of the medium whose y = A0 sin(kx – ωt)

area of cross-section is represented by S, and the
displacement wave is given by, S
Now, we consider a small region from x to x + ∆x. x (x + ∆x)
x + y(x) (x + ∆x) + y(x + ∆x)
Volume, V = S∆x
y ( x ) A0 sin ( kx − ωt ) ................ ( i )
=
y ( x=
+ ∆x ) A0 sin ( k ∆x + kx − ωt )
= A0 sin ( k ∆x ) cos ( kx − ωt ) + A0 cos ( k ∆x ) sin ( kx − ωt )
= A0 k ∆x cos ( kx − ωt ) + A0 sin ( kx − ωt ) (  k ∆x ≈ 0)
= A0 k ∆x cos ( kx − ωt ) + y ( x )…………. ( ii )
We can calculate the change in volume (∆V) as,
∆V = S ×  y ( x + ∆x ) − y ( x )  Compression Rarefaction
V SA0 k ∆x cos ( kx − ωt )
∆=
∆P
Also, Bulk modulus, B =
 −∆V 
 V 
 
−∆P
=
 SA0 k ∆x cos ( kx − ωt ) 
 
 S ∆x 
∆P =−BA0 k cos ( kx − ωt )
∆P = −∆P0 cos ( kx − ωt )
Where, ∆P0 =
BA0 k

04
The wavelength (λ) of a sound wave travelling in air is 31.4 cm. The displacement of individual
particles is observed to be 5.5 × 10–6 m. If the pressure at any point varies between (105 – 55)
Pa and (105 + 55) Pa, find the bulk modulus of the medium.
(A) B = 5 × 105 Nm–2 (B) B = 5 Nm–2 (C) B = 106 Nm–2 (D) Insufficient data
Solution
Given,
Wavelength, λ = 31.4 cm
A0 = 5.5 × 10–6 m
∆Pmax = 55 Pa
We know that the pressure wave equation is as follows:
∆P = – ∆P0 cos (kx – ωt)
Where,
∆P0 = BA0k
2π
Wave number, k =
λ
2π
∆P0 = BAo
λ
B × 2π × 5.5 × 10−6
⇒ 55 =
(
31.4 × 10−2 )
⇒ B =5 × 105 Nm−2
The equation of a longitudinal pressure wave is given by, y = 0.02 sin (3000t – 9x), where y is
in Pa, x is in m, and t is in seconds. Which of the following is correct for the associated sound
wave?
3000
(A) v = 333.33 ms–1 (B) λ = 2𝜋 m (C) f = Hz (D) None of these
π
Solution
Given,
A0 = 0.02 Pa
ω = 3000 rad s–1
k = 9 rad m–1
Angular velocity
We know that , Velocity =
Wave number
Angular velocity
And, Frequency =
2π
So, the velocity is as follows:
ω All3000
© 2020, BYJU'S. rights reserved
v =
= = 333.33 ms −1
05We know that , Velocity = Angular velocity
Wave number
Angular velocity
And, Frequency =
2π
So, the velocity is as follows:
ω 3000
v =
= = 333.33 ms −1
k 9
2π 2 × 3.14
Wavelength,= λ = m
k 9
ω 3000 1500
Frequency,= f = = Hz
2π 2 × 3.14 π

01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SOUND
VELOCITY AND INTENSITY OF SOUND
• Pitch and loudness • Newton’s formula

• Standing waves in an organ pipe • Laplace correction
• Beats: period and frequency • Factors affecting the velocity of sound
Velocity of Sound
We know that for mechanical waves, that is, string waves, among the wave parameters, wave
velocity depends on the properties (elasticity and inertia) of the m
edium.
For a string wave,
Velocity of the wave (vw) ∝ Tension (T ) of the vibrating source
1
Velocity of the wave (vw) ∝
Mass per unit length of the vibrating string ( µ )
T Elastic property
vw
Thus,= =
µ Inertial property
Similarly, the velocity of a sound wave is,
Elastic property of the material medium
v=
Inertial property of the material medium
In solids,
Elastic property = Young’s modulus of the material medium (Y)
Inertial property = Density of the material medium (ρ)
Elastic property Y
Thus, ν =
Inertial property ρ
In fluids,
Elastic property = Bulk modulus of the material medium (𝐵)
Inertial property = Density of the material medium (ρ)
Elastic property B
Thus, ν =
Inertial property ρ
Newton’s theory of sound propagation in gaseous medium
According to Newton, sound propagates in a medium in the form of compressions and r arefactions.
In the region of compressions, the molecules of the gases present in the medium get compressed.
Therefore, the temperature of the region increases and the system releases excess heat to the

02
surroundings and maintains the temperature. Similarly, in the region of rarefactions, the gas
molecules of the medium get expanded due to which the temperature of the region decreases
and the system absorbs some heat from the surroundings to maintain the temperature.
Therefore, when a sound wave propagates, the temperature of the medium remains constant,
that is, the propagation of sound happens under isothermal conditions.
Derivation of Newton's formula
Assumption: Newton assumed that sound propagation is an isothermal process. (i.e., ΔT = 0)

For an ideal gas,
PV = nRT
As T is constant, we get the following:
PV = Constant
On differentiating both the sides partially, we get the following:
P dV + V dP = 0
⇒ P dV = −V dP
dP
⇒ P =−
dV
V
dP
Also, bulk modulus for an isothermal process , Biso = −
dV
V
∴P = Biso
B
The velocity of sound, v =
ρ
P
⇒v=
ρ
By substituting the values of pressure and density, the speed of sound at STP according to
Newton's formula is, v = 280 ms −1 .
According to Newton, the speed of sound at 0 oC is 280 ms–1. This value is obtained by assuming
sound propagation as an isothermal process, but the experimental value of the speed comes out
to be 331.3 ms–1, which shows that Newton's assumption was wrong.
Laplace correction
Laplace introduced some new assumptions to find the actual speed of sound. According to
Laplace, a sound wave propagates as compressions and rarefactions, but the compressions and
rarefactions happen rapidly, and air is a poor conductor of heat. Thus, the exchange of heat to the
surroundings is not possible, that is, the propagation of sound is not an isothermal process. He
assumed that the propagation of sound happens under adiabatic c onditions.
For an adiabatic process, ΔQ = 0
Also,
PV γ = Constant
On differentiating partially, we get the following:
P γ V γ − 1 dV + V γ dP =
0
⇒ P γ V γ − 1 dV =
− V γ dP
V γ dP
⇒ Pγ =
−
γ −1
V dV
PV γ = Constant
03
On differentiating partially, we get the following:
P γ V γ − 1 dV + V γ dP =
0
⇒ P γ V γ − 1 dV =
− V γ dP
V γ dP
⇒ Pγ =
− γ −1
V dV
dP dP dP
⇒ Pγ =
− γ −1 =
− γ −1 =
−
V dV V V dV dV
V γ
V γ
V
⇒ Pγ =
Badia
Badia
Speed of sound, v =
ρ
γP
⇒v =
ρ
By substituting the values of the pressure and density, the speed of sound at STP according to
Laplace's corrected formula is, v = 332 ms −1 .
This value of the speed of sound is close to the experimental value. The experimental value of the
velocity of sound at standard temperature and pressure is 331.3 ms–1. This shows that Laplace’s
assumptions were correct. The correction in the value of velocity of sound by considering an
adiabatic process is known as Laplace correction.
Experimental value of Velocity of sound according to Velocity of sound according

velocity of sound at STP Newton’s formula to Laplace correction
v = 331.3 ms–1 v = 280 ms–1 v = 332 ms–1
Effect of different factors on the velocity of a sound wave
Effect of pressure
γP
We know, v =
ρ
If the pressure of the medium is increased, then the particles of the gas come closer to each other
and due to this, the density of the medium increases. If pressure and density increase together,
the velocity of sound remains the same. Similarly, when the pressure decreases, there is no effect
on the velocity of sound.
For an ideal gas,
PV = nRT
m  m
⇒ PV
= RT=
 n
M  M 
mR
⇒P= T
V M
RT
⇒P=ρ
M
P RT
⇒ = = Constant
ρ M
γP
mR
04⇒ P =V M
T
RT
⇒P=ρ
M
P RT
⇒ = = Constant
ρ M
γP
Substituting the value in equation v = , we get the following :
ρ
γ RT
⇒v=
M
⇒v∝ T
Therefore, for an ideal gas, pressure and density have no effect on the velocity of sound.
Effect of temperature
We know,
γ RT
v=
M
⇒v∝ T
Here, T is in Kelvin.
For finding the velocity of sound at a particular temperature T (oC), we should remember the
following steps.
v(T °C ) 273 + T
=
v( 0 ° C ) 273
1
v(T °C )  T 2
⇒ =
 1 + 273 
v( 0 ° C )  
By applying binomial expansion, (1 + x ) =+
n
1 nx ,
v(T °C ) 1 T 
⇒ =1 +  × 
v( 0 ° C )  2 273 
 1 T 
⇒ v(T °= v( 0 ° C ) +  v( 0 ° C ) × ×
C)
 2 273 
⇒ v(T °C ) − 332 = 0.61T
Where,
v0 °C = Velocity of sound at 0oC
vT °C = Velocity of sound at T oC
Effect of humidity
γP 1
We know, v = , and density is inversely proportional to humidity, ρ ∝ .
ρ H
The presence of moisture decreases the density of air.
Hence, the velocity of sound increases as the humidity increases.

05
Parameter Effect
Velocity of sound increases with
Temperature
increase in temperature.
Pressure No effect on velocity of sound.
Velocity of sound increases with

Humidity
increase in humidity.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air at STP, given that the density of air at STP is 1.4 gl–1.
Assume air to be diatomic, with 𝛾 = 1.4. Also calculate the velocity of sound in air at 25 °C.
(A) 316.2 ms–1 and 331.2 ms–1 (B) 316.2 ms–1 and 301.2 ms–1
(C) 330 ms–1 and 315 ms–1 (D) 227 ms–1 and 242 ms–1
Solution
We have,
Density of air, 𝜌 = 1.4 gl–1
𝛾 = 1.4
T = 25 °C
The velocity of sound at 0 °C,
γP 1.4 × 1.01 × 105
v0
= =
ρ 1.4
⇒ v0 =
100 10.1 ms −1
⇒ v0 ≈ 316.2 ms −1
T 25 °C ,
The velocity of sound at temperature =
vT 316.2 + 0.61T
=
⇒ v25= 316.2 + ( 0.6 × 25)
⇒ v25 =
331.2 ms −1
Intensity of Sound Wave
The intensity of any sound wave is given as follows:

Poweravg
I=
Area
⇒I=2π 2 f 2 ρ vA2
ω
Substituting f = , we get the following:
2π
1
⇒ I = ρ v (ω A ) ..... ( i )
2
2
06
Poweravg
I=
Area
⇒I= 2π 2 f 2 ρ vA2
ω
Substituting f = , we get the following:
2π
1
⇒ I = ρ v (ω A ) ..... ( i )
2
2
Maximum pressure, ∆Pmax = BAk
∆Pmax
A= .... ( ii )
Bk
From equations ( i ) and ( ii ) , we get the following:
2
1  ∆P 
⇒ I = ρ vω 2  max 
2  Bk 
2
1  ∆Pmax   ω 
⇒ I =ρ vω 2   k =
= , B v2 ρ 
ω v
 v 2 ρ  
2
v
( )   
 
∆P 2
⇒ I = max
2ρ v
A point source emits sound equally in all directions in a non-absorbing medium. Two points
P and Q are at a distance of 2 m and 3 m, respectively, from the source. Find the ratio of the
intensities of the waves at P and Q.
(A) 3 : 2 (B) 2 : 3 (C) 9 : 4 (D) 4 : 9
Solution
We have,
Distance between the source and point P, l1 = 2 m
Distance between the source and point Q, l2 = 3 m
The intensity of the sound wave is given as follows:
1
I∝
(Distance )
2
I1 l22 32
= = = 9:4
I2 l12 22
Where,
I1 = Intensity of sound at point P
I2 = Intensity of sound at point Q

07
The amplitude of sound is doubled and the frequency is reduced to one-fourth. Find the
intensity of sound at the same point.
(A) Increased to double (B) Increased four times

(C) Decreased to half (D) Decreased to one-fourth
NEET
Solution
We have,
I ∝ A2 f 2
2 2
I  A1   f1 
⇒ 1 =    
I2  A2   f2 
According to the question,
=A2 2=A1 and f1 4 f2
2 2
I  A   4 f2  16
=
⇒ 1  1=   
I2  2 A1   f2  4
I
⇒ 1 =4
I2
I1
⇒ I2 =
4
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SOUND
STANDING WAVE IN ORGAN PIPES
• Standing waves in string • Pitch and loudness

• Normal modes of vibration of string • Standing waves in organ pipe
• Harmonics and overtone • Beats
Recap
y
Displacement wave AN
O N x
Pressure wave ∆P AN
∆P = –∆P0 cos(kx – ωt)
O x
N
When there is a node in the displacement wave, there should be an antinode corresponding to that
on the pressure wave.
Velocity of sound
γP γ RT
=v =
ρ M
1. Effect of pressure: Pressure and density do not affect the velocity of sound.
2. Effect of temperature: As the temperature increases, the velocity increases.
3. Effect of humidity: As the humidity increases, the velocity of sound increases.
Intensity of sound
(Power )avg
1 ∆Pmax
2
ρ v (ω A )
2
I = =
Area⊥ 2 2ρ v

02
Pitch
Pitch is the quality that makes it possible

to judge sounds as higher and lower in the
sense associated with musical melodies.
•T
he greater the frequency, the higher is
the pitch.
High pitch Low pitch
• It depends on the relative motion between
the source and the sound wave.
Loudness (or) Intensity
Loudness refers to how loud or soft a sound seems to

a listener. Intensity is defined as the amount of energy A
crossing per unit time through the unit area perpendicular
to the direction of sound wave propagation.
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the higher is the
loudness.
BOARDS
Standing Waves in an Organ Pipe
As we discussed earlier, in standing waves, the amplitude

of vibration of the particles depends on the location (x) of the AN
particles. Hence, the particles of the medium oscillate with
different amplitudes. The positions of the particles with minimum N N
amplitude are known as the nodes, and the positions of the
particles with maximum amplitude are known as the antinodes. AN
Standing waves do not transfer energy through the medium.
Organ pipe
Organ pipes are musical instruments that are used to produce sound waves by setting up standing
waves in an air column.
Types of organ pipe
1. C
losed organ pipe
In a closed organ pipe, one of the ends is closed and N
AN
acts as a node, whereas the other end is open and
acts as an antinode.
2. Open organ pipe
In an open organ pipe, both the ends are open and AN AN
act as antinodes.

03
NEET
Closed Organ Pipe
For a displacement standing wave to set up in a

closed organ pipe, a node is formed at the closed AN N
end and an antinode is formed at the open end of
the pipe. Displacement wave
For a pressure wave corresponding to this
displacement wave, there is a node of pressure
wave for the antinode of the displacement wave N AN
and for the antinode of the displacement wave,
there is node in the pressure wave. Pressure wave
In short, the positions of displacement nodes are same as the positions of the pressure antinodes
and vice-versa.
First harmonic (Fundamental frequency)
To form a displacement standing wave, the

minimum distance between the node and antinode AN N
of the air column in a closed organ pipe is λ .
4
LC
Therefore,
λ
LC =
4
⇒λ = 4LC
v
The frequency of the wave is given by, f1 = .
λ
By substituting the value of λ , we get the following:
v
⇒ f1 =
4LC
Where,
f1 = First harmonic or fundamental frequency
Third harmonic (First overtone)
For first overtone, there will be one loop and AN

a half loop with displacement node at closed
end and displacement antinode at the open AN N
end, as shown in the figure. N AN
3λ λ λ λ
LC =
4 4 4 4
4L
⇒λ = C
3
v
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved λ
04 3λ
LC =
4
4L
⇒λ = C
3
v
λ
3v
⇒ f3 =
4LC
Where,
f3 = Third harmonic or first overtone
We know that,
fn = nf1, where n is the order of the harmonics and f1 is the first harmonic.
On comparing f3 equation with fn relation, we get,
n=3
Hence, this is known as the third harmonic or first overtone.
Fifth harmonic (Second overtone)
For second overtone or fifth harmonic, there will be two loops and a half loop within the closed
organ pipe.
Therefore,
AN AN
5λ
LC = N
4 AN
4L N N
⇒λ = C
5 λ λ λ λ λ
v 4 4 4 4 4
λ
5v
⇒ f5 =
4LC
Where,
f5 = Fifth harmonic or second overtone
NEET
Open Organ Pipe
For a displacement standing wave to set up in an open organ pipe, the displacement antinodes (or
pressure nodes) should form at both the open ends of the pipe.
AN AN
N

05
First harmonic (Fundamental frequency)
To form a displacement standing wave, the

minimum distance between the two antinodes of 2× λ
4
the air column in an open organ pipe is 2 × λ , and AN
N
AN
the length of the organ pipe is LO. 4
LO
Therefore,
λ λ
LO =2 × =
4 2
⇒λ =
2LO
v
λ
v
⇒ f1 =
2LO
Where,
f1 = First harmonic or fundamental frequency
Second harmonic (First overtone)
For the first overtone, the next (third) antinode of a wave in an open organ pipe is at 4 × λ .
4
Therefore,
λ
LO =4 × =λ AN AN
4 N N
AN
⇒λ =
LO
λ λ λ λ
v
The frequency of the wave is given by, f2 = . 4 4 4 4
λ
v
⇒ f2 =
LO
Where,
f2 = Second harmonic or first overtone

06
Third harmonic (Second overtone)
For the second overtone, the next (fourth) antinode of a wave in an open organ pipe is at 6 × λ .
4
Therefore,
AN AN
λ 3λ
LO =6 × =
4 2 AN AN
2LO N N N
⇒λ =
3 λ λ λ λ λ λ
v 4 4 4 4 4 4
λ
3v
⇒ f3 =
2LO
Where,
f3 = Third harmonic or second overtone
Harmonic / Overtone Closed organ pipe
(2n − 1) v nv
(2n – 1)th =f2n −1 =
= f2n −1 4L
(=
2n − 1) v fn nv
f2n LO nv
f2n −1 (=
( 2C n4−L1) v LO
=
v 2n −C1) v fn 2nv
v 2L
= =
f1 = f 2n −1 v = 4 LC f
f1 n 2LvO
= f41 LC = 4LC f12LO vO
1st Harmonic v
LvC
= f1 4= f1 2LvO
f 3v 4= L v L
= = f3 = 1
43LvC f 2 f1 2 v2LO
= f43 LC = 3LvC fL2O v O
= f 4= f LO
3 Harmonic / 1 Overtone= 35v 3v 23v v
rd st C
= f5 = f 4 =L f3 f LO
45LvC L3Ov
3 C 2
= f45 LC = 5 v f2 L
3 O 3v
= f5 4= 5LvC f3 23LvO
5 Harmonic / 2 Overtone
th nd = f 5 4 =L C f3 2LO
4LC 2LO
Harmonic / Overtone Open organ pipe
f2n −1 ( 2=
(2n − 1) v fn nv
nv
=nth n − 1) v
= f2n −1 = (=2n4−LC1) v fn 2nv LO
= f2n −1 v( 2 n −C1) v
4 L f 2L
nvO
ffn 2LvO
n
= = ff2n −1 = = 4LC
4vLvC 4LC f1 22LOLvO
v
1 1
=1st
Harmonic f1 =
= f1 3 4 L
=
vvC f1 vLvO
2
=
= ff13 4 =4 L ff12 v22LLO
34= vLLCC
= f3 = 3vC f2 LvO O
=
2 Harmonic
nd f
/ 1 Overtone
st 4 L
=
35vvC f2 LvO
ff2 L3Ov
3
=
= ff3 = 4
= LC
54vLLC 3v
4 f3 L23OLvO
5 3
= f5 = 5vC
= f5 45= LvC f3 23LvO
= f
3 Harmonic / 2 Overtone
rd nd 5 =4 L C f 3 2LO
4LC 2LO

07
The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe is equal to the third harmonic of a closed
organ pipe. If the length of the closed organ pipe is 20 cm, then what is the length of the
open organ pipe?
(A) 13.3 cm (B) 8 cm (C) 12.5 cm (D) 16 cm
Solution
Given,
Length of the closed organ pipe, LC = 20 cm
Let the length of the open organ pipe is LO.
v
The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe is given by, f1O = .
2LO
3v
The third harmonic of a closed organ pipe is given by, f3 =3 × f1C = .
4L C
f1O = f3
v 3v
⇒ =
2 LO 4LC
Since both the sound waves are in same medium, the velocity is also same.
2L
⇒ LO =C
3
2 × 20
⇒ LO
=
3
= ( LC 20 cm)
⇒ LO ≈ 13.3 cm
Beats
A beat is an interference pattern between two sound waves of slightly different frequencies moving
in the same direction.
If two sources of sound having slightly different frequencies are placed in a medium, the resultant
effect heard at any fixed position consists of alternate loud and weak sounds.
Consider two waves which have frequencies as,
f1 = 15 Hz
f2 = 12 Hz
The equations of the two waves are given as follows:
y1 = A sin(𝜔1t – k1x)
After the waves interfere, we get a resultant wave. This resultant wave is known as a beat.

08
y f1 = 15 Hz
O x
y1 = A sin(ω1t – k1x)
y f2 = 12 Hz
O x
y2 = A sin(ω2t – k2x)
O x
Given,
At x = 0,
y1 = A sin(𝜔1t)
Similarly,
At x = 0,
y2 = A sin(𝜔2t)
The resultant wave is given by,
yR = y1 + y2
=yR A sin (ω1t ) + A sin (ω2t )

 ω − ω2   ω + ω2 
⇒ yR =
2 A cos  1 t  sin  1 t
 2   2 
 ω1 + ω2    ω1 − ω2  
⇒ yR AR sin
=  2 t   Where, AR 2 A cos  2 t  
    
For the maximum value of A R , we get,
 ω − ω2 
cos  1 t  = ±1
 2 
ω −ω
R 1 2
09⇒ yR =  ω − ω2   ω + ω2 
2 A cos  1 t  sin  1 t
 2   2 
 ω1 + ω2    ω1 − ω2  
⇒ yR AR sin
=  2 t   Where, AR 2 A cos  2 t  
    
For the maximum value of A R , we get,
 ω − ω2 
cos  1 t  = ±1
 2 
ω − ω2
⇒ 1 t= Nπ ( N = Integer )
2
The sound will be maximum at:
N 1 2 3
t= or t = 0, , , ..........
f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2
Beat period (TB)
It is the time period between two successive minima or maxima.

N 1 2 3
t = or t 0, , , ..........
f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2
1 2 1 N N −1
TB
= =
−0 − = ..........
= −
f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2 f1 − f 2
1
⇒ TB =
f1 − f 2
Beat frequency (fB)
The number of beats per second is known as the beat frequency.

1
fB
= = f1 − f 2
TB

01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SOUND
BEATS
• Standing waves in organ pipes • Problems on standing waves in organ

• Beats: period and frequency pipes and beats
The two nearest harmonics of a tube closed at one end and open at the other end are
220 Hz and 260 Hz, respectively. What is the fundamental frequency of the system?
(A) 10 Hz (B) 20 Hz (C) 30 Hz (D) 40 Hz
Solution
Let the frequency of the nth harmonic be 220 Hz and the frequency of the (n + 1)th harmonic be
260 Hz.
The frequency of the nth harmonic of the closed organ pipe is given as follows:
v
f ( 2n =
− 1) (2n − 1)
4L
v
For the nth harmonic, ( 2n − 1) 220 Hz ....... ( i )
=
4L
v
For the ( n + 1) harmonic, ( 2( n + 1) − 1) 260 Hz ....... ( ii )
th
=
4L
Subtracting equation ( i ) from equation ( ii ) , we get the following:
v v
⇒ ( 2( n + 1) − 1) − ( 2n − 1) =260 − 220
4L 4L
2v
⇒ =
40
4L
v 40
Fundamental frequency = = = 20 Hz
4L 2

02
The second overtone of an open organ pipe has the same frequency as the first overtone of
a closed pipe that is L m long. What is the length of the open pipe?
L
(A) 4L (B) L (C) 2L (D)
2
Solution
As we know,
v
Second overtone of an open organ pipe, f3O = 3 ×
2LO
v
First overtone of an closed organ pipe, f3C = 3 ×
4L C
f3O = f3C
v v
⇒ 3× = 3×
2LO 4L C
4L C
⇒ LO = = 2LC
2
⇒ LO =
2L
A tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz makes 4 beats per second with the vibrating string of a
piano. The beat frequency decreases to 2 beats per second when the tension in the piano
string slightly increases. What was the frequency of the piano string before increasing the
tension wave?
(A) 510 Hz (B) 514 Hz (C) 516 Hz (D) 508 Hz
Solution
Let the frequency of the tuning fork be f1 and the frequency of the piano be f2.
Frequency of the piano, f2 = f1 ± n
⇒ f2 = (512 ± 4)
⇒ f2 = 516 Hz or 508 Hz
After increasing the tension,
Changed frequency of the piano, f '2 = f1 ± n’
⇒ f '2 = (512 ± 2)
⇒ f ' = 514 Hz or 510 Hz
2
If we increase the tension, then the frequency will also increase.
Case 1:
If f2 = 516 Hz,
The changed frequency becomes f '2 = 514 Hz, which is not possible.

03
Case 2:
If f2 = 508 Hz,
The changed frequency becomes f '2 = 510 Hz. It is possible, as the frequency increases.
Two vibrating tuning forks produce a progressive wave given by, y1 = 4 sin 500πt and
y2 = 2 sin 506πt. What is the number of beats produced per minute?
(A) 360 (B) 180 (C) 3 (D) 60
NEET
Solution
Given,
y1 = 4 sin 500πt
On comparing with y1 = A1 sin ω1t, we get,
ω1 = 500π
Also, ω1 = 2πf1
⇒ f1 = 250 Hz
For the second tuning fork,
y2 = 2 sin 506πt
On comparing with y2 = A2 sin ω2t, we get,
ω2 = 506π
Also, ω2 = 2πf2
⇒ f2 = 253 Hz
Beat frequency = f1 – f2 = 3 Hz
Number of beats produced in a minute = 3 × 60 = 180

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SOUND
DOPPLER EFFECT
• Pitch and loudness • Change in frequency when the source is

• Standing waves in organ pipe moving
• Beats: period and frequency • Doppler’s effect and its cases
Change in Frequency When the Source is Moving
Consider a source of sound moving with velocity

vs towards a stationary observer. Initially, at time,
t = 0, both source and observer are at rest.
Source is producing a sound wave of frequency
f and the same is heard by the observer.
vs
Now, at time, t = t, the source is moving towards
the observer. As the source is moving with Waves getting
velocity vs towards the man, the waves cramp cramped
up in the region, as shown in the figure.
The cramping of waves happens in this region because of the increase in the speed of waves due
to the velocity of source vs. As a result, the number of waves per unit time in this region increases
and causes the change in the frequency of the sound heard by the observer. This frequency is
known as apparent frequency. The apparent frequency of the sound wave (fapp) is given as follows:
Speed v
= fapp = f
Wavelength v − vs
Where, v is the velocity of sound in the medium, vs is the velocity of source, f is the actual frequency
of the sound wave, and fapp is the apparent frequency of the sound wave.
• If the relative distance between the source and the listener decreases, then the apparent
frequency (fapp) is greater than the actual frequency (f).
• If the relative distance between the source and the listener increases, then the apparent
frequency (fapp) is less than the actual frequency (f).

02
NEET
Doppler Effect
The change in wave frequency during the relative motion along the line joining of a wave source
and its observer is known as the Doppler effect.
Case 1: Stationary listener and source
In this case, both the source and the listener

are at rest. When the car blows the horn, the
sound wave travels with velocity v. Since there Stationary source
is no relative motion between the source and the
listener, the speed of sound remains the same as
v for the listener. So, the frequency of the sound
wave is given as follows:
v
no =
λo
Where,
no = Frequency of the sound wave Stationary listener
𝜆o = Wavelength of the sound wave
v = Velocity of the sound wave
Case 2: Stationary source and moving listener
In this case, the listener is moving with velocity vo

towards the source. The movement of the listener
towards the source reduces the travelling time
of the wave. Due to this, the number of waves Stationary source
reaching the listener per unit time is more. As
a result, it appears as an increase in the wave
frequency. The increased frequency is known
as the apparent frequency (napp). This change in vo
frequency occurs due to the effective velocity of
the sound wave with respect to the listener.
The apparent speed of the sound wave relative Moving listener
to the listener is given by,
vapp = vo + v
The apparent frequency of the wave is given by,
v +v
napp = o
λo
 v + vo 
⇒ napp no  =
=  ( v no λ o )
 v 
If the listener moves away from the source, then the apparent frequency decreases.
v − vo
The apparent frequency of the wave is, napp = .
λo
 v − vo 
⇒ napp no  =
=  ( v no λ o )
 v 
03
Case 3: Moving source and stationary listener
In this case, the source is moving with velocity vs towards the listener. When the listener is stationary,
the wave speed of the sound emitted from a moving source does not change with respect to the
listener but the effective wavelength of the wave reduces when it reaches the listener.
Moving source
Consider a moving source that emits a sound
wave at time, t = 0. The sound wave travels a
certain distance after one time period. At the
same time, the source also moves up to some
distance and emits the second wave. In this case, vs
the new wavelength 𝜆e is smaller than the actual
wavelength.
Stationary listener
t=0 t=T
As shown in the given figure, at time t = 0, the w1 w1 w2 w1
source emits the first wave (w1). After time T,
the source emits the second wave (w2). In the
same interval of time T, the first wave moves S S
to a distance of vT and the source moves to a vsT 𝜆e
distance of vsT. As a result, the effective distance
between the two waves reduces to 𝜆e.
vT
The apparent wavelength of the sound wave heard by the listener is given by,
λ=
e vT − vsT
1
⇒ λe= ( v − vs )
no
The apparent frequency of the sound wave is given as follows:
v
napp =
λe
 v 
⇒ napp =
no  
 v − vs 
When the source is moving away from the listener, the apparent frequency is given as follows:
 v 
napp = no  
 v + vs 
Case 4: When both the source and the observer are moving
In this case, both the listener and the source are moving.

04
The general equation for the apparent frequency for different cases is given as follows:
 v ± vo 
napp = no  
 v  vs 
If both the source and the listener are moving in the same direction, then we get,
 v + vo 
napp = no  
 v − vs 
If both the source and the listener are moving in opposite direction, then we get,
 v − vo 
napp = no  
 v + vs 
Case 5: When the source and the observer are not in the same line of motion
When both the source and the listener are moving towards each other at different lines, the apparent
velocity of the sound wave relative to the observer and the source must be the components of the
velocities along the line joining the source and the observer.
Imagine that a police car is crossing the
road by blowing horn and a private car is
approaching towards the police car from
other side, as shown in the figure. Thus,
the police car acts as the source and the
private car acts as the observer. θ2
Along the line joining the private car and the v2

police car, the component of velocity of the v1
police car is v1 cos θ1 and the component of θ1
velocity of another car is v2 cos θ2.
The apparent frequency heard by the
person in the second car is given by,
 v + v2 cos θ2 
napp = no  
 v − v1 cos θ1 
Case 6: When the sound gets reflected by some object
In this case, the source emits a sound

wave that hits an opaque surface and gets
reflected from the surface back to the
source. In case of the mentioned example,
the car emits sound and is moving towards
the house. The sound wave hits the wall
and reflects.

05
Before the reflection, the reflecting surface acts as a listener for the incident wave and experiences
an apparent frequency. After reflection, the reflecting surface acts as the source. So, the apparent
frequency of the reflected wave acts as the source frequency to the actual source who receives
the wave after reflection.
 v 
Frequency received by the wall, nwall = no  
 v − vcar 
After reflection, the apparent frequency received by the car driver is given by,
 v + vcar 
napp = nwall  
 v 
 v   v + vcar 
⇒ napp = no   
 v − vcar   v 
 v + vcar 
⇒ napp =
no  
 v − vcar 
(i) The apparent frequency depends on relative velocity of approach or separation.

(ii) If the source of sound moves, there will be an apparent change in the frequency due
to apparent change in the wavelength of the wave. Thus, the relative speed of the
sound wave remains the same.
(iii) If the observer moves, there will be an apparent change in frequency due to the change
in the speed of the sound wave relative to the observer, then the wavelength of the
sound wave remains the same.
Two cars moving in opposite directions approach each other with the speed of 22 ms–1 and
16.5 ms–1, respectively. If the driver of the first car blows a horn having a frequency of 400
Hz, then what is the frequency heard by the driver of the second car? (Velocity of sound is
340 ms–1)
(A) 350 Hz (B) 261 Hz (C) 411 Hz (D) 448 Hz
Solution
Given,
Velocity of the first car, vs = 22 ms–1
Velocity of the second car, vo = 16.5 ms–1
Frequency of the horn, no = 400 Hz
Velocity of sound, v = 340 ms–1

06
The apparent frequency received by the second car's driver is given by,
 v + vo 
napp = no  
 v − vs 
 340 + 16.5 
⇒ napp = 400  
 340 − 22 
⇒ napp ≈ 448 Hz
A source of sound S emits waves of vs

O
frequency of 100 Hz. The source is moving
with a speed of 19.4 ms–1 at an angle of 60° vo = 0
with the source-observer line, as shown in 60°
the figure. The observer O is at rest. What s
is the apparent frequency observed by the
observer? (Velocity of sound in air = 330 ms–1)
(A) 97 Hz (B) 100 Hz (C) 103 Hz (D) 106 Hz
Solution
vs
Given,
60° vo = 0
Velocity of the first car, vs = 19.4 ms–1 vs cos 60°
Velocity of the second car, vo = 0 ms–1
Frequency of the horn, no = 100 Hz
Velocity of sound, v = 330 ms–1
The apparent frequency observed by the observer is given as follows:
 v + vo 
napp = no  
 v − vs 
 v+0 
⇒ napp =
no  
 v − v s cos 60° 
 
 330 
⇒ napp = 100  
 330 −  19.4 × 1  
  2  
 
⇒ napp ≈ 103 Hz

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NOTE

What you already know What you will learn

• Mechanics • Introduction to waves

Classification of waves based on the necessity of medium

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Classification of waves based on the vibration of the particles

1. Transverse waves Direc

2. Longitudinal waves Direc

Example: Sound waves travel in air Particle

How do we describe the motion of a particle moving in a straight line?

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Motion of a Wave Pulse

Let us assume a wave pulse that is propagating

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For a wave moving along positive x-direction at time t,

Equation of a Plane Progressive Wave

Let us consider a particle of the wave. After a time y

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Different forms of the plane progressive wave are as follows:

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What you already know What you will learn

• Introduction to wave • Wave parameters

The wave equation is given as follows:

1. Angular frequency (ω)

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Variation of Phase with Time

Variation of Phase with Distance

Velocity of a Sinusoidal Wave

Let us observe a wave travelling along the Δx

We know that the general expression for the

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As we know, wave function of a wave is, y = f (ax ± bt),

General Wave Equation

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What you already know What you will learn

• Wave parameters • Speed of a transverse wave on a string

The wave equation is given as, y = A sin(ωt – kx).

Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

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Speed of a Transverse Pulse on a String

(A) 77 ms −1 (B) 102 ms −1 (C) 110 ms −1 (D) 164 ms −1

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The work done by the tension force, We know, y = A sin(ωt – kx)

Total mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy

Average power transmitted,

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Mathematically, the energy density can be found as follows:

(A) Increased to double (B) Increased to four times

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Solution == 222 222

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What you already know What you will learn

• General wave equation • Principle of superposition

Superposition Principle of Waves

Two identical pulses in a stretched string have v = 2 cm s

centres that are initially 8 cm apart and are moving

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The distance travelled by the first wave in 2 s is given as v = 2 cm s–1 t = 2 s

Waves. Byju's

Waves. Byju's

Waves. Byju's

• Principle of superposition and interference • Reflection and transmission between two

• Introduction to standing wave • Energy of a standing wave