Animal Coordination, Control & Homeostasis

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YOUR NOTES
GCSE Biology Edexcel 
7. Animal Coordination, Control & Homeostasis
CONTENTS
7.1 Animal Hormones
7.1.1 The Endocrine System
7.1.2 Adrenaline
7.1.3 Thyroxine
7.1.4 Hormones & the Menstrual Cycle
7.1.5 Contraception
7.1.6 Hormones & Assisted Reproductive Technology
7.2 Homeostasis
7.2.1 Importance of Homeostasis
7.2.2 Regulating Blood Glucose Concentration
7.2.3 Diabetes
Page 1 of 26
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YOUR NOTES
7.1 Animal Hormones

7.1.1 The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up of endocrine glands that release chemical
substances, known as hormones, into the blood stream
A gland is a group of cells that produces and releases one or more substances (a
process known as secretion)
Compared to the nervous system the effects of hormones are slower but they act for
longer, so the endocrine system is used to control functions that do not need instant
responses
Structures that make up the endocrine system

Important structures in the endocrine system are:
Pituitary gland: a ‘master gland’ that makes hormones such as FSH and LH
Thyroid: produces thyroxine, which controls metabolic rates and affects growth
Pancreas: produces insulin, which regulates blood glucose levels
Adrenal glands: produces adrenaline
Testes (males): produce testosterone
Ovaries (females): produce oestrogen
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YOUR NOTES

The major endocrine glands of the body. These glands secrete hormones that circulate
around the body in the bloodstream.
Exam Tip
 Make sure you can recognise and recall all the structures shown in the diagram
above. Although you will not be expected to recall the thyroid gland and the role
of thyroxine in the body, this endocrine gland may be referred to in an exam
question that asks more generally about the endocrine system or hormones, so
it is worth being aware of!
Page 3 of 26
Hormones YOUR NOTES

A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland 
Hormones are carried by the blood and can therefore circulate around the whole body
They are chemicals that transmit information from one part of the organism to
another and bring about a change (they provide a signal that triggers a
response)
They alter the activity of specific target cells, tissues or organs

The following hormones are of great importance in humans:
Adrenaline
Insulin
Testosterone
Progesterone
Oestrogen
Adrenaline and how it prepares the body for action

Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations
where the body may be in danger
It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it
for movement (i.e. fight or flight).
These include:
An increase in heart rate and breathing rate - ensures glucose and oxygen can
be delivered to muscle cells (and carbon dioxide can be taken away from muscles
cells) at a faster rate
Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the
body such as the alimentary canal - ensures an increased supply of the reactants
of respiration (glucose and oxygen)
Dilation of the blood vessels inside muscles - ensures more blood can circulate
through them (again, supplying more glucose and oxygen)
Breaking down of stored glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscle cells, with
glucose released by the liver being transported to active muscle cells - ensures a
higher blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells
(providing greater energy for movement)
Insulin and how it controls blood sugar

Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another
example of homeostasis (like the control of core body temperature)
Too high a level of glucose in the blood can lead to cells of the body losing water by
osmosis, which can be dangerous
Too low a level of glucose in the blood can lead to the brain receiving insufficient
glucose for respiration, potentially leading to a coma or even death
The pancreas and liver work together to control blood glucose levels
To carry out this role, the pancreas acts as an endocrine gland (making and secreting
hormones into the bloodstream), although it does also plays a vital (but separate) role
in digestion (making and secreting enzymes into the digestive system)
If the blood glucose concentration gets too high:
Page 4 of 26
Cells in the pancreas detect the increased blood glucose levels YOUR NOTES
The pancreas produces the hormone insulin, secreting it into the blood

Insulin stimulates muscles and the liver to take up glucose from the bloodstream
and store it as glycogen (a polymer of glucose)
This reduces the concentration of glucose in the blood back to normal levels, at
which point the pancreas stops secreting insulin
If the blood glucose concentration gets too low:

Cells in the pancreas detect the decreased blood glucose levels
The pancreas produces the hormone glucagon
Glucagon causes the glycogen stored in the liver to be converted into glucose
and released into the blood
This increases the concentration of glucose in the blood back to normal levels, at
which point the pancreas stops secreting glucagon
The regulation of blood glucose levels
Testosterone
Page 5 of 26
Testosterone is produced in the male testes YOUR NOTES

It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

Progesterone
Progesterone is produced in the female ovaries
It is responsible for maintaining the uterine lining during pregnancy
Oestrogen
Oestrogen is produced by the female ovaries
It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females and
regulating the menstrual cycle
Important Hormones in the Body Table
Page 6 of 26
YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
 It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline on the body as it is a fairly

common exam question and can be worth several easy marks.Also, be careful
when answering questions on the control of blood glucose levels - the terms
glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as they sound
similar.
Glucagon is a hormone
Glycogen is a polysaccharide (i.e. the polymer of glucose that acts as a
glucose storage molecule)
Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you
don't get confused in the exam!
Page 7 of 26
7.1.2 Adrenaline YOUR NOTES


Adrenaline
Adrenaline is known as the fight or flight hormone as it is produced in situations
where the body may be in danger
It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it
for movement (ie fight or flight).
These include:
Increasing blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle
cells
Increasing heart rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered
to muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken away, from muscles cells more quickly
Increased blood pressure
Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the
body such as the alimentary canal; again to ensure the reactants of respiration are
as available as possible
Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more
information can be sent to the brain
Exam Tip
 It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline on the body as it is a fairly
common exam question and can be worth several easy marks.
Page 8 of 26
7.1.3 Thyroxine YOUR NOTES


Thyroxine
Negative feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback mechanisms in homeostasis help to maintain conditions in the
body within an optimal narrow range; any movement away from ideal conditions
results in changes occurring which bring them back
This involves detecting that the level of a substance or a condition has gone above or
below normal levels, which triggers a response to bring the level back to normal again
Thyroxine and control of the basal metabolic rate is an example of negative feedback
A negative feedback cycle
Thyroxine is a hormone that is released from the thyroid gland (which is located in the
neck)
Thyroxine has a number of important roles in the body
It stimulates the basal metabolic rate (BMR); this is the speed at which chemical
reactions occur in the body when it is at rest
Page 9 of 26
Thyroxine levels are also controlled by negative feedback; with levels of TSH (thyroid- YOUR NOTES
stimulating hormone) released from the pituitary gland responsible for maintaining

normal levels in the bloodstream
If the level of thyroxine is too high
The release of TSH is inhibited, so less thyroxine is released from the thyroid
gland
If the level of thyroxine falls below a normal level

The release of TSH from the pituitary gland is increased, which stimulates the
thyroid to release more thyroxine
Conditions of the thyroid

Two conditions related to the thyroid gland are:
Hyperthyroidism, caused by an overactive thyroid gland secreting too much
thyroxine into the bloodstream which causes an increase in BMR and protein
synthesis
Hypothyroidism caused by an underactive thyroid gland secreting too little
thyroxine into the bloodstream which can lead to heart and nerve problems, and
death
Exam Tip
 You should be able to interpret and explain simple diagrams of negative
feedback control in the exam, recognising what happens when a change away
from the normal level is detected.
Page 10 of 26
7.1.4 Hormones & the Menstrual Cycle YOUR NOTES


The Menstrual Cycle
During puberty, reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to develop
The main male reproductive hormone is testosterone which is produced by the testes;
testosterone stimulates sperm production
The main female reproductive hormone is oestrogen which is produced by the ovaries
Oestrogen plays an important role in the menstrual cycle which begins at puberty, as
well as causing physical changes to occur in the body (such as breast development)
During the menstrual cycle, eggs in the ovaries begin to mature and one is released
approximately every 28 days in a process called ovulation
Stages of the menstrual cycle

During the menstrual cycle, the lining of the uterus builds up and ovulation occurs
The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long and there are four overall stages:
1. Menstruation – loss of lining from the uterus, occurs at the start of the cycle if no
fertilisation has occurred
2. The lining starts to thicken
3. Ovulation occurs around the middle of the cycle (about day 14), the egg travels
down the oviduct towards the uterus
4. The lining is maintained ready to accept a fertilized egg
Page 11 of 26
Menstruation occurs at the start of the menstrual cycle, with an egg released around the YOUR NOTES
middle

Hormonal control of the cycle
Four hormones control the events that occur during the menstrual cycle
Two of these hormones are produced by the pituitary gland in the brain:
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the ovary
Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg
The other two hormones, oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the
uterus lining with oestrogen being made by the ovaries and progesterone specifically
by an empty egg follicle called the corpus luteum
Page 12 of 26
Interacting Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle YOUR NOTES

The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the 
ovary
An egg matures inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen – so
FSH stimulates the production of oestrogen
Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits the
production of FSH
When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the
pituitary gland which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
The follicle becomes a corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone
Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall)
If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop
This causes menstruation – commonly known as having a period
If fertilisation does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone,
preventing the uterus lining from breaking down (breakdown of the lining would
prevent a pregnancy)
Once the placenta has developed, it starts secreting progesterone and continues to do
so throughout the pregnancy to maintain the lining
Page 13 of 26
Remember that hormones travel around the body in the bloodstream but only have an YOUR NOTES
effect on a target organ

Hormone level graphs
You need to be able to extract and interpret data from graphs showing hormone levels
during the menstrual cycle:
Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood during the
menstrual cycle
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary gland and causes an egg
to start maturing in the ovary
Page 14 of 26
It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen YOUR NOTES

LH (luteinising hormone) is released from the pituitary gland 
This is stimulated when oestrogen levels have reached their peak
LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce
progesterone
Changes in the levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood during the menstrual cycle
Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released
Progesterone stays low from day 1 - 14 and starts to rise after ovulation
The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in
progesterone levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation)
Page 15 of 26
7.1.5 Contraception YOUR NOTES


Contraception
Birth control methods are important in keeping family sizes small and in limiting the
increase in human population
Humans can use mechanical, chemical, surgical and natural contraceptive methods to
prevent a pregnancy
Some birth control methods also give protection from sexually transmitted infections
Natural
Abstinence
Avoiding sexual intercourse completely
Rhythm method
Avoiding sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle when
ovulation occurs
The exact time ovulation happens can be worked out by monitoring body
temperature and quality of cervical mucus
This is the least reliable method of birth control and is, instead, a better
method used to determine the best time to conceive rather than a method of
contraception
Chemical
IUD / IUS
An intrauterine device or intrauterine system is a small device fitted inside the
uterus by a doctor or nurse
It releases sex hormones which thicken the mucus produced in the cervix, making
it difficult for sperm to swim into the uterus
It also thins the lining of the uterus, making it more difficult for a fertilised egg to
implant
An IUD also interferes with passage of sperm through the uterus, in which way it is
acting as a barrier method of birth control
Contraceptive pill, implant, injection

May contain just progesterone or a mixture of progesterone and oestrogen
Very effective when taken regularly
The hormones can also be delivered from a small skin implant or an injection, both
of which last several months and increase the effectiveness as they remove the
risk of forgetting to take a pill regularly
They work by mimicking some of the hormone levels during pregnancy
By raising the levels of progesterone and oestrogen, the uterus lining is maintained
and development of another egg cell is prevented
This means that sex at any time of the month cannot cause pregnancy as no egg is
released to be fertilised
Barrier
These all work by preventing sperm from reaching the egg
Page 16 of 26
Condom YOUR NOTES

Latex sheath worn over the penis

Prevents sperm entering the vagina as ejaculate remains in condom
Also protects against STIs
Femidom
Latex sheath inserted into the vagina
Prevents entry of sperm into the vagina
Diaphragm
A rubber cap that fits over the entrance to the cervix
Prevents entry of sperm into uterus
Often used with a spermicide (cream which kills sperm)
Surgical
Vasectomy
The sperm ducts are cut, meaning that no sperm is present in the semen when
ejaculation occurs
Very effective but difficult to reverse
Female sterilisation (tubal ligation)

The oviducts are cut or tied off, preventing eggs from reaching the uterus or sperm
from reaching the eggs
Very effective but difficult to reverse
Types of birth control
Page 17 of 26
7.1.6 Hormones & Assisted Reproductive Technology YOUR NOTES


Hormones & Assisted Reproductive Technology
Infertility occurs when a couple find it difficult or are unable to conceive naturally
This can be a result of insufficient or too low levels of reproductive hormones affecting
the development of egg and sperm cells, or as a result of issues with the reproductive
system of the female
Clomifene therapy
Artificial hormones are used as part of modern reproductive technologies to treat
infertility, particularly when the female is not producing enough eggs, or they are not
producing them on regular basis
This is usually as a result of the pituitary gland not producing sufficient FSH to
cause egg maturation
The drug clomifene can be given to women to stimulate egg maturation and ovulaton
It does this by causing more of the hormones FSH and LH to be released
An important social issue to consider with this is that several eggs can be released at
once so this increases the chance of multiple births (twins or triplets etc)
It also doesn’t have a particularly high success rate and can be expensive
IVF treatment
An alternative treatment is for eggs to be fertilised by sperm outside of the body (‘in
vitro’ means ‘in glass’) – this is used particularly when there are issues with both male
and female fertility
The process involves:
Giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs
The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father in
the laboratory
The fertilised eggs develop into embryos
At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are inserted into
the mother’s uterus (womb)
The success rate of IVF is low (~30%) but there have been many improvements and
advancements in medical technologies which are helping to increase the success rate
These advancements include improvements in microscope techniques and micro-tools
that enable single cells to be removed from an embryo for genetic testing to identify if
the embryo is healthy or has genetic defaults the couple might want to consider
IVF is an example of ART (Assisted reproductive technology) as it is a fertility treatment
that occurs (initially) outside of the body
Issues with fertility treatments

Fertility treatments can give a couple the chance to have a baby of their own, which is a
big positive
Potential issues to consider include:
As several embryos are implanted, the risk of multiple births is quite high (which
increases the risk of miscarriage or stillbirths)
Page 18 of 26
The success rate is not very high (although it is increasing); IVF treatment failures YOUR NOTES
can be very emotionally upsetting and physically stressful for couples

Some women use IVF to get pregnant at a later age than they would be able to
conceive naturally
Some people are against IVF as more embryos can be produced than are used; the
issue of who owns these embryos and whether they are used in research before
eventually being destroyed is contentious (as embryos are a potential life)
The use of genetic testing is controversial as there is potential it could be misused
in choosing characteristics of offspring (this is not allowed)
Exam Tip
 You may have to evaluate methods used to treat infertility from the perspective
of patients and doctors – they may have different views.
Page 19 of 26
YOUR NOTES
7.2 Homeostasis

7.2.1 Importance of Homeostasis
Importance of Homeostasis
Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
This means that internal conditions within your body (such as temperature, blood
pressure, water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set
limits in order to ensure that reactions in body cells can function and therefore the
organism as a whole can live
When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal and is not brought
back within set limits the body will not function properly and the eventual
consequence without medical intervention will be death
This is why diabetics need to control glucose intake (as their body cannot regulate it for
them), why an extremely high and prolonged fever will kill you or why drinking too
little or too much water can damage cells throughout the body – especially the
kidneys and brain – and lead to death within days
Negative feedback and homeostasis

Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are controlled by a process known as
negative feedback
Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and
returns conditions to this set point
It works in the following way:
if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again
if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again
Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down
and then bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of
what is considered ‘normal’
Page 20 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Negative feedback mechanisms
Page 21 of 26
7.2.2 Regulating Blood Glucose Concentration YOUR NOTES


Insulin & Blood Glucose Concentration
Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another
example of homeostasis (like temperature control)
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas
The pancreas is an endocrine gland (making and secreting hormones into the
bloodstream) and it also plays a vital (but separate) role in digestion (making and
secreting enzymes into the digestive system)
Eating foods containing carbohydrate results in an increase of glucose into the
bloodstream
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the hormone
insulin to bring it back down
Too high a level of glucose in the blood can lead to cells of the body losing water by
osmosis, which can be dangerous
Insulin stimulates cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream (particularly liver
and muscle cells)
In liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted into glycogen (a polymer of
glucose) for storage
Page 22 of 26
The Action of Glucagon YOUR NOTES

If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces the hormone 
glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the
blood.
Glucagon and insulin interact as part of a negative feedback cycle to control blood
glucose (sugar) levels in the body:
Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and muscle
cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored – this reduces the blood
glucose level
Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls too low and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the
bloodstream – this increases the blood glucose level
Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels
Page 23 of 26
YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
 The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as they

sound similar. Remember:
Glucagon is the hormone

Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as
Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you
don't get confused in the exam!
Page 24 of 26
7.2.3 Diabetes YOUR NOTES


Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin
to control blood glucose levels
Scientists think this is a result of a person’s own immune system destroying the
cells of the pancreas that make insulin during development
Type 1 diabetes is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is

normally treated with insulin injections
Type 2 diabetes
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the
pancreas - the person still makes insulin but their cells are resistant to it and don’t
respond as well as they should
This can also lead to uncontrolled high blood glucose levels
A carbohydrate-controlled diet and an exercise regime are common treatments for
Type 2 diabetes
Comparing Type 1 & Type 2 diabetes
Correlation between body mass and Type 2 diabetes

Obesity is a major risk factor for Type 2 diabetes - obese individuals have an increased
risk of developing the condition compared to non-obese individuals
This is probably because a person who is obese is likely to consume a diet rich in
carbohydrates which causes an over-production of insulin resulting in the
development of insulin resistance
The body mass index

An individual is classified as obese if their BMI (body mass index) is greater than 30
BMI is worked out using the following formula:
Page 25 of 26
BMI = mass (kg) ÷ height (m)2 YOUR NOTES

An individual with a BMI over 30 has an increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes 
The waist-to-hip ratio

Where on the body excess fat is being stored also plays a role
Individuals with a lot of excess fat stored around the abdomen area have an
increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes
Calcuating a waist-to-hip ratio gives an indication of how much fat is being stored in this
area
A ratio above 1.0 for men and 0.85 for women is associated with increased risk of
developing Type 2 diabetes
The ratio can be calculated using the following formula:
Waist-to-hip ratio = waist circumference (cm) ÷ hip circumference (cm)
Page 26 of 26

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7. Animal Coordination, Control & Homeostasis

The Endocrine System

Structures that make up the endocrine system

Hormones YOUR NOTES

They alter the activity of specific target cells, tissues or organs

Adrenaline and how it prepares the body for action

Insulin and how it controls blood sugar

If the blood glucose concentration gets too low:

The regulation of blood glucose levels

Testosterone is produced in the male testes YOUR NOTES

Important Hormones in the Body Table

7.1.2 Adrenaline YOUR NOTES

7.1.3 Thyroxine YOUR NOTES

A negative feedback cycle

If the level of thyroxine falls below a normal level

Conditions of the thyroid

7.1.4 Hormones & the Menstrual Cycle YOUR NOTES

Stages of the menstrual cycle

Interacting Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle YOUR NOTES

It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen YOUR NOTES

Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

7.1.5 Contraception YOUR NOTES

Contraceptive pill, implant, injection

Condom YOUR NOTES

Female sterilisation (tubal ligation)

Types of birth control

7.1.6 Hormones & Assisted Reproductive Technology YOUR NOTES

Issues with fertility treatments

Negative feedback and homeostasis

Negative feedback mechanisms

7.2.2 Regulating Blood Glucose Concentration YOUR NOTES

The Action of Glucagon YOUR NOTES

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

Glucagon is the hormone

7.2.3 Diabetes YOUR NOTES

Type 1 diabetes is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is

Comparing Type 1 & Type 2 diabetes

Correlation between body mass and Type 2 diabetes

The body mass index

BMI = mass (kg) ÷ height (m)2 YOUR NOTES

The waist-to-hip ratio

Waist-to-hip ratio = waist circumference (cm) ÷ hip circumference (cm)

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