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Regular, Irregular Waves and the Wave Spectrum
Ian R. Young
Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

2 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR WAVES

1 Introduction 1
2 Regular and Irregular Waves 1 Noting that there appears to be a dominant wave within
3 Spectral Representation of Waves 2 typical ocean wave records, the aim is to use this to represent
4 Conclusions 9 the wave field by a single representative value (or variety of
values). The basic theory to be adopted for the distribution
Glossary 9
of wave heights in any record was originally developed by
Related Articles 9 Rice (1954). It is assumed that the water-surface elevation is
References 9 narrow banded. That is, the energy is confined to a relatively
narrow range of frequencies. For such a case, it can be shown
that the probability density function for wave heights follows
a Rayleigh distribution.
1 INTRODUCTION
H −(H 2 ∕8𝜎 2 )
p(H) = e (1)
Fundamental to any ocean engineering or physical oceanog- 4𝜎 2
raphy consideration is how one describes apparently random
where 𝜎 2 is the variance of the record. Equation 1 must
waves on the water surface. The casual observer will note that
satisfy the requirement that ∫ p(H)dH = 1.
successive waves vary in height, period, and even direction.
Longuet-Higgins (1952) derived relationships between a
Despite this, however, the same observer will generally be
number of characteristic wave heights based on Equation 1.
able to identify clear dominate values for each of these prop-
The mean and root-mean-square (rms) wave heights are,
erties. Thus, in any wave record there does appear to be domi-
respectively
nant wave properties. As a result of this feature, a number
of possibilities exist for the representation of ocean waves, ∞
√
depending on the required sophistication. Three approaches H= Hp(H)dH = 2𝜋𝜎 2 (2)
are commonly adopted: approximation of the wave field by ∫
0
a single sinusoidal component with a given height, period, ∞
and direction (regular waves); the use of a limited number 2
Hrms = H2 = H 2 p(H)dH = 8𝜎 2 (3)
of harmonics of this primary wave to approximate nonsi- ∫
0
nusoidal properties (irregular waves); or the representation
of the water surface by an infinite summation of Fourier The average height of all waves greater than Ĥ, written as
components (wave spectrum). Each of these approaches is ̂ is given by
H(H),
considered below.
∞
2
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. H 2 e−(H∕Hrms ) dH
∫Ĥ
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
̂ =
H(H) (4)
∞
2
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
He−(H∕Hrms ) dH
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2 ∫Ĥ
2 General

Table 1. Representative wave heights calculated from the From linear wave theory, the average energy of the wave
Rayleigh distribution. profile can be represented as
N H1/N /𝜎 H1∕N ∕H H1/N /Hrms Comments
𝜌w g ∑ 2
N
100 6.67 2.66 2.36 — E= H (6)
50 6.24 2.49 2.21 — 8 i=1 i
20 5.62 2.24 1.99 —
10 5.09 2.03 1.80 Highest 1/10 wave or
1 ∑ 2
N
5 4.50 1.80 1.59 — E
3 4.00 1.60 1.42 Significant wave = a = 𝜎2 (7)
2 3.55 1.42 1.26 — 𝜌w g 2N i=1 i
1 2.51 1.00 0.87 Mean wave
where 𝜌w is the density of water and 𝜎 2 the variance of the
Created by the author using data from Goda (1985) and Young (1999).
record.
Rather than wishing to know the average height of all Therefore, the amplitude components, a2i , are related to the
waves greater than a particular value, it is more common energy of the record, the distribution of which as a function
to consider the average height of the highest 1/N waves. of frequency could be represented by plotting a2i versus
This can be calculated from the Rayleigh distribution by frequency. This amplitude spectrum is discrete, represented
determining the wave height, which has a probability of only at the frequencies 𝜔i of the summation 5. In the limit as
exceedance given by 1/N. A full analysis is given by Goda N → ∞, the amplitude spectrum can be transformed into the
(1985). Typical results for various values of N appear in continuous spectrum, F(f), where
Table 1 (Young, 1999).
a2i
The significant wave height, Hs , is defined in Table 1 as F(f )Δf = (8)
H1/3 , the average of the highest 1/3 of the waves. The term 2
significant wave height is historical as this value appeared The spectrum, F(f), is called the frequency or omnidirec-
to correlate well with visual estimates of wave height tional, as no direction is associated with the spectrum or
from experienced observers. The significant wave height is variance (as the area under the spectrum is the variance 𝜎 2
commonly used in many engineering design considerations the record) spectrum.
as a representative wave to approximate the otherwise
random wave field. This approach then represents the wave ∞

field as a representative regular wave height. This can be 𝜎 = 2

F(f )df (9)
chosen as Hs or any other appropriate representative value. ∫
0
For instance, in engineering applications where large waves
are important (e.g., defining the deck elevation of an offshore From Table 1, the significant wave height, Hs = 4𝜎, and
structure), H1/10 might commonly be used. hence can be determined as four times the square root of the
area beneath the spectrum.
The use of the variance spectrum has the advantage that
3 SPECTRAL REPRESENTATION OF
complex water surface elevation records can be considered,
WAVES while retaining the compelling simplicity of linear wave
theory.
In many areas of physics, it is common to represent complex
A further extension of the Fourier model is to also include
records such as those typical of ocean waves by the use
the possibility of wave components propagating in different
of a spectral or Fourier model. Under this approximation,
directions. In this case, the directional spectrum, F(f, 𝜃), can
the water surface elevation, 𝜂, is approximated by the linear
be defined, where 𝜃 is the propagation direction, where
superposition of sinusoidal forms as
2𝜋 ∞
∑
N
𝜂(t) = ai sin(𝜔i t + 𝜙i ) (5) 𝜎2 = F(f , 𝜃)df d𝜃 (10)
∫ ∫
i=1 0 0

where ai , 𝜔i = 2𝜋fi , and 𝜙i are the amplitude, frequency,

and phase of the ith component in the summation and fi is 3.1 The one-dimensional spectral form
the frequency (inverse period) of the component. Each of
the sinusoidal components in the summation 5 will satisfy Observations of fetch-limited waves reveal that the spec-
all the properties of linear wave theory. trum generally conforms to a consistent shape with a

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Regular, Irregular Waves and the Wave Spectrum 3

clear peak and a high-frequency face that decays as f− n .
This reproducible form is believed to be a result of the
shape-stabilizing effects of nonlinear interactions within
the spectrum (Young and Van Vledder, 1993). On the basis
of dimensional arguments, two different forms for the
high-frequency tail of the spectrum have been proposed: f− 5
(Phillips, 1958) and f− 4 (Toba, 1973).
1976; Mitsuyasu et al., 1980) did not explicitly develop a
self-consistent set of relationships. This was addressed by
Lewis and Allos (1990) who reanalyzed the available data
sets to develop a self-consistent set of relationships.
𝜀 = 7.13 × 10−5 𝜈 −3.03 (13)

3.2 The JONSWAP form—f− 5 𝜒 = 44.4𝜈 −3.03 (14)

On the basis of the high-frequency formulation of Phillips

(1958), the JONSWAP experiment (Hasselmann et al., 1973) 𝛼 = 0.032𝜈 0.67 (15)
found that the frequency spectrum of fetch-limited waves
could be represented by the form
[ ]
𝛾 = 5.87𝜈 0.86 (16)
[ ( )−4 ] exp −(f −fp )
2

5 f 2 2
F(f ) = 𝛼g2 (2π)−4 f −5 exp − 𝛾
2𝜎c fp
(11)
4 fp 𝜎a = 0.054𝜈 −0.32 (17)
⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟
Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum

where { 𝜎b = 0.078𝜈 −0.16 (18)

𝜎a for f ≤ fp
𝜎c =
𝜎b for f > fp
Equation 11 contains five parameters that define the spec-
tral shape. The parameters fp and 𝛼 are the scale parameters;
fp represents the frequency at the maximum of the spectrum
and 𝛼 corresponds to the Phillips proportionality “constant”
(Phillips, 1958). The remaining three parameters define the
shape of the spectrum: 𝛾, the peak enhancement factor, is the
ratio of the maximum spectral energy to the maximum of the
corresponding Pierson and Moskowitz (1964) spectrum with
the same value of 𝛼, and 𝜎 a and 𝜎 b define the left and right
side widths, respectively, of the spectral-peak region. The
first term of Equation 11, the Pierson–Moskowitz spectrum,
corresponds to the conditions of full-wave development, with
the second term modifying the shape to make it more peaked
while the waves are still young. This enhancement is only
significant for f ≈ fp . At large f/fp , the spectrum reverts to an
f− 5 decay as proposed by Phillips (1958).
Specification of the five spectral parameters in Equation 11
completely defines the spectrum. Hasselmann et al. (1973)
attempted to define these parameters in terms of the
nondimensional variables 𝜒 = gx∕U10 2
, 𝜈 = fp U10 /g, and
𝜀 = g 𝜎 ∕U10 , where x is the fetch over which the wind
2 2 4
blows. That is, the JONSWAP spectrum could be fully
defined for the case of fetch-limited growth. Specification of
the five parameters in addition to the total energy 𝜎 2 overde-
fines the problem as 𝜎 2 is related to the spectrum through
(12) The data upon which these relationships are developed are
shown in Figures 1–5. The functional dependence for the
shape parameters 𝛾, 𝜎 a , and 𝜎 b is poor and largely included
in this form to ensure a self-consistent set of relationships.
Equations 13–18 do, however, provide a closed-form set of
equations, which can completely define the spectrum for
fetch-limited conditions
−4
3.3 The Toba form, f
As indicated above Toba (1973), based on theoretical
arguments developed by Zakharov and Filonenko (1966),
proposed an alternative high-frequency form to that of
Phillips (1958), upon which the JONSWAP spectrum is
based. His proposed form was proportional to f− 4 rather
than f− 5 . Subsequent field results supporting this form
have been presented by Kawai, Okada, and Toba (1977),
Mitsuyasu et al. (1980), Kahma (1981), Forristall (1981),
and Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985). This form has also
been supported on theoretical grounds by Kitaigorodskii
(1983) and Phillips (1985).
On the basis of this high-frequency relationship, Donelan,
Hamilton, and Hui (1985) proposed a modification to the
JONSWAP spectral form
[ ]
[ ( ) ] −(f −fp )
2
−4 exp
F(f ) = 𝛽g2 (2π)−4 fp−1 f −4 exp −
f
𝛾d
2
2𝜎c fp2

the integral in Equation 9. The original JONSWAP study fp

and subsequent fetch limited studies (Hasselmann et al., (19)

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
4 General

10−1

JONSWAP

Liu (1971)
10−2
Mitsuyasu (1968)

Pierson and Stacy (1973)

Sutherland (1967)

Toba (1971)
10−3 −1
10 100 101
ν = fp U10 /g

Figure 1. JONSWAP data showing the relationship between 𝛼 and nondimensional frequency, 𝜈. Also shown is the power law relationship
15 of Lewis and Allos (1990). (Created by the author using data from Hasselmann et al. (1973) and Lewis and Allos (1990).)

101
γ

100 −1
10 100
ν = fp U10 /g

Figure 2. JONSWAP data showing the relationship between 𝛾 and nondimensional frequency, 𝜈. Also shown is the power law relationship
16 of Lewis and Allos (1990). (Created by the author using data from Hasselmann et al. (1973) and Lewis and Allos (1990).)

Note that the notations 𝛽 and 𝛾 d have been used to
distinguish these parameters from their JONSWAP counter-
parts, 𝛼 and 𝛾. At first appearances, the differences between
Equations 11 and 19 may appear insignificant for engineering
applications as it is only the high-frequency portion of the
spectrum that is altered. However, for applications such as
floating structures, this can be important.
The data set of Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) spans a
wide range of 𝜈 and shows consistent trends in all spectral
parameters with little scatter. As examples, the Donelan,
Hamilton, and Hui (1985) data for 𝛽 and 𝛾 are shown in
Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) represented the param-
eters as

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Regular, Irregular Waves and the Wave Spectrum 5

100 generally higher than those obtained with Equation 11. In

particular, a value of 1.7 occurs at the Pierson–Moskowitz
limit.

10−1
σa

3.4 Directional spreading

The directional frequency spectrum, F(f, 𝜃), as defined

by Equation 10, is commonly represented in terms of the
10−2 one-dimensional spectrum, F(f), as (Longuet-Higgins et al.,
(a) 10−1 100 1963)
100 F(f , 𝜃) = F(f )D(f , 𝜃) (24)

The directional spreading function, D(f, 𝜃), must satisfy the

condition
10−1 D(f , 𝜃)d𝜃 = 1 (25)
σb

On the basis of the field data, analytical forms for D(f, 𝜃)

have been proposed by Mitsuyasu et al. (1975), Hassel-
10−2 −1 mann, Dunckel, and Ewing (1980) and Donelan, Hamilton,
10 100
(b) ν = fp U10 /g and Hui (1985). Mitsuyasu et al. (1975) considered data
collected with a cloverleaf buoy, which measures six quanti-
Figure 3. JONSWAP data showing relationships between 𝜎 a (a) ties related to the surface wave field. Their analysis procedure
and nondimensional frequency, 𝜈 and 𝜎 b and 𝜈 (b). Also shown are considered only the surface acceleration and slope informa-
the power law relationships 17 and 18 of Lewis and Allos (1990). tion, reducing the data to that which would be collected
(Created by the author using data from Hasselmann et al. (1973)
with a pitch/roll buoy (i.e., three quantities). Following
and Lewis and Allos (1990).)
Longuet-Higgins et al. (1963), they represented D(f, 𝜃) in the
form {| }
𝜃 − 𝜃m (f )||
D(f , 𝜃) = Q(s)cos2s | (26)
𝜀 = 6.365 × 10−6 𝜈 −3.3 (20) 2

where Q(s) is a normalization factor required to satisfy

𝛽 = 0.0165𝜈 0.55 (21) Equation 25 and 𝜃 m is the mean wave direction at frequency
f. On the basis of their data, Mitsuyasu et al. (1975) parame-
{ terized s as
6.489 + 6 log 𝜈; 𝜈 ≥ 0.159
𝛾d = (22) ⎧ ( f )5
1.7; 𝜈 < 0.159 ⎪sp f for f < fp
s = ⎨ ( p )−2.5 (27)
⎪sp f for f ≥ fp
𝜎c = 0.08 + 1.29 × 10−3 𝜈 −3 (23) ⎩ fp

Equations 20–23 are shown in Figure 8. The differences where sp is the value of s at the frequency of the spectral peak
between this formulation and those based on Equation 11 frequency, fp , given by
are now clear. As a result of forcing the high-frequency ( )−2.5
components to conform to an f− 5 form, the resulting 𝛼 U10
sp = 11.5 (28)
is significantly greater than 𝛽. The Donelan, Hamilton, Cp
and Hui (1985) values for 𝜎 c are similar to JONSWAP
for larger values of 𝜈. As the spectrum approaches the Cp = g/𝜔p is the deep-water phase speed of components
Pierson–Moskowitz limit, however, 𝜎 c increases very at the spectral peak and U10 the wind speed at a reference
rapidly. This results in a rapid broadening in the spectral height of 10 m.
shape as full development is reached. As a result of the Hasselmann, Dunckel, and Ewing (1980) considered
relatively low values of 𝛽, the resulting values of 𝛾 d are pitch/roll buoy data, also representing their data in the form

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
6 General

10−2
JONSWAP

Burling (1959)

Dobson, Perrie, and Toulany (1989)

10−3 Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) [field]

Mitsuyasu (1968)

Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) [lab]

JONSWAP

10−4 Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985)

Dobson, Perrie, and Toulany (1989)

ε = g 2σ 2/U 410

10−5

10−6

10−7

10−8 −2
10 100 102 104 106
χ= gx/U 210

Figure 4. A composite of data from a variety of studies showing the development of the nondimensional energy, 𝜀, as a function of
nondimensional fetch, 𝜒. The original JONSWAP study used the data marked, JONSWAP, together with that of Burling (1959) and
Mitsuyasu (1968). Also shown are a number of growth curves obtained from the various data sets (Young, 1999). (Created by the author
using data from Hasselmann et al. (1973), Burling (1959), Mitsuyasu (1968), and Lewis and Allos (1990).)

of Equation 26, but with a different parameterization for s represented by Equation 26 did not adequately represent their
data and adopted the alternative form
⎧ ( )4.06
f
⎪6.97 fp for f < 1.05fp
s=⎨ ( )𝜇 (29) D(f , 𝜃) = 0.5𝛽 sech2 𝛽[𝜃 − 𝜃m (f )] (31)
f
⎪9.77 f for f ≥ 1.05fp
⎩ p
They found that 𝛽 varied as a function of nondimen-
where 𝜇 has a weak dependence on wave age sional frequency, f/fp . Their data, however, extended only
to f/fp = 1.6, and beyond this point they assumed that 𝛽
( )
U10 was constant. Banner (1990) reviewed this conclusion in
𝜇 = −2.33 − 1.45 − 1.17 (30)
Cp the context of high-frequency stereo-photography data and
concluded that the assumption that 𝛽 = constant for f/fp > 1.6
On the basis of the data from an array of 14 wave gauges, was unreasonable. He proposed a formulation for 𝛽 beyond
Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) found that the form 1.6fp , which is combined with the Donelan, Hamilton, and

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Regular, Irregular Waves and the Wave Spectrum 7

101 JONSWAP

Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985)

Dobson, Perrie, and Toulany (1989)

JONSWAP

Burling (1959)
ν = fpU10 /g

Dobson, Perrie, and Toulany (1989)

Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) [field]

100 Kitaigorodskii and Strekalov (1962)

Liu (1971)

Pierson (1960)

Pierson and Moskowitz (1964)

Volkov (1968)

Mitsuyasu (1968)

Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) [lab]

Hidy and Plate (1966)

Kononkova et al. (1970)

10−1
10−4 10−2 100 102 104 106
χ= g x/U 210

Figure 5. A composite of data from a variety of studies showing the development of the nondimensional peak frequency, 𝜈, as a function
of nondimensional fetch, 𝜒. The original JONSWAP study used the data marked, JONSWAP, together with that of Burling (1959) and
Mitsuyasu (1968). Also shown are a number of growth curves obtained from the various data sets (Young, 1999). (Created by the author
using data from Hasselmann et al. (1973), Burling (1959), Mitsuyasu (1968), and Lewis and Allos (1990).)

Field
Laboratory

10−1
β

10−2

10−3
10−1 100 101
ν = fp U10 /g

Figure 6. The data of Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) showing the dependence of 𝛽 on 𝜈. The solid line is Equation 21. (Created by
the author using data from Donelan (1985).)

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
8 General

101

γd
Field
Laboratory

100
10−1 100 101
ν = fp U10 /g

Figure 7. The data of Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) showing the dependence of 𝛾 d on 𝜈. The solid line is Equation 22. (Created by
the author using data from Donelan (1985).)

10−2 10−1

10−4 10−2
β
ε

10−6 10−3
10−1 100 101 10−1 100 101

101 100

10−1
γd

100 10−2
10−1 100 101 10−1 100 101
ν ν

Figure 8. The dependence of the parameters for the Donelan, Hamilton, and Hui (1985) spectral representation, Equation 19. The
relationships shown are defined by Equations 20–23. (Created by the author using data from Donelan (1985).)

Hui (1985) parameterizations for f < 1.6fp as Using a dataset covering a broader parameter range than
these well-known formulations, Babanin and Soloview
⎧ ( )1.3 (1998) proposed an alternative formulation in terms of the
f
⎪2.61 f for 0.56 < f ∕fp < 0.95
⎪ ( p )−1.3 parameter A, the inverse of integral 25.
𝛽 = ⎨2.28 f for 0.95 < f ∕fp < 1.6
⎪ fp
⎪10{−0.4+0.84 exp[−0.57 ln((f ∕fp )2 )]} ( ) ( )
f ∕fp > 1.6 U10 −0.50 f −0.95
⎩ A = 1.12 + (2π)−1 for f ≥ 0.95fp
(32) Cp fp

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Regular, Irregular Waves and the Wave Spectrum 9

( )exp(1.39−U10 ∕Cp ) REFERENCES

A f
= 2.05 − 1.05 for f < 0.95fp
A0 fp
(33) Babanin, A.V. and Soloview, Y.P. (1998) Variability of directional
( ) spectra of wind-generated waves, studied by means of wave staff
U10 −0.50 arrays. Marine and Freshwater Research, 49, 89–101.
A0 = 1.18 + (2π)−1 for f = 0.95fp
Cp Banner, M.L. (1990) Equilibrium spectra of wind waves. Journal of
Physical Oceanography, 20, 966–984.
Burling, R.W. (1959) The spectrum of waves at short fetches.
Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, 12, 96–117.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Dobson, F., Perrie, W. and Toulany, B. (1989) On the deep-water
fetch laws for wind-generated surface gravity waves,
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approaches to the description of ocean waves: monochro-
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matic single wave representation, the summation of a small spectra of wind-generated waves. Philosophical Transactions of
number of harmonics, and a full spectra description. All the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
of these approaches have found application in engineering Sciences, 315, 509–562.
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use of a single representation of height, period, and direction University of Tokyo Press, pp. 1–323.
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Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
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Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe078
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2

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