Processing data

for the injection molder

Contents Page

1. Product overview 3

2. Preparations for production 4

2.1 Drying 4–7

2.2 Cleaning; material changeover 8–9

3. Machine selection and component options 10

3.1 Determination of screw diameter, 10 – 13

shot weight and metering stroke
3.2 Suitable and feasible metering strokes 14
3.3 Determination of clamping force 15 – 16
3.4 Screw geometry 17
3.5 Nozzles 18
3.6 Protection against wear 19 – 21

4. Processing conditions 22

4.1 Mold and melt temperature 22

4.2 Temperature control of the mold 24 – 26
4.3 Melt temperature sensor 27
4.4 Injection and holding pressure; 28 – 30
injection speed
4.5 Screw speed; back pressure 31
4.6 Cooling time 32 – 35
4.7 Optimization of machine settings; 36 – 37
production monitoring

5. Processing reclaim; recycling 38

6. Measures for the elimination of 39 – 50

molding faults

7. Product range 51

2
1. Product overview

The purpose of this booklet is to give the injection molder a

quick rundown on the processing of the complete range of engi-
neering thermoplastics produced by Bayer MaterialScience.

Apec® PC-HT
Bayblend® (PC+ABS)
®
Desmopan 1) TPU
Makrolon® PC
®
Makroblend PC/PBT
Makroblend® PC/PET

For more detailed information regarding specific applications,

please contact the experts at the Business Unit.

1) See brochure entitled “Processing Desmopan”

3
2. Preparations for production

2.1 Drying

If the polymer melt has an excessively high moisture con-

tent, this can result in surface defects (streaks) and impaired
molded part properties (hydrolytic degradation). Since the
majority of plastics absorb excessive water through non-
moisture-proof packaging, storage and transport, these
materials must be dried prior to processing.

Engineering Permissible residual moisture content

thermoplastic in % by weight (injection molding)
Apec®1) 0.02
Bayblend®2) 0.02 to 0.05
Desmopan® 0.02 to 0.05
Makrolon®1) 0.02
Makroblend® 0.02

Table 1: Permitted moisture content of granules

The moisture content of the granules should be measured

by the Karl Fischer test method, or another appropriate
method. If the permitted moisture content is exceeded, the
finished part may still have suffered material degradation,
even if it looks perfect on the surface. This applies in the
case of Apec®, Bayblend®, Desmopan®, Makrolon® and
Makroblend®.

1) An adequate idea of the dryness of Apec® and Makrolon® can be

obtained with the TVI test3). This test can be carried out
quickly and does not require much in the way of equipment.
2) For Bayblend® FR grades the lower value applies.
3) See Technical Information Sheet entitled: Determining the dry-
ness of Makrolon® by the TVI test. The Injection Molding of
Quality Parts – Preparing the Material: Drying

4
Fig. 1: Test set-up for the TVI test
(TVI = Tomasetti’s Volatile Indicator)

5
Engineering Drying Drying time (h)
thermo- temperature
plastic in °C Circulating Fresh air Dry air
dryer dryer (high dryer
(50 % fresh speed
air) dryer)

Apec® 130 4 to 12 2 to 4 2 to 3

Bayblend® 100 to 110 4 to 8 2 to 4 2 to 4

Bayblend® FR 75 to 100

Desmopan®* 60 to 110 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 3

Makrolon® 120 4 to 12 2 to 4 2 to 3

Makroblend®
PC/PBT 100 to 105 4 to 12 2 to 4 2 to 4
PC/PET 110 4 to 12 2 to 4 2 to 4

* depending on the hardness

The above data apply to containers that have been stored at room temperature.
In the event of stoppages lasting four hours or more, we recommend reducing
the temperature of the dryer by 40 °C.
See also Technology Information:
The Injection Molding of Quality Parts – Preparing the Material: Drying

Table 2: Recommended drying conditions

The times specified above apply to containers that have been

stored at room temperature. It is also assumed that the drying
equipment is in perfect working order and that the recommend-
ed drying temperature is observed.

6
Instead of drying the granules beforehand, it is also possible for
moisture to be removed directly from the granules as they are
being melted in the plasticating unit. This is done by using a
“vented screw”. This can offer technical, organizational and eco-
nomic advantages over granule drying but may involve a number
of restrictions and drawbacks. In the case of Desmopan®, for
example, drying cannot be effected by a vented screw.
At present, this form of moisture removal can only be used for
production runs with predominantly dark colors and production
runs that only require a few changes of material and color.

7
2.2 Cleaning;
material changeover
Material changeover
®
Apec • Empty the plasticating cylinder
Bayblend® • Purge the cylinder with the new
material or with a mixture of the new
Desmopan®
material and a special purging com-
Makrolon® pound 1)
Makroblend® • When changing colors always change
from light colors to darker ones where
possible
• In special cases 2), clean the plasticat-
ing unit (see under “Cleaning”)
• Start the cleaning at a high cylinder
temperature. After the material
change, reduce the temperature to the
level specified by the manufacturer

Production stoppages
(prolonged interruptions and over the weekend)
Bayblend® • Empty the plasticating cylinder 3)
Desmopan® • Move screw as far forward as
possible
Makroblend®
• Switch off the machine and heating
system

Apec® • Empty the plasticating cylinder

Makrolon ® • Set cylinder heaters to between
160 and 180 °C and ensure
continuous heat soak
• Empty hopper

1) See also Technical Information Sheet: “Cleaning agents for plastics

processing” (Thermoplastic injection molding)
2) • When changing from a high-viscosity to a very low-viscosity
material
• When changing from a material that forms a boundary layer to one
that does not
• When the production of transparent parts is planned
3) For certain FR grades use a non-flame-retardant grade of the
same material.

8
 End of production
®
Apec • Purge plasticating cylinder with an
Bayblend® appropriate high-viscosity molding
compound (PE, PP, PMMA, SAN, PS)
Desmopan®
• Where appropriate, clean plasticating
Makrolon® unit (see under “Cleaning”)
Makroblend® • For TPU purge screw with Desmopan® 385

Apec® • Cleaning/purging prior to a change

Bayblend ® of material without severe encrusta-
tion of the plasticating unit (see
Desmopan®
under “Material changeover”)
Makrolon® • When transparent Makrolon® is
Makroblend® used, cleaning is best carried out
with a higher-viscosity, transparent
Makrolon®
• Cleaning in the case of severe en-
crustation (e.g. boundary layers
adhering to the wall)
• Pre-clean unit with cylinder cleaning
agent 1)
• Additionally purge unit with high-
viscosity PE, PP or special purging
granules where necessary
• Dismantle unit and clean compo-
nents with steel brush while still hot,
then polish with a cloth and polish-
ing paste. Do not use emery paper!
• By way of an alternative, the disman-
tled components can also be cleaned
in aluminum oxide vortex baths, oil
baths or the appropriate solvent
baths (with the assistance of ultra-
sound, if required)
• Warning: subsequent “blasting”
with glass or steel spheres will
damage the surface of the steel
parts.

1) See also Technical Information Sheet:

“Cleaning agents for plastics processing”

9
3. Machine selection and component options

3.1 Determination of screw diameter, shot weight and

metering stroke 1)

When molding parts with a defined shot weight, it is best to use

only screws from a specific size range (diameter range), which
will ensure that the metering stroke works out at between 1 x D
and 3 x D (D = diameter). Conversely, a screw of defined diame-
ter should only be used to produce articles from within the cor-
responding weight or shot volume range.
If the machine size falls outside of this range, the quality of the
moldings can be impaired through molecular weight reductions
or through surface defects caused by air trapped in the screw
(see Fig. 4).
The nomogram below shows the correlation between shot
weights and efficient screw diameters.
This can be used to establish the screw diameter (machine size)
and the planned part weight when processing thermoplastics on
injection molding machines. The nomogram is based on findings
as to the optimum metering stroke (for a metering range of 1 to
3D) for three-zone screws with an L/D ratio of between 18:1 and
22:1 (see also Fig. 3).

1) See also Technical Information Sheet “Relationship between screw

diameter, metered volume, density and shot weight”, which contains
an enlarged version of the nomogram explained below.

10
Explanation of the nomogram (Fig. 2)

Reference line *1 relates to a metering stroke of 1D and refer-

ence line *2 to a metering stroke of 3D.
Taking as an example an ABS part with a weight of 2,500 g
including the sprue, the nomogram shows that this part can be
injection molded with a minimum screw diameter of 100 mm
(using the maximum metering stroke of 3D) and a maximum
screw diameter of 150 mm (using the minimum metering stroke
of 1D). A melt density of 0.85 g/cm3 is taken as the basis here. If
the density increases, the requisite screw diameter will be
reduced.
The two density reference lines that are drawn in cover the range
of melt densities from unfilled thermoplastics through to ther-
moplastics with a high filler content and hence take in the entire
current range of Bayer thermoplastics. It is, of course, always
possible to draw in the density line of a special product. If the
melt density of a molding compound is not known, it can be
established on an approximate basis from its density at room
temperature. To do this, the density at room temperature should
be multiplied by 0.85 for unfilled melts and by 0.95 for highly
filled melts (filler content approximately 60 %).

11
 2

104
8
cm3 6
4

103
8
6

Metering volume VD
4

102
8
6
4

101
8
6
4

Metering volume VD 100

3
6 cm
104

103

102

101

100
2

8
6
4

8
6
4

8
6
4
2

100
2

4
6
8
101
2

4
6
8
102
2

4
6
8
103
2

4
6 g
8
104
2

*2 Highest-density thermoplastic

*1 Lowest-density thermoplastic

Fig. 2: Determination of screw diameter, shot weight

and metering stroke

12
 4D

3D

ke
ro
st
ing
er
et
m
um
tim
op

1D

101 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 102 mm 2

Screw diameter D

Example A
Screw diameter 25 mm
Shot weights
12 g
to 20 g
35 g to
66 g
*1
Shot weight

*2

*1

Example B ~100 to 150 mm

Molded part weight
2500 g
Screw diameter

See page 11 for an explanation of the nomogram

13
3.2 Suitable and feasible metering strokes

1D 2D 3D 4D

Screw

< 1D > 4D

1D to 3D: optimum range

3D to 4D: possible in exceptional cases
< 1D and > 4D: not recommended

Fig. 3: Suitable and feasible metering strokes for injection

molding screws

1D 2D 3D 4D

After metering

Granules
Melt Melt Air

Melt Melt
Air Air
Residual granules

After injection

Granules
Melt Air

Melt
Air
Residual granules

After the start of the next metering stroke

Melt Granules
Melt Residual granules Air

Melt Melt
Air Air
Residual granules

Fig. 4: An excessively long metering stroke leads to the intake of air

14
3.3 Determination of clamping force

General formula:

Clamping force ≥ mold opening force in kN =

projected surface in cm2 · mean cavity pressure in bar
100

The actual clamping force required is determined first and fore-

most by the two variables included in the formula. Over and
above this, the clamping force is influenced by other factors,
such as the rigidity of the machine and the mold, the design of
the molded part, the permitted breathing, the processing
parameters and the molding compound itself.

The empirical values set out below in table a) are thus only
intended as a guide.
■ Projected surface = sum of all the surfaces subject to

pressure projected on to the plane of the clamping platen

Example: truncated cone-shaped disc
D
d

Projected surface A Molded part

Projected surface: A =( D 2 – d2 ) . 4

Fig. 5: Projected surface of a molded part (schematic diagram)

15
■ Mean cavity pressure

a) Values from actual experience

Apec® PC-HT 300 to 500 bar
Bayblend® (PC+ABS) 250 to 500 bar
Desmopan® TPU 300 to 700 bar1)
Makrolon® PC 300 to 500 bar
Makroblend® PC/PBT; PC/PET 250 to 500 bar1)

1) For material grades with very good flow behavior, it may be

necessary to use the higher pressures (greater clamping force) in
order to prevent flash formation.

b)Values from rheological calculations

If a filling pressure of 700 bar is taken as a basis for the cavi-
ty when the design of the molded part is worked out, then, in
the case of amorphous thermoplastics, a mean opening pres-
sure of some 500 bar can be employed for the calculation, as
is shown in the diagram that follows.

Example:

800 Switchover pressure2)

700 Filling pressure from rheological calculation

500 bar
450 bar
Filling pressure
at gate [f]

100 bar

Cavity pressure over flow path [p]

Pressure at gate = 800 bar

Pressure at end of flow path = 100 bar
= 900 bar : 2 = 450 bar
~ 500 bar
2) Safety allowance for melt compression prior to
switchover to holding pressure

Fig. 6: Determination of the mean cavity pressure (opening pressure)

for wall thicknesses of up to approx. 3 mm

16
3.4 Screw geometry 1)

Three-zone screws with an L/D ratio of between 18:1 and 22:1

and a flight depth ratio of 2:1 to 2.5:1 are suitable for use with
Bayer thermoplastics.

Metering stroke 4D max./1D min.

Metering Compres-
zone sion zone
20% 20%* Feed zone 50–60 %
Residual length halved
Screw length (according to EUROMAP)

* Longer compression zones are preferred for Desmopan® (see Desmopan

processing brochure)
Fig. 7: Three-zone screw

16

14
Feed zones
12
Flight depth H (mm)

** For amorphous
thermoplastics
10
*
For semi-crystalline
thermoplastics
8 Compression zone

H~D 0,7
4 Metering zone

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Screw diameter D (mm)
**
2.0:1 2.1:1 2.2:1 2.3:1 2.3:1 2.4:1 2.5:1 2.5:1
Flight depth ratios
Constant *
flight depths 1.9:1 2.0:1 2.1:1 2.1:1

Fig. 8: Correlation between screw diameters, flight depths and

flight depth ratios

1) See also Technical Information Sheet: The Injection Molding of

Quality Parts – Production Equipment/Machinery

17
3.5 Nozzles

Open nozzles should be used wherever possible. Shut-off noz-

zles can be used for easy-flow materials, although these can
more easily lead to problems such as material degradation,
specks and malfunctions, depending on the design involved
(see also key points set out below).
Care should be taken to ensure that the nozzle aperture and
gate diameter are correctly matched on all nozzles.

Guide values:
Nozzle aperture = gate diameter minus 0.5 to minus 1.0 mm

Of the shut-off systems available on the market

■ sliding shut-off nozzles
■ needle valve nozzles
■ bolt-type shut-off nozzles

hydraulically operated bolt-type shut-off nozzles seldom cause

problems. Particular attention should be paid here to errors in
the channel hole alignment in the bolt (in the open position).
Spring-loaded needle systems lead to higher injection pressure
requirements and to higher short-term material shear.
Mechanically controlled sliding shut-off nozzles and systems
that are hydraulically or pneumatically driven on both sides do
not suffer from these disadvantages.
The success of all needle and sliding shut-off nozzle systems
depends to a large extent on the melt channel being suitably
designed in flow engineering terms (no dead spots or flow
divisions).
On all shut-off systems, movable actuating elements should be
fitted with a certain amount of “play” so as to permit “melt lubri-
cation” and an intentional, slight leakage flow to the outside.

18
3.6 Protection against wear

As with all mechanical equipment, the plasticating unit is sub-

ject to wear when thermoplastics are processed (particularly
those containing fillers or pigments). A basic distinction is
drawn here between abrasion and corrosion. These can occur in
isolation and also together.
Wear on components is frequently only detected at a late stage,
once malfunctions occur. In many cases, however, this wear will
have started to affect the molded parts much earlier on, through
discoloration of the surface or similar defects. Sometimes these
defects are located inside the molding and are not visible on the
surface.
High costs are incurred not only through replacing worn, unser-
viceable machine components, such as screws, cylinders and
non-return valves, but also through reject production parts and
the reduced availability of the machines due to stoppages and
repair time.
Screw and cylinder components made of “standard nitrided
steels” frequently no longer meet the increasingly stringent
requirements here. The geometrical design of the components
is also a crucial factor.
“Wear-protected” plasticating units are now available, which
fulfill the current specifications much more effectively.
Experience has shown that the throughput-based cost of wear
on plasticating unit components can be reduced by a factor of
3 to 6 or more in this way. This is without making allowance for
the additional improvements that are achieved in terms of more
cost-efficient production (fewer rejects), reduced machine stop-
page time and more consistent quality.
When selecting the grade of steel and the surface treatment
method to be used for wear and corrosion-protected plasticat-
ing units, knowing which of the two wear mechanisms predom-
inates can be decisive. As a rule, it is best to select a “universal”
type of protection which will cope with both sorts of wear. The
following table contains advice on the type of material that
should be selected.1)

1) See also Technical Information Sheet: The Injection Molding of

Quality Parts – Wear Protection for the Plasticating Unit

19
Material selection for wear-protected injection molding units
(universal protection against corrosion and abrasion)

Cylinders
1. Centrifugal deposition of a suitable wear-resistant coating,
generally Fe-Cr-Ni-B-based; unalloyed C steels and Cr-V
alloyed special steels for the supporting tubes
2.Insertion of centrifugally coated bushes; supporting tube in
nitrided steels, e.g.
34 Cr Al Ni 7 (1.8550)
31 Cr Mo V 9 (1.8519)
3.Boride diffusion layers, small diameter
4.PM-HIP materials
Screws
1. High Cr-alloyed depth-hardened (up to about 60 mm diameter and
1500 mm in length), additionally ionitrided in some cases, e.g.
X 155 Cr V Mo 12 1 (1.2379)
X 165 Cr Mo V 12 (1.2601)
X 210 Cr 12 (1.2080)
X 220 Cr Mo 12 2 (1.2378)
X 210 Cr W 12 (1.2436)
2.Stellite hard facing for screw flights with ionitrided Cr steels
for all diameters, e.g.
X 35 Cr Mo 17 (1.4122) tempered
X 22 Cr Ni 17 (1.4057) tempered
3.Stellite hard facing for flights and chromium-plated root
surface and flanks, e.g.
31 Cr Mo V 9 (1.8519)
4.Boride diffusion layers, small diameter
5.All-hard-metal coated screw contour and PM-HIP materials
Cylinder head
1. High-alloy Cr steels, ionitrided (see “2” under “Screws”)
2.Standard nitrided steels, hard chromed, e.g.
31 Cr Mo V 9 (1.8519)
Non-return valve
1. Tip and back-up ring – Flights of wing tip
1.1 High-alloy Cr steels, ionitrided if necessary
(see “2” under “Screws”)
1.2 High Cr-alloyed depth-hardened steels
(see “1” under “Screws”)
2.Locking ring – High Cr-alloyed steels with good toughness,
through-hardened or tempered/ionitrided, e.g.
X 155 Cr V Mo 12 1 (1.2379)
X 40 Cr Mo V 5 1 (1.2344)
X 35 Cr Mo 17 (1.4122)
3.All structural elements made of
– Hard materials or
– Boride or
– CVD1)/PVD2)-coated.
1) Chemical Vapor Deposition 2) Physical Vapor Deposition

20
Sealing faces:
Nozzle, nozzle head and non-return valve

One frequent cause of wear problems is non-intact sealing faces

inside the plasticating unit. Melt that penetrates the gaps in
these non-intact sealing faces becomes damaged (dead spots,
residence time and temperature) and is picked up again by the
new melt flowing past it. The damaged melt can then lead to
dark streaks, cloudiness or specks in the molded parts.
■ When assembling the plasticating unit, bedding-in paste
(applied as thinly as possible) should be used to ensure that
the sealing faces are fully in contact with each other.
■ Attention should be paid to the detailed instructions supplied
by machine manufacturers on correct assembly of the individ-
ual components, such as the cylinder head and the nozzle.

Fig. 9: Fig. 10:

Non-intact sealing face on Molding displaying pronounced
the front end of the screw discoloration on account of
with degraded melt right up degraded melt
to the threaded hole

21
4. Processing conditions
4.1 Mold and melt temperature

The figures given for mold and melt temperatures in the table
below apply to all the injection molding grades of that particu-
lar thermoplastic (except specialty products) and can therefore
serve only as a guide. Generally speaking, the melt temperature
for easy-flow grades will be taken from the bottom of the range
or, for more viscous grades, from the top of the range. Long resi-
dence times in the plasticating cylinder, which are due to long
cycle times or to under-utilization of the shot volume, require a
reduction of the melt temperature in order to prevent thermal
degradation.

Thermoplastic Mold Melt

temperature temperature
in °C in °C

Apec® 100 to 150 310 to 340

Bayblend® 1) 70 to 100 240 to 280

Desmopan® 20 to 50 190 to 245

Makrolon® 80 to 100 280 to 320

Makrolon® GF 80 to 130 310 to 330
Makroblend® PC/PBT 60 to 80 250 to 270
Makroblend® PC/PET 60 to 80 260 to 280

1) The higher values should be used with high PC contents

Table 3: Recommended mold and melt temperatures

It should be noted that the melt temperature often differs con-

siderably from the setpoint cylinder temperature, as a function
of the screw geometry and operating conditions (speed, back
pressure, injection time etc.). In the event of temperature-
dependent difficulties being encountered, the melt temperature
should be measured (see Section 4.3).

22
Under the recommended processing conditions, small quantities
of decomposition product may be given off during processing.

To preclude any risk to the health and well-being of the machine

operatives, tolerance limits for the work environment must be
ensured by the provision of efficient exhaust ventilation and
fresh air at the workplace in accordance with the Safety Data
Sheet.

In order to prevent the partial decomposition of the polymer and

the generation of volatile decomposition products, the pre-
scribed processing temperatures should not be substantially
exceeded.

Since excessively high temperatures are generally the result of

operator error or defects in the heating system, special care and
controls are essential in these areas.

23
 4.2 Temperature control of the mold

The mold temperature has a decisive influence on molded part

quality. This applies especially to such properties as inherent
stresses, warpage, dimensional tolerances, weight and surface
finish. The cooling time is also determined to a large extent by
the mold surface temperature.
It is only possible to comply with production specifications, and
particularly with dimensional tolerances, if a defined mold tem-
perature is maintained. As a rule, the heating/cooling equip-
ment employed to this end can only ensure a constant mold
temperature, at a specific level, with certain limitations. First of
all, the cavity surface is heated up by 5 to 15 °C during the injec-
tion phase when it comes into contact with the melt. By the time
the next injection cycle commences, this temperature increase
will have been offset once again through the removal of heat.
With a steady-state cycle, therefore, a periodic temperature fluc-
tuation will result (a “saw tooth” profile). During production
start-up, however, the mold temperature will increase for a cer-
tain period of time, until a state of equilibrium has been a-
chieved between the supply and the removal of heat. This
temperature can be 10 to 30 °C higher than the setpoint value on
the temperature control unit. It also has the control fluctuation
of the temperature control unit superimposed upon it, which can
be quite considerable at times.

120

Cavity wall
110 temperature
Temperature [°C]

100

90

80
Medium input
temperature
70

60
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time t [min]

Fig. 11: Profile of the equilibrium temperature at the cavity wall following
production start-up

24
The equilibrium temperature and the time taken for thermal
equilibrium to be attained are a function of the heating/cooling
medium throughput and the flow resistance. The flow resistance
is determined by the number of heating/cooling channels and
corners in the mold (more than one heating/cooling circuit con-
nected up in a series arrangement). In many cases, the pump on
the temperature control unit does not supply sufficient pressure
for the requisite throughput of heating/cooling medium to be
achieved (10 to 15 l/min). In other cases, the maximum pressure
level may be kept very low by a pressure-limiting valve. This
results in a “creeping flow” and hence in an insufficient ex-
change of heat in the mold. The temperature differential be-
tween the inflow into the heating/cooling unit and the outflow
from it provides an indication as to whether the throughput is
too low. This differential should be less than 4 °C.
Channel: 6 mm ø

10
18 15

6- 8

4-
Flow rate
[l/min]

2-
5
Pressure loss ⌬ p [bar]

Channel: 12 mm ø

28
25
6-
20

4-

15

2-
10

Heating/cooling
channels [m] 2 4 6

Fig. 12: Pressure losses in heating/cooling channels of different diameters

25
 One essential requirement for the rapid attainment and reliable
control of the required mold temperature is a sufficient heating
and cooling capacity in the temperature control units employed.
The following diagram provides guide values for the heating
capacity, as a function of mold size and mold temperature.

10 2
ϑ W (°C)

160
Heating capacity [kW]

120
80
platen area

10 1
Insulated

{ 40

10 0
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4
Mold weight [kg]

Fig. 13: Requisite heating capacity as a function of mold size for different
temperatures

26
 4.3 Melt temperature sensor
(Schematic diagram)

Probes which are suitable for connection to any injection mold-

ing machine are available for measuring mold and melt temper-
atures (e.g. melt temperature sensors).

Sealing face

Measuring
Measuring point 2 for nozzle
point 1 for melt
heater control
temperature

Fig. 14: Diagram showing the Bayer melt temperature sensor inside the
nozzle with the measuring point for the nozzle heater control

Fig. 15: Section through a nozzle with a melt temperature sensor

27
4.4 Injection and holding pressure;
injection speed

The injection and holding pressures, and also the injection

speeds required, depend on the type of material being molded
and the nature of the end product. The injection and holding
pressures are set as hydraulic pressures. The latter must be high
enough to achieve sufficient cavity pressure to enable the mold
to be filled completely, without any sink marks. They can differ
considerably for a given mold, depending on factors such as
injection speed, melt temperature and nozzle geometry.
The injection speed is matched to the size of the molded part
and to its shape and should generally be fast. The injection pres-
sure should be high enough to ensure that the injection speed
does not drop below the required setpoint value(s) during the
entire injection process. If the injection speed drops towards the
end of injection, this indicates that the injection pressure is too
low or the set speed too high.
In order to avoid surface defects close to the gate (dull spots,
cold slug, delamination), it is a good idea to sharply reduce the
speed at the start of the injection process (graduated injection).
A constant flow front speed can be achieved by implementing a
velocity profile over the entire screw stroke (optimization of the
filling process). In many cases, empirically determined velocity
profiles are of assistance in remedying flow engineering prob-
lems (entrapped air, weld lines, bubbles, tear drops, streaks,
diesel effect).
By reducing the speed directly prior to switchover, it is possible
to level out the pressure profile and help prevent a backflow of
melt.
The cavity pressure required for full-scale mold filling, the
“filling pressure”, is a measure of the viscosity of the melt (pro-
viding that the associated filling time is kept constant). This can
be used for process control purposes.
Another important factor is to switch over to holding pressure at
the right moment in order to prevent overpacking of the mold.

28
 Unfavorable sequence

Favorable sequence
Cavity pressure

Injection phase Holding pressure phase

Packing phase
Time

Fig. 16: Switchover to holding pressure

The holding pressure serves to offset the volume shrinkage that

takes place as the molded part cools in the mold. The level of
holding pressure will be a function of the quality requirements
on the molded part. These can include dimensional stability, low
stresses and surface properties (sink marks, reproduction). The
pressure level will generally be set as low as possible.
The holding pressure should be maintained until the gate
system has “frozen” (in order to avoid any backflow of melt
when the pressure is removed). The minimum holding pressure
time (also known as the gate open time) can be established
through weight checks on the molded part (Fig. 17) or from the
characteristics of the cavity pressure curve (Fig. 18).

29
 Constant molded part weight
Molded part weight

Minimum holding
pressure time tND min

Holding pressure time tND

Fig. 17: Determining the holding pressure time from the increase in weight
Cavity pressure pW

No pressure drop
= minimum
holding pressure
tND tND tND
1 2 3 time tND min
(gate open time)

Holding pressure time tND

Fig. 18: Determining the holding pressure time from the cavity pressure
curve

30
 4.5 Screw speed; back pressure

The screw speed should be selected in such a way that the pe-
ripheral screw speed (Vu) is between 0.05 and 0.2 m/s. A speed
of 0.3 m/s should never be exceeded. Higher peripheral speeds
can cause processing problems.

320

vu
280 nS = •
60000 [min–1]
D•
D in mm; vu in m/s
240
Screw speed nS [min –1]

200
= vu = 0.3 m/s
160 = vu = 0.2 m/s
= vu = 0.05 m/s
120

80

40

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Screw diameter D [mm]

Fig. 19: Correlation between screw speed and screw diameter

The back pressures that will ensure even melting are normal-
ly of the order of 100 ± 50 bar (hydraulic pressure usually 5 to
15 bar).
The following rules of thumb apply:
■ to improve melt homogeneity: increase back pressure

■ to prevent uneven screw retraction (corkscrew effect):

increase back pressure

■ occasional interruption of melt transport: reduce back

pressure
■ metering time too long: reduce back pressure

31
4.6 Cooling time

The following diagrams (Figs. 20 to 23) show the calculated

cooling time of injection moldings as a function of
■ material type
■ wall thickness
■ mold temperature (ϑW )
■ melt temperature (ϑM ).
The essential factors that influence cooling are wall thickness
and mold temperature. The melt temperature has only a slight
influence on cooling time.
NB: Cooling time is understood here as being the time from the
initial application of holding pressure through to the point of
demolding.

100
Non-reinforced
90

80

70
ϑ W / ϑ M (°C)
60 120/360
Cooling time tk [s]

50
100/340
40
80/320

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wall thickness s [mm]

Fig. 20: Cooling time/wall thickness diagram for Apec®

See also Technical Information Sheet:

Optimized Mold Temperature Control

32
 °
Non-reinforced
Cooling time t [s]

Wall thickness [mm]

Fig. 21: Cooling time/wall thickness diagram for Bayblend®

33
 Reinforced
60
[s]
Cooling time

Non-reinforced
50

5
Wall thickness s [mm]

Fig. 22: Cooling time/wall thickness diagrams for Makroblend®

34
 70
ϑ W / ϑ M (°C)
Reinforced 120/340
60

50
100/320

40
80/300

30

20

10
Cooling time tk [s]

60
100/320
Non-reinforced
50
80/300
40
60/280
30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wall thickness s [mm]

Fig. 23: Cooling time/wall thickness diagrams for Makrolon®

35
4.7 Optimization of machine settings;
production monitoring

The properties of injection moldings are critically influenced by

process control.

The following are influenced during the injection phase:

■ mechanical properties
■ surface finish
■ visibility of weld lines
■ warpage

The following are influenced during the packing phase:

■ completeness of cavity filling
■ flash formation

The following are influenced during the holding pressure

phase:
■ weight
■ dimensional stability
■ shrinkage
■ voids
■ sink marks
■ ejection characteristics
■ weld line strength
■ dimensional accuracy (warpage)

36
 Influencing variables
Injection phase:
– injection speed
– oil, molding compound,
molding temperature
– polymer viscosity
Cavity pressure
Influencing variables Influencing variables
Packing phase: Holding pressure phase:
– switchover to – level and duration of
holding pressure holding pressure
– pressure – mold wall temperature
limit setting – mold deformation
– stability of clamping unit

Influencing of: – level of clamping force

a) material
parameters: Influencing of:
– viscosity a) material parameters:
– molecular – crystallinity
degradation – orientation inside molded part
– crystallinity – shrinkage
– orientation in
surface layer Influencing of: b) molded part properties:
a) material – weight
b) molded part parameters: – dimensional stability
properties: – crystallinity – voids
– surface quality – anisotropies – sink marks
– relaxation
b) molded part – ejection
properties: characteristics
– extent to which part
is filled out
– flash formation
– weight

t3
Injection phase Holding pressure phase

Packing phase
Time

Fig. 24: Cavity pressure as a function of time

The decisive process parameters here are:

■ mold temperature

■ melt temperature

■ injection speed

■ cavity pressure

Proper control of these parameters:

■ simplifies setting

■ enables immediate recognition of deviations during

production
This helps to improve quality assurance.

If accurate, detailed information is to be obtained on the pro-

cess, then sensors need to be installed in the mold. Modern
machines are capable of recording process data and further pro-
cessing this for process optimization and alarm functions as
well as for process control and process documentation. On older
models of machine, these key functions can be performed by
suitably adapted external process and operating data acquisi-
tion units.

37
5. Processing reclaim;
recycling 1)

Recycling production waste

Scrap suitable for recycling:
■ short moldings
■ sprues

■ mechanically damaged parts

Special points to note:

■ all parts being reground must be of the same sort of plastic

■ all reject moldings must have been made of correctly

processed material
■ no reject moldings with signs of thermal degradation

(due to overheating) should be used if possible

■ the recycling of parts with streaks caused by moisture

should be avoided if possible

■ no dirty or contaminated moldings should be used

■ the pellet size of the reclaim should be roughly the same as

that of the virgin compound

■ drying instructions must be observed

Adding reclaim to virgin material:

■ 10 to 20 % always possible, depending on the application

■ up to 100 %, following tests, for injection moldings where

properties are of secondary importance

The amount of reclaim that can safely be added should always

be established through individual tests (e.g. tests for molecular
weight reduction, mechanical properties). The different product
departments at Bayer MaterialScience will gladly provide assis-
tance. You should contact your Bayer MaterialScience field
worker for information on the recycling of post-consumer waste,
or of production rejects that have undergone final treatment.

1) See also Technical Information Sheet: Recycling & Design

38
6. Measures for the elimination of
molding faults

Contents Page
Impurities in compound 40
Contaminated regrind 40
Moisture streaks 41
Silver streaks 41
Streaks 41
Burn streaks 42
Delamination 43
Gray streaks 43
Cloudy appearance 44
Blackish specks 44
Dull spots 45
Record grooves or rings 45
Cold slug 45
Voids and sink marks 46
Blisters 46
Jetting 46
Short moldings 47
Weld strength insufficient 48
Warped moldings 48
Part sticks to mold 49
Part is not ejected or is deformed 49
Flash formation 50
Rough, matt part surfaces 50

39
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
Impurities in Gray foreign particles Abrasion from feed pipes, Pipes, containers and feed hoppers should not be of aluminum or
compound which appear shiny, containers and feed hoppers tinplate but of steel or stainless steel (cleaned on the inside); pipes
depending on angle should be as straight as possible
of light

Dark specks, Dust or dirt particles Keep dryer clean and regularly clean air filter, carefully close opened
discolored streaks sacks and containers

Colored streaks, Presence of other plastics Separate different plastics, never dry different plastics together, clean
surface layer near plasticating unit, check subsequent batches for purity
sprue comes adrift

Contaminated As for fresh compound Abraded material from pelle- Check pelletizers regularly for abrasion and damage, and repair when
regrind (see above) tizer necessary

Dust or dirt particles Store scrap away from dust, clean parts before pelletizing, discard
parts containing moisture (PC, PBT) and thermally degraded parts

Other plastics regrind Always keep different types of regrind separate

40
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy

41
appearance
Moisture streaks U-shaped, elongated Residual moisture content of Check dryer or drying process, measure pellet temperature, observe
streaks open towards pellets too high prescribed drying time
flow direction; or, in a
less pronounced
version, in the form of
small lines

Silver streaks Elongated silvery Overheating of melt due to Check melt temperature, use a more suitable screw diameter, reduce
streaks too high a melt temperature, screw speed, widen nozzle and runner diameter
too long a residence time

Too high a screw speed,

nozzle and runners too nar-
row

Streaks Elongated streaks over injection speed too high, Reduce injection speed, increase back pressure within permitted
(entrapped air a wide area, generally entrapped air due to incor- limits, use optimum metering stroke (> 1D to 3D)
in compound restricted to individual rect metering, back pressure
or mold) locations too low
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
With transparent
materials, bubbles
may also be apparent
as striations, black
discoloration (diesel Entrapped air inside mold Improve mold venting, especially near flow lines and near depres-
effect) at points where cavity sions (flanges, studs, lettering), correct flow front (wall thicknesses,
flows merge gate position, flow leaders)

Burn streaks Brownish discoloration Melt temperature too high Check and reduce melt temperature, check temperature controls
with streaking
Residence time too long Reduce cycle time, use a smaller plasticating unit

Unsuitable temperature Check hot runner, temperature controls and thermocouples

profile in hot runner

42
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy

43
appearance
Occasional brownish Worn plasticating unit or Check cylinder, screw, non-return valve and sealing faces for wear
discoloration with dead spots near sealing faces and dead spots
streaking

Parts of the plasticating unit Eliminate flow restrictions

and hot runners impede flow

Injection speed too high Reduce injection speed

Delamination Surface near sprue Contamination through other, Clean plasticating unit, check subsequent material for purity
flakes off (especially incompatible resins
with blends)

Gray streaks Gray or dark stripes, Worn plasticating unit Exchange whole unit or worn parts, use a plasticating unit with an
unevenly distributed abrasion and corrosion-resistant coating

Dirty plasticating unit Clean plasticating unit

 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
Cloudy Extremely fine specks Worn plasticating unit See above
appearance or metal particles in
cloud formation

Dirty plasticating unit Clean plasticating unit

Cloud-like, Screw speed too high Reduce screw speed

dark discoloration

Blackish specks Less than 1 mm2 to Worn plasticating unit See above
microscopic

Bigger than 1 mm2 Screw and cylinder surface Clean plasticating unit, use unit with an abrasion and corrosion-
damaged and flaking off resistant coating. For Makrolon®: run cylinder heater at 160 to 180 °C
during breaks in production (for Apec® HT 180 to 220 °C)

44
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy

45
appearance
Dull spots Velvety spots near Disturbed melt flow in Optimize gate, avoid sharp edges, especially where gate joins mold
sprue, sharp edges gating system, at transitions cavity. Round off transitions near runners and sudden wall thickness
and changes in wall from large to small-diameter changes and polish them, inject in stages: slow – fast
thickness runner and at bends (shear,
tearing of already solidified
outer skin)

Record grooves Extremely fine grooves Too high a flow resistance in Increase melt and mold temperature, increase injection speed
or rings on part surface mold, so that melt
(e.g. with PC) stagnates; melt
temperature, mold
temperature, injection
speed too low

Cold slug Cold melt particles Nozzle temperature too low, Use band heater with higher capacity. Fit nozzle with thermocouple
entrapped in the nozzle aperture too small and controller. Increase nozzle aperture, reduce cooling of sprue
surface bush, retract nozzle earlier from sprue bush
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
Voids and sink Round or elongated No compensation for volume Increase holding pressure time, increase holding pressure, reduce
marks bubbles, visible only in contraction during the melt temperature and alter mold temperature (in the event of voids
transparent plastics, cooling phase this must be increased, and in the event of sink marks, reduced),
surface depressions check melt cushion, increase nozzle aperture

Molded part does not have Redesign part avoiding sudden changes in wall thickness and accu-
the right design for a plastic mulations of material, adapt runners and gate cross-sections to part
(e.g. wall thickness
differences too great)

Blisters Similar to voids but Moisture content of melt too Optimize drying, if necessary use a normal screw instead of a vented
smaller diameter and high, also too high a residual screw and pre-dry material. Check dryer and drying process and use
more of them moisture content in granules dry-air dryer if necessary

Jetting Melt which has Unfavorable gate location Prevent jetting by moving the gate elsewhere (inject against a wall),
entered cavity first is and size increase gate diameter
visible on part surface

46
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy

47
appearance
Injection speed too high Reduce injection speed or inject in stages: slow – fast

Melt temperature too low Increase melt temperature

Short moldings Incomplete filling of Plastic does not have Increase melt and mold temperature
cavity, especially at end sufficiently good flow
of flow path or near
thin-walled areas Injection speed too low Increase injection speed and/or injection pressure

Walls of part too thin Make walls thicker

Insufficient contact between Increase nozzle contact pressure, check radii of nozzle and sprue
nozzle and mold bush, check centering

Diameter of gating system Enlarge gate and runner

too small

Mold venting inadequate Improve mold venting

 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
Weld strength Clearly visible notches Plastic does not have Increase melt and mold temperature, improve flow conditions by
insufficient along weld line sufficiently good flow moving gate elsewhere if necessary

Injection speed too low Increase injection speed

Walls too thin Increase wall thickness

Mold venting inadequate Improve mold venting

Warped moldings Parts are not flat, are Wall thickness differences Redesign part, change position of gate
distorted, do not fit too great, different flow
together speeds inside mold, glass
fiber orientation

Mold temperatures Heat mold halves to different temperatures

unsuitable
Alter switchover point
Unfavorable switchover point
from injection to holding
pressure

48
 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy

49
appearance
Part sticks to Dull spots, finger- Cavity wall temperature too Reduce mold temperature
mold like or cloverleaf- high in certain places
shaped shiny hollows
on surface (usually Part ejected too soon Increase cycle time
near sprue)

Part is not Part has jammed; Mold overloaded, too Reduce injection speed and holding pressure, eliminate undercuts,
ejected or is ejector pins deform deep undercuts, cavity re-work cavity surfaces and polish in longitudinal direction
deformed part or penetrate it insufficiently polished near
flanges, ribs and studs

Vacuum is formed between Improve mold venting

part and mold during
injection

Elastic deformation of mold Increase stiffness of mold, support cores

and core displacement
through injection pressure

Part ejected too soon Increase cycle time

 Fault Possible Possible causes Suggested remedy
appearance
Flash formation Polymer melt Cavity pressure too high Reduce injection speed and holding pressure, bring forward switch-
penetrates mold gaps over point from injection pressure to holding pressure
(e.g. parting line)
Mold parting surfaces have Re-work mold near parting surfaces or contours
been damaged by
overpacking
Increase clamping force or use machine with a higher clamping force
Clamping or locking force
inadequate

Rough, matt part Rough, matt surfaces Melt temperature too low Increase melt temperature
surfaces (with with flaky appearance;
glass fiber rein- glass fibers visible Mold too cold Increase mold temperature, equip mold with thermal insulation, use
forced thermo- a more efficient heater
plastics)
Injection speed too low Increase injection speed

50
7. Product range
Bayer MaterialScience

Polycarbonates
Apec® (PC-HT)
High-heat polycarbonate
Makrolon® (PC)
Polycarbonate
Makrofol®/Bayfol® (PC/[PC+PBT] blend)
Engineering films

Polycarbonate blends
Bayblend® (PC+ABS)
Blends of polycarbonate and polyester
Makroblend® (PC/PBT; PC/PET)

Thermoplastic polyurethanes
Desmopan®/Texin®1) (TPU)
Thermoplastic polyurethanes

1) Texin® is a product line of Bayer MaterialScience LLC, USA

51
Injection molding
Faults, causes, remedies

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Trocknung
Streaks, stripes, specks, dots
Schlieren, Streifen, Stippen, Punkte
Streaks open towards the flow direction 5.1
Schlieren gegen die Fließrichtung offen 5.1
Large-area silver streaks 5.2 2 3 1 Cushion
Großflächige silbrige Schlieren 5.2 2 3 1 Polster
Streaks due to overheating, needle-like streaks 5.3 1 3 2 4
Überhitzungsschlieren, Nadelschlieren 5.3 1 3 2 4
Craters 10 1 Type, quantity of carbon black
Krater 10 1 Russsorte, -menge
White patches 28 2 3 4 1 (PA-GF)
Weißflecken 28 2 3 4 1 (PA-GF)
Black or brown dots 30 Clean plasticating unit, soiled granules
Schwarze oder braune Punkte 30 Plastifiziereinheit reinigen, verschmutztes
Gray dots 32 Worn plasticating unit
Graue Punkte 32 Plastifiziereinheit ver-
Jetting 37 2 Deflector surface
Freistrahl 37 11 2 Prallfläche

Color
Farbe
Rings 7 1
Ringe 7 1 22 33
Homogeneous discoloration 16.1 1 2 Residence time
Homogene Verfärbungen 16.1 1 2 Verweilzeit
Black discoloration 16.2 Eliminate dead spots
Schwarzverfärbung 16.2 Tote Ecken beseitigen
Darker color at weld line 18 2 3 4
Farbvertiefung an der Bindenaht 18 2 11
3 4
Partial color change 24 1 2 4
Partielle Farbänderung 24 33
1 2 4
Overheating marks (black) 26 3 2
Brenner (Schwarzverfärbung) 26 11 3 2
Cloudy appearance 35 1 Plasticating unit
Wolken 35 Plastifiziereinheit
Shiny appearance
Dull spots 1 1 2
Matt surface defects at hot runner elements 2 2 1
Cold slug 3 Ejector claw
Damage to grain on molded part 15 4 3 2 1 Optimize removal
Gloss differential on molded part surface 21 2 1
Gloss level not achieved on polished surface 22 3 1 4 5 2 6
Matt appearance not achieved on textured surface 23 2 1 3 4
Frosting 38 2 1

Removal behavior
Sprue remains attached 6 1 2 3 5 4
Scratches 8 3 4 1 2 Optimize removal
Noises as the mold opens 9 1 2
Mold fails to open 19 3 2 1
Stress-whitening 36 2 1 Optimize removal
Molding remains caught in cavity 44 6 1 3 2 4 5
Part deformed during removal 47.1 4 1 3 2 Opt. eject., surface.
Ejector marks 47.2 4 1 3 2 5 6 Opt. eject., surface.
Fracture of part during removal 47.3 4 1 3 2 5 6 7 Opt. eject., surface.
Cracks, microscopic 50.1 1 2 Check media contact
Cracks, macroscopic 50.2 1 3 2 Optimize removal

Unevenness
Sink marks, localized 11.1 3 4 1 2 5 Wall thick./rib ratio
Large-area sink mark 11.2 1 2 3
Notch along weld line 12 1 2 3 5 4
Grooves 13 2 3 1
Local, glossy, finger-shaped depressions 14 3 1 2 4
 ,g y, g p p 3 1 2 4
Flakes 29 2 3 1 Especially with minerals
Tear drops 31 1 2
Delamination 33 2 1 Foreign material
Pockets 34 3 2 1

Dimensions
Flash 40 5 4 2 3 1 Sealing faces
Variations in size 42
Variations in wall thickness 43 1 2 3
Short molding 45 1 2 3 4 5
Weight variation 52 1 2 Non-return valve

Mechanical properties
Mechanical problems with part, cracks 17 1 2 3 4
Weld line strength insufficient 27 2 3 1 4 5

Processing/plastication
Voids 20.1 1 2 3
Big bubbles 20.2 2 1 High cushion
Small bubbles 20.3
Cycle too long 25 4 2 1 3
Unusual odor 39 1 2 3 Residence time
Warpage 46 3 1 2 4 GF orientation
Stringing 48 1 2 3
Mold corrosion 49 2 3 4 1 Suitable steel types
 Bayer MaterialScience AG
Polycarbonates Business Unit
D-51368 Leverkusen
Germany
www.bayermaterialscience.com

This information and our technical advice – whether verbal, in writing or by way of trials – are
given in good faith but without warranty, and this also applies where proprietary rights of third
parties are involved. Our advice does not release you from the obligation to verify the informa-
tion currently provided – especially that contained in our safety data and technical information
sheets – and to test our products as to their suitability for the intended processes and uses. The
application, use and processing of our products and the products manufactured by you on the
basis of our technical advice are beyond our control and, therefore, entirely your own
responsibility. Our products are sold in accordance with the current version of our General
Conditions of Sale and Delivery.

Unless specified to the contrary, the values given have been established on standardized test
specimens at room temperature. The figures should be regarded as guide values only and not as
binding minimum values. Please note that, under certain conditions, the properties can be affect-
ed to a considerable extent by the design of the mold/die, the processing conditions and the
coloring.

Edition: 2005-10 Order no.: MS005757 Printed in Germany

Notes
Bayer MaterialScience AG
Polycarbonates Business Unit
D-51368 Leverkusen
Germany
www.bayermaterialscience.com