Welcome to PSYC 2321:

Analysis of Behavioural
Data

CHAPTER 7
INSTRUCTOR: NICOLE JENNI
Research Scenario: you have a suspicion that people
who are very impulsive are more likely to engage in Summary
criminal activity, and you would like to put this to the 𝜇 𝑜𝑟𝜇𝑚 = 50
test. You plan to measure trait impulsivity in 64 randomly σ = 16
sampled prisoners from jails across the country M= 55
N= 64
Reminder: Our impulsivity scale has a mean of 50 and a
standard deviation of 16, our sample of prisoners has a
mean of 55.
Step 1:Choose the correct hypothesis test and
check assumptions

The z-test is appropriate when we know

descriptive information about the distribution
of raw scores in the population

We must know two things:

1. 𝜇
2. σ
Step 2: State the null and research
hypotheses.
• This sample came from the
Null same population.
Hypothesis • H0: µ2 = µ1 -OR - H0: µpris = 50

Two-Tailed • This sample came from a different

population with a mean impulsivity that is
Research either higher or lower than the original
population.
Hypothesis • H1: µ2 ≠ µ1 -OR- H1: µpris ≠ 50
 Step 3: Determine the characteristics of the Null Summary
𝜇 = 50
Hypothesis Sampling Distribution. σ = 16
M= 55
We use the Normal Distribution to model the N= 64
Null Hypothesis Sampling Distribution of the Mean

𝜎 16
𝜎𝑀 = 𝜎𝑀 =
𝑁 64
𝜎𝑀 = 2

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 46 48 50 52 54

Step 4: Determine the critical values based
on the alpha level
The alpha (α) level determines our critical cut-off.

• Alpha is a value that the researcher can set PRIOR

to running their experiment,
• Alpha corresponds to our experiments type 1 error
rate
• Almost always in psychology: α = .05, two tailed
 Step 4: Determine the critical values based
on the alpha level
“Critical Values” exclude alpha (α) % of the curve.

Two tailed alpha = 5%

α2 = .05

Need to divide our alpha

into the two tails of the
distribution 2.5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 46 48 50 52 54

𝜇
𝜇𝑀
Step 4: Determine the critical values based
on the alpha level
Need to look up our critical z from our z-table

𝑧𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1.96
Step 4: Determine the critical values
based on the alpha level
“Critical Values” exclude alpha (α) % of the curve.
-1.96 1.96

Region of Rejection Region of Rejection

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 46 48 50 52 54

𝜇
𝜇𝑀
 Summary
𝜇 = 50
Step 5: Calculate the test statistic σ = 16
M= 55
N= 64
Here we want to compute z-statistic 𝜎𝑀 = 2

-1.96 1.96
𝑀 − 𝜇𝑀
𝑧=
𝜎𝑀
Region of Rejection Region of Rejection
55 − 50
𝑧=
2
𝑧 = 2.5
𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 46 48 50 52 54

 Summary
Step 6: Make a decision about the null 𝜇 = 50
σ = 16
hypothesis M= 55
N= 64
𝜎𝑀 = 2
Two ways of making our decision

Comparing Zstat to Zcrit Comparing p value to our alpha

• Zstat > Zcrit we can reject 𝐻0
• If Zstat < Zcrit we can not reject 𝐻0
 Summary
Step 6: Make a decision about the null 𝜇 = 50
σ = 16
hypothesis M= 55
N= 64
𝜎𝑀 = 2
Two ways of making our decision

Comparing Zstat to Zcrit Comparing p value to our alpha

• Zstat > Zcrit we can reject 𝐻0 • P-value < alpha we can reject 𝐻0
• If Zstat < Zcrit we can not reject • P-value > alpha we can not reject
𝐻0 𝐻0

More conventional to report p-

values in published work, p<.05
means a significant effect!
Computing p-values: the rules
Need to look up your z-statistic in the z-table

IF 2-TAILED → must multiply x 2

IF 1-TAILED AND IN RIGHT DIRECTION→ choose area in tail
IF 1-TAILED AND IN WRONG DIRECTION → need to subtract that value from
100%
Statistical Significance
If we reject our null hypothesis, our results are statistically
significant

What does “statistically significant” mean?

◦ A finding is statistically significant if the data differ from what would be
expected by chance if there were, in fact, no actual difference.

◦ Statistically significant does not necessarily mean that the finding is important
or meaningful.
◦ If we do not reject our null hypothesis our sample is ‘not significantly’ different than the population
(our data are never ‘insignificant’ or unimportant
 Summary
𝜇 = 50
Step 5: Calculating a p-value σ = 16
M= 55
N= 64
Here we want to compute z-statistic 𝜎𝑀 = 2

P-value is the probability of -2.5

obtaining that sample mean,
OR a value more extreme
• Can look up z-statistic on z-table
• For a 2-tailed test, we need to multiply
by 2 to obtain the probability in either
direction

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 46 48 50 52 54

 Summary
𝜇 = 50
Step 5: Calculating a p-value σ = 16
M= 55
N= 64
Here we want to compute z-statistic 𝜎𝑀 = 2

P-value is the probability of

obtaining that sample mean,
OR a value more extreme
• Can look up z-statistic on z-table
• For a 2-tailed test, we need to multiply
by 2 to obtain the probability in either
direction
• Here our p-value is 0.62*2 = 1.24%
• Convention is to report p-values as
proportions
• Here p=.0124 or p=.01
The Assumptions and the Steps of
Hypothesis Testing
Assumption: A characteristic about a population that we are sampling,
necessary for accurate inferences

The Three Assumptions Breaking the Assumptions

1. Dependent variable is on a
scale measure
2. Participants are randomly
selected
3. Population distribution is
approximately normal
Usually OK if the data are not clearly
nominal or ordinal
OK if we are cautious about
generalizing
OK if the sample includes at least 30
scores
The Assumptions and the Steps of
Hypothesis Testing
Many parametric hypothesis tests can be conducted even if some of the
assumptions are not met and are robust against some assumption violations.

◦ Robust: means our hypothesis tests produce accurate results even when the population
might not meet some of the assumptions.

These three statistical assumptions represent the ideal conditions and are more
likely to produce valid research.

Meeting the assumptions improves the quality of research, but not meeting the
assumptions doesn’t necessarily invalidate research.
Practice! You are interested in whether people that work in
the tech industry have higher IQs than the general
population
The mean population IQ is 100, standard deviation 15
You sample 49 tech employees, and record their IQ scores.
They score an average of 103 α1 = .05
Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 103
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 49
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

𝜎𝑀 = Z-crit=??

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 103
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 49
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

𝜎𝑀 = 1.64 / 1.65

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 103
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 49
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

15
𝜎𝑀 = = 2.142857 1.64
49

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 103
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 49
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = 2.14

15
𝜎𝑀 = = 2.142857 1.64
49

103−100
𝑧= = 1.4
2.142857

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit TO FIND YOUR P-VALUE: σ = 15
LOOK UP YOUR z- M= 103
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
STATISTIC IN THE Z-TABLE N= 49
Step 4: Make your decision! READ THE AREA UNDER 𝜎𝑀 = 2.14
THE CURVE TO THE TAIL
15
𝜎𝑀 = = 2.142857 1.64 Because:
49 z-stat < zcrit
p>alpha
103−100
𝑧= = 1.4
2.142857
DECISION: We can not
𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 8.08% reject the null hypothesis
5% CONCLUSION: tech industry
𝑝 = .08
workers are NOT
significantly smarter than
𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2
the general population
𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠
Practice! You are interested in whether people who speak
two languages show differences in their IQ
The mean population IQ is 100, standard deviation 15
You sample 25 bilingual people, and record their IQ scores.
They score an average of 106 α2 = .05
Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 106
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 25
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

𝜎𝑀 = Z-crit=??

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
2.5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 106
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 25
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

𝜎𝑀 = 1.96

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
2.5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 106
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 25
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = ??

15
𝜎𝑀 = = 3.00 1.96
25

𝑧=

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
2.5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit σ = 15
M= 106
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 25
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = 3.00

15
𝜎𝑀 = = 3.00 1.96
25

106−100
𝑧= = 2.00
3

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
2.5%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution TO FIND YOUR P-VALUE: Summary
LOOK UP YOUR z- 𝜇 = 100
Step 2: Find z-crit STATISTIC IN THE Z-TABLE σ = 15
READ THE AREA UNDER M= 106
Step 3: Compute z-statistc, find your p-value
N= 25
THE CURVE TO THE TAIL
Step 4: Make your decision! 𝜎𝑀 = 3.00
2 tail test means multiple
by 2!
15
𝜎𝑀 = = 3.00 1.96 Because:
25 z-stat > zcrit
P<alpha
106−100
𝑧= = 2.00
3
DECISION: We
𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 2.28% ∗ 2 can reject the
𝑝 = 4.56% 2.5% null hypothesis
𝑝 = .046
𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Extra Practice in the following slides
Practice! You are interested in whether private school
students score better on the SAT than the general
population
The mean of the SAT is 1051, standard deviation 211
You sample 100 private school students, and record their
SAT scores. They score an average of 1075.
Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 1051
Step 2: Compute z-statistic, find your probability σ = 211
M= 1075
N= 100
𝜎𝑀 = 21.1

1.14

12.71%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

Step 1: Draw your null hypothesis distribution Summary
𝜇 = 1051
Step 2: Compute z-statistic, find your p-value σ = 211
M= 1075
N= 100
𝜎𝑀 = 21.1

211
𝜎𝑀 = = 21.1 1.14
100

1075−1051
𝑧= = 1.14
21.1

𝑝 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 12.71%
p=.13 12.71%

𝑧 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠

2. If Harry received a z score of –1 for his performance on a
standardized math test, what percentage of scores are between
Harry’s z score and the mean?

A. 34.13%
B. –34.13%
C. –84.13%
D. 84.13%
2. If Harry received a z score of –1 for his performance on a
standardized math test, what percentage of scores are between
Harry’s z score and the mean? (Answer)

A. 34.13% (correct answer)

B. –34.13%
C. –84.13%
D. 84.13%
3. A distribution of z scores has a known mean and standard
deviation. What are they?
A. Mean = 100, SD = 10
B. Mean = 0, SD = 3
C. Mean = 50, SD = 1
D. Mean = 0, SD = 1
3. A distribution of z scores has a known mean and standard
deviation. What are they? (Answer)
A. Mean = 100, SD = 10
B. Mean = 0, SD = 3
C. Mean = 50, SD = 1
D. Mean = 0, SD = 1 (correct answer)
4. Roberta scored in the 85th percentile on a standardized test of
reading ability. What is Roberta’s associated z score?
A. –1.04
B. 2.30
C. 3.10
D. 1.04
4. Roberta scored in the 85th percentile on a standardized test of
reading ability. What is Roberta’s associated z score? (Answer)
A. –1.04
B. 2.30
C. 3.10
D. 1.04 (correct answer)
5. If we obtain a z score of 1.5, what is our raw score for a given
population mean of 900 and a standard deviation of 50?
A. 825
B. 950
C. 975
D. 1050
5. If we obtain a z score of 1.5, what is our raw score for a given
population mean of 900 and a standard deviation of 50? (Answer)
A. 825
B. 950
C. 975 (correct answer)
D. 1050
6. If the z score falls at the 59th percentile, then 41% of scores fall
above that value.
A. True
B. False
6. If the z score falls at the 59th percentile, then 41% of scores fall
above that value. (Answer)
A. True (correct answer)
B. False
7. The figure below demonstrates the concept of converting a
given percentile to a raw score for a student who scored in the
63rd percentile; 13% corresponds to the associated percentage
that results from subtracting the area below the mean from the
63rd percentile. What is the associated z score?

A. 0.67
B. 0.33
C. 0
D. 13
7. The figure below demonstrates the concept of converting a
given percentile to a raw score for a student who scored in the
63rd percentile; 13% corresponds to the associated percentage
that results from subtracting the area below the mean from the
63rd percentile. What is the associated z score? (Answer)

A. 0.67
B. 0.33 (correct answer)
C. 0
D. 13