SENSANO, LEAH MARIE B.

BSN3D

1. What is inference?
Inference is using observation and background to reach a logical conclusion. You probably
practice inference every day. For example, if you see someone eating a new food and he or she
makes a face, then you infer he does not like it. Or if someone slams a door, you can infer that
she is upset about something.

2. Classification of Inference
 Deductive inferences, which are inferences arrived at through deduction (deductive
reasoning), can guarantee truth because they focus on the structure of arguments. Here is
an example:
Either you can go to the movies tonight, or you can go to the party tomorrow.
You cannot go to the movies tonight.
So, you can go to the party tomorrow.

 Valid Deductive Inferences

A good deductive inference is called a valid inference, meaning its structure guarantees
the truth of its conclusion given the truth of the premises. Pay attention to this definition.
The definition does not say that valid arguments have true conclusions. Validity is a
property of the logical forms of arguments, and remember that logic and truth are distinct.
The definition states that valid arguments have a form such that if the premises are true,
then the conclusion must be true.

 Invalid Deductive Inferences

A bad deductive inference is called an invalid inference. In invalid inferences, their
structure does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion—that is to say, even if the
premises are true, the conclusion may be false. This does not mean that the conclusion
must be false, but that we simply cannot know whether the conclusion is true or false.
Here is an example of an invalid inference:

If it snows more than three inches, the schools are mandated to close.
The schools closed.
Therefore, it snowed more than three inches.
3. Types of Inference
A. Deductive Inference
Deductive reasoning, also known as deduction or deductive inference, is a type of reasoning that
involves taking a generally true statement and narrowing it down to apply to a specific instance.
Example:
Premises: All birds have feathers. Penguins are birds.
Conclusion: Therefore, penguins have feathers.

B. Inductive Inference
Inductive reasoning, also known as induction or inductive inference, is a type of reasoning that
involves making broad generalizations from specific observations. It is the opposite of deduction.
Example:
Observation: You’ve just eaten at a restaurant five times, and each time the food has been
delicious.
Generalization: Therefore, the food at this restaurant is always good.

C. Abductive Inference
Abductive inference, also known as abduction or inference to the best explanation, is a form of
logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations and then seeks the
simplest and most likely explanation.
Example:
Observation: The grass is wet.
Best Explanation: It rained last night.

D. Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is used in economics, mathematics, and quantitative research to produce
generalizations and models. It involves the process of using data analysis to infer properties of an
underlying probability distribution.
Example:
Descriptive Statistics: A company might survey a sample of its customers about their satisfaction
with the company’s products. The average satisfaction score among those surveyed is a
descriptive statistic that summarizes the data.

E. Causal Inference
Causal inference is the process of drawing a conclusion about a causal connection, that is, cause
and effect. It is a complex task as it often involves establishing the direction and magnitude of
cause and effect relationships.
Example:
Observation: Smoking rates increase. Lung cancer rates also increase.
Possible Causal Inference: Smoking might cause lung cancer.

F. Analogical Inference
Analogical inference (or analogical reasoning) is a type of reasoning that involves drawing
conclusions based on the perceived similarity between separate cases. In other words, if two
things are similar in some ways, it’s likely that they will be similar in other ways, too.
Example:
Observation: You studied diligently for your math test and scored an A.
Analogical Inference: If you study diligently for your physics test, you will likely score an A.

G. Invalid Inference
Invalid inference refers to a type of logical fallacy where the conclusion drawn does not logically
follow from the premises. We might also call this a logical fallacy.

Example 1: Affirming the Consequent

This is a logical fallacy where the consequent of a conditional statement is affirmed, leading to
the affirmation of the antecedent. For instance:

Premise: If it is raining, then the ground is wet.

Observation: The ground is wet.
Invalid Inference: Therefore, it is raining.

The fallacy here is that there are other reasons why the ground could be wet (for instance,
someone could’ve spilled water).

4. Types of oppositional relationship

1.Contradiction- a relation that exists between propositions that differ both in quantity and
quality. (A and O, E and I propositions are contradictories.)
2. Contrariety- a relation that exists between universal propositions that differ in quality only. (A
and E propositions are contraries.)
3. 3. Subcontrariety- a relation that exists between particular propositions that differ in quality
only. (I and Opropositions are subcontraries.)
4. . Subalternation- a relation that exists between two propositions having the same quality but
differing in quantity. (A and I, E and O propositions are subalterns.) It is the only relation where
it matters which of the pair of propositions one begins with: The universal proposition is the
superaltern. The particular proposition is the subaltern

5. Equivalent propositions
The propositions are equal or logically equivalent if they always have the same truth value. That
is, p and q are logically equivalent if p is true whenever q is true, and vice versa, and if p is false
whenever q is false, and vice versa. If p and q are logically equivalent, we write p = q.
Example:
If it is raining, then the ground is wet" and "If the ground is not wet, then it is not raining