he will hold office, Engineer de Guzman wondered if he could convince top management to transfer some of his acquaintances in the head office to his new assignment. Engineer de Guzman knows that his next promo- tion will depend much in the success of the new facility under his direction. He thought that if he could only get the right persons, his job would not be too difficult. With this in mind, he pondered on what his first move must be. 3 Ey COMMUNICATING ‘What Communication Is * Functions of Communication * The Communication Process * Forms of Communication * The Barriers to Communication * Overcoming Barriers to Communication ‘* Techniques for Communicating in Organizations * Management Information SystemChapter 6 COMMUNICATI ‘The achievement of the objectives of the engineer- ing organization will depend on the performance of the human and non-human elements attached to it. The task of management is to “program” these elements correctly so that each will respond accordingly to their assigned tasks. Standard programming methods have already been adapted by technologists for most machines and equipment. The programming approach to the human element is different and must be dealt with using methods espoused by behavioral scientists. Employees will perform accord- ing to the dictates of their minds. If this is really so, then management must reach them through powerful means of persuasion under an atmosphere conducive to effective communication. The issue now will be “is management using the communication option effectively?” The answer must be “yes”, for if not, trouble may be forthcoming, if it has not yet arrived. \ WHAT COMMUNICATION IS Morris Philip Wolf and Shirley Kuiper'define com- munication as “a process of sharing information through symbols, including words and message.”! Communication may happen between superior and subordinate, between peers, between a manager and a client or customer, between an employee and a government ‘Morris Philip Wolf and Shirley Kuiper, Bffective Communication in Busi- ‘ness, Kighth Edition (Cincinnati: South-Westem Publishing Co,, 1987) p. 6. 110 representative, etc. It may be done face-to-face, or through printed materials, or through an electronics device like the telephone, etc. In management, communication must be made for a purpose and because it has a cost attached to it, it must be used effectively. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Communication may be used to serve any of the following functions 1, Information function — Information provided through communication may be used for deci- sion-making at various work levels in the orga- nization. A construction worker, for instance, may be given instructions on the proper use of certain equipment. This will later provide him with a guide in deciding which equipment to use in particular circumstances. Another concern is the manager who wants to make sure that his decision in promoting an employee to a higher position is correct. ‘Through communication, the information provided will minimize if not eliminate the risk. 2. Motivation function — Communication is also oftentimes used as a means to motivate em- ployees to commit themselves to the organiza- tion’s objectives. 3. Control function — When properly commu- nicated, reports, policies, and plans defin« clarify duties, authorities and responsi Effective control is, then, facilitated. 4. Emotive function — When feelings are repressed *William G. Scott and Terence R. Mit Structural Behavioral Analysis (Homewoo4, Organization Theory: A inois: Irwin, 1979) p. 8. 1viaty sehich. iad. end by anxiety, which, in turn, affects performance Whatever types of emotions are invélved, whe. ther satisfaction, dissatisfaction, happiness, or bitterness, communication provides a means to decrease the internal pressure affecting tl individual. 2 oat THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ‘The communication process consists of eight steps Figure 6.1 The Communication Process SENDER i develops idea ‘encodes then transmits message to RECEIVER i ‘who receives message uz which are as follows: develop an idea, encode, transmit, receive, decode, accept, use, and provide feedback.’ Develop an Idea ‘The most important step in effective communication is developing an idea. It is important that the idea to be conveyed must be useful or of some value. An example ofa useful idea is how to prevent accidents in workplaces. Encode The next step is to encode the idea into words, strations, figures, or other symbols suitable for transmission. The method of transmission should be determined in advance so that the idea may be encoded to conform with the specific requirements of the identified method. An example of an encoded message using telefax as a means of transmission is shown in Figure 6.2. Transmit After encoding, the message is now ready for trans- mission through the use of an appropriate communica- tion channel. Among the various channels used include the spoken word, body movements, the written word, television, telephone, radio, an artist's paint, electronic mail, ete. Proper transmission is very important so the mes- sage sent will reach and hold the attention of the receiver. To achieve this, the communication channel must be free of barriers, or interference (sometimes referred to as noise). Receive The next step is the communication process is the actual receiving of the message by the intended receiver. Soba W. Newstcom Behavior at Work, Ninth Bi 94-96. Davis, Organizational Behavior, Haman ion (New York: McGraw-Hill, ine, 1998) pp. 13i ARPT PTD Ne eet Re ae cial at the precise moment the message relayed by the sen. der. Figure 6.2 In Example of an Encoded Message for Telefax ‘Transmission re ey lg Calao West Chemicals Corporation Santiago City Branch Sales Report for January 1997 Area Volume Amount {in drums) I 1,000 1,000,000 1 1,342 1,342,000 iit 2,045 2,045,000 Vv 1,089 1,089,000 v 2,686 2,686,000 VL 3,450 3,450,000 ‘Total 1,612 11,612,000 ee Prepared by: Josefina Datu Branch Manager ‘The message may be initially received by a machine or by a person. In any case, communication stops when the machine is not turned or tuned on to receive the message, or the person assigned to receive the message does not listen or pay attention properly. Decode The next step, decoding, means translating the message from the sender into a form that will have meaning to the recipient. If the receiver knows the lan. guage and terminology used in the message, successful 14 decoding may be achieved. Examples of various terms encoded and decoded are shown in Figure 6.3. If the receiver understands the purpose and the background situation of the sender, decoding will be greatly improved. In legal practice, for instance, the declarations of a dying person have more weight. Accept The next step is for the receiver to accept or reject the message. Sometimes, acceptance (or rejection) is partial. An example is provided as follows: Anewly-hired employee was sent toa supervisor with a note from his superior directing the supervisor to accept the employee into his unit and to provide the necessary training and guidance. Figure 6.3 Examples of Encoded and Decoded information Encoded “Decoded if settled Account “9 within 30 days. ‘Gand Indicates beginning of a flowcharting activity. arrivals —} | service || departures 000 facility |] after services configuration i phase system. 5/10; n/30 Sales on accounts allowed. A basic queuing system a single-channel, single-4s the supervisor feels that he was not consulted in the hiring process, he thinks that his only obligation is to accept the employee in his unit and nothing more. The factors that will affect the acceptance or rejection of a message are as follows: 1. the accuracy of the message; 2. whether or not the sender has the authority to send the message and/or require action; and 3. the behavioral implications for the receiver. Use ‘The next stepis for the receiver to use the information. If the message provides information of importance to a relevant, activity, then the receiver could store it and retrieve it when required. If the message requires a certain action to be made, then he may do so, otherwise, he discards it as soon as it is received. All of the above- mentioned options will depend on his perception of the message. Provide Feedback ‘The last step in the communication process is for the receiver to provide feedback to the sender. Depending on the perception ofthe receiver, however, this important step may not be made. * . Even if feedback is relayed, it may not reach the original sender of the message. This may be attributed to the effects of any of the communication barriers. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Communication consists of two major forms: 1, verbal and 2. nonverbal. 6 Verbal Communication Verbal communications are those transmitted through hearing or sight. These modes of transmission categorizes verbal communication into two classes: oral and written. Oral communication mostly involves hearing the words of the sender, although sometimes, opportunities are provided for seeing the sender’s body movements, facial expression, gestures, and eye contact. Sometimes, feeling, smelling, tasting, and touching are involved. An alternative to oral communication is the written communication where the sender seeks to communicate through the written word. The written conimunication is, sometimes, preferred over the oral communication because of time and cost constraints. When a sender, for instance, cannot meet personally the receiver due to some reason, a written letter or memo is prepared and sent to the receiver. ‘The written communication, however, has limitations and to remedy these, some means are devised. Perfume advertisers, for instance, lace their written message with the smell of their products. In the same light, the now popular musical Christmas card is an attempt to enhance the effects of the written note. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is a means of conveying message through body language, as well as the use of time, space, touch, clothing, appearance, and aesthetic elements. Body language consists of gestures, bodily movement, posture, facial expression, and mannerisms of all kinds.‘ Nonverbal expressions convey many shades of “Gerard I. Nieremberg, The Art of Negotiating (New York: Cornerstone Library, 1968) p, 101, 7to understand what messages are relayed. THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Various factors may impede the efficient flow of communication. Any, or all, of these factors may, at any Point, derail the process. Even if the message is trans- mitted by the channel, the timing and the meaning of the message may be affected by the factors. The barriers to communication may be classified generally as: 1. personal barriers 2. physical barriers 3. semantic barriers Personal Barriers Personal barriers are hindrances to effective com- munication arising from a communicator’s characteris. ties as a person, such as emotions, values, poor listenit habits, sex, age, race, socioeconomic status, r education, etc. Emotions cloud the communicator’s ability to judge correctly the real meaning of messages received. People with different values will find it hard to communicate with each other. Poor listening habits of a receiver frustrate the communication efforts of a sender. Physical Barriers Physical barriers refer to interferences to effective communication occurring in the environment where the communication is undertaken. The very loud sound produced by a passing jet temporarily drowns out the voice of a guest delivering a speech. Such distraction does not allow full understanding of the meaning of the entire message and is an example of a physical barrier. us | Physical barriers include distances between people, walls, a noisy jukebox near a telephone, etc. An office that is too tidy may sometimes inhibit a person from meeting the occupant of the office face-to-face. A menacing pet dog (or secretary) posted near the door may also prevent a person from directly communicating with the object person behind the door. \ A communication channel that is overloaded may also prevent important information to reach the intended user. Another physical barrier to communication is wrong timing. For instance, how may one expect a person who has just lost a loved one to act: on an inquiry from a fellow employee? Semantic Barriers Semantics is the study of meaning aa expressed in symbols.* Words, pictures, or actions are symbols. that suggest certain meanings. When the wrong meaning has been chosen by the receiver, misunderstanding occurs. Such error constitutes a barrier to communication. A semantic barrier may be defined as an “interference with the reception of a message that occurs when the message is misunderstood even though it is received exactly as transmitted.”* : For example, the words “wise” and “salvage” will have different meanings to an English speaking foreigner than to an ordinary Filipino, OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION When communication barriers threaten effective “Joel P. Bowman and Bernadine P. Branchaw, Business Report Writing (Chicago: The Dryden Press, 1984) p. 192, ‘Warren K. Agee and others, Introduction to Mass Communication, Ninth Edition (Sydney: Harper and Row Publishers, 1988) p. A, ugperformance, certain measures must be instituted to eliminate them. To eliminate problems due to noise, selective perception, and distraction, the following are recommended: | 1, Use feedback to facilitate understanding and increase the potential for appropriate action. | 2. Repeat messages in order to provide assurance that they are properly received. 3. Usemultiple channels so that the accuracy of the information may be enhanced, 4. Use simplified language that is easily under- standable and which eliminates the possibility of people getting mixed-up with meanings. TECHNIQUES FOR COMMUNICATING IN ORGANIZATIONS Communication may be classified as to the types of flow of the message which are as follows: downward, upward, or horizontal. Each of the types of message flow has its own purposes and techniques. ©, Downward Communication Downward communication refers to message flows from higher levels of authority to lower levels. Among the purposes of downward communication are: 1. to give instructions 2. to provide information about policies and pro- cedures 3. to give feedback about performance 4. to indoctrinate or motivate Among the techniques used in downward commu- nication are as follows: letters, meetings, telephones, manuals, handbooks, and newsletters. 120 Letters are appropriate when directives are complex and precise actions are required. When orders are simple but the result depends largely on employee morale, techniques that provide personal interchange like meet- ings and the telephone, are appropriate. Modern tech- nology has made it possible for people to hold meetings even if they are thousands of kilometers apart from each other. Manuals are useful sources of information regarding company policy, procedures, and organization. Unlike using persons as sources of information, manuals are available whenever it is needed. Handbooks provide more 5} the duties and priveleges of the individual worker. It has also the advantage of being available whenever needed. Figure 6.4 Message Flow and Areas of Concern UPWARD COMMUNICATION. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION ~ Concerns: Concerns: = problems and exceptions implementation Strategies and job instructions and rationale — grievances and disputes procedures, and practices — financial and accounting Performnante soedbinck: information indoctrination = suggestions for improvement = performance reports HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION Concern: = interdepartmental. coordination. — intradepartmental problem-solving — staff advice to the departments 121Newsletters provide a mixture of personal, social, and work-related information. Articles about new hirings, promotions, birthdays of employees, questions and answers about work related issues are presented. Upward Communication There is a need for management to provide employ- ees with all the necessary material and non-material support it can give. The first requirement, however, is for management. to know the specific needs of the om- ployees. This is the primary reason for upward com- munication. ‘Upward communication refers to messages from persons in lower-level positions to persons in higher positions. The messages sent usually provide information on work progress, problems encountered, suggestions for improving output, and personal feelings about work and non-work activities, ‘Among the techniques used in upward commu- nication are: formal grievance procedures, employee attitude and opinion surveys, suggestion systems, open- door policy, informal gripe sessions, task forces, and exit interviews. Formal Grievance Procedures. Grievances are part of a normally operating organization. To effectively deal with them, organizations provide a system for employees to air their grievances. Holley and Jennings define grievance as “any em- ployee’s concern over a perceived violation of the labor agreement that is submitted to the grievance procedure for eventual resolution.” Grievances represent an open, upward communication channel whereby employees can offer suggestions to management. ‘William H. Holley and Kenneth M. Jennings, The Labor Relations Process, Fourth Edition (New York: The Dryden Press, 1991) p. 568. rs 122 bg >. ac amm Aiapri Nar: it Me wars predylcs uence aS the grievance procedure may consist of a single step or anumber of steps. Companies with a collective bargaining agreement with its union must refer to the grievance procedure spelled out in the law on labor relations." Employee Attitude and Opinion Surveys. Finding out what the employees think about the company is very important. The exercise, however, requires expertise and the company may not be prepared to do it. If the organization’s operation is large enough to justify such activity, then it must be done. If the assistance of an outside research firm is considered, a benefit-cost analysis must be used as a deciding factor. Suggestion Systems. Suggestions from employees are important sources of cost-saving and production enhancing ideas. Even if majority of the suggestions are not feasible, a simple means of acknowledging them contributes to employee morale. Open-Door Policy. An open-door policy, even on a limited basis, provides the management with an oppor- tunity to act on difficulties before they become full-blown problems. Informal Gripe Sessions. Informal gripe sessions can be used positively if management knows how to handle them, When employees feel free to talk and they are assured of not being penalized for doing so, then man- agement will be spared with lots of efforts determining the real causes of problems in the company. ‘Task Forces. When a specific problem or issue arises, a task force may be created and assigned to deal with the problem or issue. Since membership of task forces con- sists of management and nonmanagement personnel,integration and teamwork are fostered, creativity is enhanced, and interpersonal skills are developed. Exit Interviews. When employees leav2 an orga- nization for any reason, it is to the advantage of man- agement to know the real reason. If there are negative developments in the organization that management is not aware of, exit interviews may provide some of the answers, Horizontal Communication Horizontal communication refers to messages sent ividuals or groups from another of the same orga- nizational level or position. ‘The purposes of horizontal communication are: 1. to coordinate activities between departments 2. to persuade others at the same level of organi- zation 3. to pass on information about activities or feelings Among the techniques appropriate for horizontal ‘communication are: memos, meetings, telephones, picnics, dinners, and other social affairs. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM It was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that communication may be used to serve the information function, This means that a way must be devised to allow the organization to absorb information necessary for effective decision-making. In this regard, companies of various sizes have organized systems to gather information that will be usefal to management. \\\ Management information system (MIS) is defined by Boone and Kurtz as “an organized method of provi- ding past, present, and projected information on internal 124 operations and external intelligence for use in decision- making.” ‘The MIS currently used by corporate firms consists of “written and electronically based s reports, memos, bulletins, and the allows managers of the different departments within the firm to communicate with each other. Figure 6.5 The MIS and Its Relation with the Different Departments of the Organization Manufacturing me < Marketing MANAGEMENT Finance INFORMATION Personnel SYSTEM Engineeni 7 Ae Research pected and Development The Purposes of MIS The MIS is established for various reasons. Wheelen and Hunger enumerate them as follows:"' 1. ‘To provide a basis for the analysis of early war- ning signals that can originate both externally and internally. 2. ‘To automate routine clerical operations like pay- roll and inventory reports. “Louis E. Boone and David L. Kurtz. Contemporary Business, Second uWheelen and Hunger, p. 145,3, To assist managers in making routine decisions like scheduling orders, assigning orders to machines, and reordering supplies. 4. To provide the information necessary for man- agement to make strategic or nonprogrammed decisions. SUMMARY Communicating is a vital function of the engineer manager. Organizations cannot function properly without effective communication. If the required outputs must be realized, communication must be managed. Communication is used to serve the information function, motivation function, control function, and emotive function. ‘The communication process consists of various steps, namely, develop anidea, encode, transmit, receive, decode, accept, usé, and provide feedback. ‘The forms of communication are verbal and non- verbal. ‘The barriers to communication may be classified as personal, physical, or semantic. These may be elimina- ted or minimized by using feedback, repeating messages, ‘using multiple channels, and using simplified language. Communication flows are either downward, upward or horizontal. Management information’systems are useful means of communication. 126MOTIVATING What is Motivation? Factors Contributing to Motivation Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Expectancy Theory Goal Setting Theory Techniques of Motivation Motivation through Job Design Motivation through Rewards Motivation through Employee Participation Other Motivation Techniques Chapter 7 MOTIVATING | Productivity has always been a serious concern of management of firms. If it improves, it means grea- sr chances for the company to grow and be more stable. ‘One reason why the Philippine economy cannot move steadily forward is our record of low productivity for so many years. Higher productivity, however, is not a result of chance. It happens because of harder, more efficient, and more intelligent work made by the employees. To be willing partners, however, the requirement is for them to be properly motivated. An example is the management of a construction firm wanting its employees to finish pro- jects on time, with the quality required at the least cost. ‘To achieve this, various methods of motivation may be applied. ‘When the cost of the other factors of production is seriously affecting the viability of the firm, the remaining factor the company from financial diffic ill depend on whether or not labor will be motivated to perform their assigned task. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivating refers to the act of “giving employees reasons or incentives . . . to work to achieve organizational objectives.”' Motivation, on the other hand, refers to the “process of activating behavior, sustaining it, and direct- ing it toward a particular goal.” This definition is use- ful becanse it specifies three stages: activating, sustain- WRerrel and Hist, p. 184. *Matlin, p. 380, 131ing, and directing actions towards the achievement of objectives. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MOTIVATION ‘There are certain factors influencing a person's desire to do his job well. They are the following:! Py 1. Willingness to do a job. People who like wl are doing are highly motivated to produce expected output. 2. Self-confidence in carrying out a task. When employees feel that they have the required skill and training to perform a task, the more moti- vated they become. 3. Needs satisfaction. People will do their jobs well if they feel that by doing so, their needs will/be satisfied. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION ‘There are various theories of motivation, but only the four most influential ones will be discussed. They consist of the following: 2. Heraberg’s two-factor theory Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, theorized that ‘human beings have five basic needs which are as fol- lows: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self- actualization. These needs are hierarchical, which means, *Gole and Hamilton, p. 146. one néed will have to be satisfied first before the other need.‘ Physiological Needs. Those that are concerned with biological needs like food, drink, rest, and sex fall under the category of physiological needs.* These needs take priority over other needs. Security Needs. After satisfying the physiological needs, people will seek to satisfy their safety needs. These needs include freedom from harm coming from the ele- ments or from other people, financial security which may be affected by loss of job or the breadwinner in the fam- ily, ete. Figure 7.1 The Process of Motivation plus —————>|__ MOTIVATION which leads to readiness for the next need NEED ACTION OR SATISFACTION ) ~ GOAL-DIRECTED ‘BEHAVIOR which results to ‘Harper W. Boyd, Jr. and Orville C, Walker, Jr,, Marketing Management (Homewood, Illinois: Irwin, 1990) p. 12. z ‘B. Jerome McCarthy and William D. Perreault, Jr, Basic Marketing (Homewood, Hlinois: Irwin, 1990) p. 173. 133Figure 7.2 Masiow’s Hierarchy of Needs ‘SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS ‘Self-fulfilment ESTEEM NEEDS Status, respect, prestige SOCIAL NEEDS Friendship, belonging, love SECURITY NEEDS Freedom from harm, financial security PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS Food, water, sleep, sex, body elimination Social Needs. After satisfying hi iologi Si ing his physiological and security needs, the employee will now atrive to sesure are affection, and the need to be accepted by peers. z Esteem Needs. The fourth level of needs is called eee and they refer to the need for a positive self ‘image and self-respect and the need to be respected by Self-Actualization Needs. The fifth ; and th level needs in the hierarchy are called tea, needs and involve realizing our full potential as human beings and becoming all that we are able to be. The Relevance of Maslow's Theor ineeri Management. Even if Maslow’s ahecey be ee questioned, one basic premise cannot be discarded: 2 fulfilled need no longer motivates an individual. If this is the situation the subordinate isin, the engineer man must identify an unfulfilled need and work out a aches -aiSeRors Moorhead aod Risky Grisin, Organiza Second Béiton Boston: Houghton Miflin Co, 1989) pp 10910, 134 so that the subordinate will be motivated to work in order to satisfy the unfulfilled need. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ‘The two-factor theory is one developed by Frederick Herzberg indicating that a satisfied employee is motiva- ted from within to work harder and that a dissatisfied employee is not self-motivated.’ Herzberg identified two classes of factors associated with employee satisfaction and dissatisfaction. In his research, Herzberg found out that satisfied employees mentioned the following factors (called satisfiers or moti- vation factors) responsible for job satisfaction: achieve- ment, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advance- ment. and growth. Dissatisfied employees mentioned the following factors (called dissatisfiers or hygiene factors) as responsible for job dissatisfaction: company policy and administration, supervision, relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, relationship with peers, personal life, relationship with subordinates, status, and security. If Herzberg’s theory will be considered by the engi- neer manager in motivating employees, he must do something to eliminate the dissatisfiers and install satisfiers. As shown in Figure 7.3, even if the dissatisfiers are eliminated (at point zero), the employee is still not motivated to work hard. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory is a motivation model based on the assumption that an individual will work depending on his perception of the probability of his expectations to happen. a The theory poses the idea that motivation is deter- ‘Kreitner, p. 388. 135Figure 7.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 10 9 8 7 LEVEL OF 6 SATISFACTION 5 4 3 2 1 0 level of no satisfaction and 1 no dissatisfaction * a {no reason not to work ‘but no motivation to 8 work hard) 4 LEVEL OF 5 DISSATISFACTION 6 7 8 g 10 mined by expectancies and valences,* An expectancy is a belief about the likelihood or probability that a particular behavioral act (like attending training sessions) will lead to a particular outcome (like a promotion). Valence is the value an individual places on the expected outcomes or rewards, Expectancy theory is based on the following as- sumptions:” "Richard M. Steers, Introduction to Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition (New York: Harper Collins Publishing, Ine, 1991) pp. 161-162, "Higgins, p. 498, 136 Figure 7.4 An Expectancy Model [exrectancy EXPECTANCY | perceived perceived probability probability of successful of receiving performance, ‘an outcome, given effort given performance Valence + First-level Outcome (compensation) T —> | PERFORMANCE ] — [OUTCOMES valence + First-level Outcome (recognition) 1871. A combination of forces within the individual Motivate litate Performance and in the environment determines behavior, Regt 7.6: Mow coats: ese 2. People make decisions about their own behavior and that of organizations GOAL 3. People have different types of needs, goals, and Mae desires, : 4. People make choices among alternative beha- Pe i viors based on the extent to which they think a a certain behavior will lead to a desired outcome. a cane an ieee Shown in Figure 7.4 is a model of the expectancy 4. time limited theory. 5. relevant Goal Setting Theory ; Goal setting refers to the process of “improving per- aes WORK bb eiaieoge » © formance with objectives, deadlines or quality standart" Of reads (or | --+ = (per aviod <2 Siaee . When Us or groups are assigned specific goals, feedback a clear directio ae ; n is provided and which later motivates them to achieve these goals. 1. direction ‘The goal setting model drawn by EdwinA. Locke and 2. etfor his associates consists of the following components: 3. persistence I. goal content 4 planning 2. goal commitment ~ [Task ea | ae SY Seana clase) Constraints: 3. work behavior 1. 4. feedback aspects cs Goal Content. To be sufficient in content, goals must 3. equipment be challenging, attainable, specific and measurable, time- PERFORMANCE limited, and relevant. When goals are challenging, higher performance may be expected. The sales quotas imposed by companies to np, “Bartel and Martin, p. 164, 139individual members of their sales force indicate reliance of these companies to the use of challenging goals. Goals must be attainable if they are to be set. If they are not, then workers will only be discouraged to perform, if at all. Goals must be stated in quantitative terms when- ever possible. When exact figures to be met are set, understanding is facilitated and workers are motivated to perform. There must be a time-limit set for goals to be ac- complished. ‘The more relevant the goals are to the company’s mission, the more support it can generate from various levels of employment in the organization, Goal Commitment. When individuals or groups are committed to the goals they are supposed to achieve, there is a chance that they will be able to achieve them. Work Behavior. Goals influence behavior in terms of direction, effort, persistence, and planning. When an individual is provided with direction, performance is tated. In trying to attain goals that are already indicated, the individual is provided with a direction to exert. more effort. The identification of goals provide a reason for an individual to persist in his efforts until the goal is attained. Once goals are set, the first important input to planning is already in place. Feedback Aspects. Feedback provide the individuals with a way of knowing how far they have gone in achiev- ing objectives. Feedback also facilitate the introduction of corrective measures whenever they are found to be necessary. 140 TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION Individual or groups of individuals may be motivated to perform through the use of various techniques. These techniques may be classified as follows:#? 1. motivation through job design 2, motivation through rewards 3, motivation through employee participation 4. other motivation techniques for the diverse work force Motivation Through Job Design A person will be highly motivated to perform if he is assigned a job he likes. The first requisite, however, is to design jobs that will meet the requirements of the organization and the persons who will occupy them. Job design may be defined as “specifying the tasks that constitute a job for an individual or a group.” In motivating through the use of job design, two approaches may be used: fitting people to jobs or fitting jobs to people. Fitting People to Jobs. Routine and repetitive tasks make workers suffer from chronic dissatisfaction. To avoid this, the following remedies may be adapted: 1. Realistic job previews — where management provides honest explanations of what a job actually entails. 2, Job rotation — where people are moved period- ically from one specialized job to another. 3, Limited exposure — where a worker’s exposure toa highly fragmented and tedious jobis limited. "Kreliner, pp. 399-410. "Helzer and Render, p. 426. 41Cee el eee ee TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION i Motivation thru! Other Employee's Motivation Participation Techniqi quality + control circles sell- managed teams Family support sabbaticals services Fitting Jobs to People. Instead of changing the person, management may consider changing the job. This may be achieved with the use of the following: 1, Job enlargement—where two or more specialized tasks in a work flow sequence is combined into a single job. 2. Job enrichment — where efforts are made to make jobs more interesting, challenging, and rewarding. Motivating Through Rewards Rewards consist of material and psychological benefits to employees for performing tasks in the work- place. Properly administered reward systems can im- prove job performance and satisfaction. Rewards may be classified into two categories:* 1, Extrinsic — those which refer to payoffs granted to the individual by another party. Examples are money, employee benefits, promotions, recog- nition, status symbols, praise, ete. 2, Intrinsic rewards — those which are internally experienced payoffs which are self-granted, Examples are a sense of accomplishment, self- esteem and self-actualization. Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards coincide with needs spelled out at the beginning of the chapter. Management of Extrinsic Rewards. To motivate job performance effectively, extrinsic rewards must be properly managed in line with the following: 1. it must satisfy individual needs; 2, the employees must believe effort will lead to reward;Figure 7.7 An Array of Monetary and Other Incentives for Employees ‘Type of Benefit Feature 1. “Monthly pay depends on qualifications of employee given at mid-year given at yearend + 2. 18th month pay 3. 14th month pay 4, Housing allowance given to permanent employees 5. Sick leave benefits 15 days a year with pay 6. Vacation leave benefits 15 days a year with pay 7. Pension plan given ent empl 8. Paid vacation trip given to employess with outstanding performance 9. Health insurance given to permanent employees 10. Accident insurance given to permanent employees 3. rewards must be equitable; 4. rewards must be linked to performance. No single type of reward is generally applicable to all employees. This is so because individual persons have needs different from other persons. As much as possible the’ particular needs of an individual must be matched with the corresponding reward if motivation is the objective. The administrative contraints inherent to such systems, however, will be a hindrance to its adop- tion, Whenever feasible, however, it must be used. Employees must believe that efforts will lead to 144 reward. Otherwise, they will not strive to turn in more efforts in their particular job assignments. Rewards that are not equitable will not produce the desired motivation. . When employees know that reward is tied up toindi- vidual performance, management may expect extra efforts from them. A negative example is the practice in some government offices where every employee, regardless of performance, is given a productivity bonus. As a result, the majority are not motivated to exert extra efforts. Motivation Through Employee Participation ‘When employees participate in deciding various as- pects of their jobs, the personal involvoment, oftentimes, is carried up to the point where the task is completed. ‘The specific activities identified where employees may participate are as follows: 1. setting goals 2. making decisions 3. solving problems, and 4, designing and implementing organizational changes ‘The more popular approaches to participation in- cludes the following: * 1. quality control circles 2. self-managed teams Quality Control Circles. A method of direct emplo- yee participation is the quality control circle (QCC). The objective of the QC is to increase productivity and quality of output. ‘The circle consists of “a group of three to ten em- ployees, usually doing related work, who meet at regular 45— intervals (once a week for an hour, problems and discuss their solutions.” The circle includes “q leader such as a foreman, but rely on democratic pro- cesses."® The members are trained in various analysis techniques by a coordinator. ‘The circle forwards its recommendations to man- agement, which in turn, makes decisions on its adaption. Self-managed Teams. When workers have reached a certain degree of discipline, they may be ripe for forming self-managed teams. Also known as autonomous work groups or high performance teams, self-managed teams “take on traditional managerial tasks as part of their normal work routine.” Figure 7.8 The Quality Control Circle Process Quality circle members Quality circle brainstorm, gather data, members prepare and establish cause solutions and and effect. recommendations Results are measured Management and feedback, considers recognition and quality circle rewards given to <<} recommendations quality control and makes circle members. decisions. izations, An 5) p. 256, WKreitner, p. 406. Dei SV Be & tty a PRs a ee ata 7 eA out a complete product or service and receiving minimal supervision from managers who act more as facilitators than supervisors. When a product or service is produced by a group of professionals or specialists, they might as well be formed as a self-managed team to save on supervisory costs. Requisites to Successful Employee Participation Program ‘To succeed, an employee participation program will require the following: . 1. a profit-sharing or gainsharing plan. 2. a long-term employment relationship with good job security. 3. a concerted effort to build and maintain group cohesiveness. 4, protection of the individual employee's rights. Other Motivation Techniques ‘The advent of theories on individual differences and the biological clock of human beings"? put pressure on the engineer manager to adapt other motivation techniques whenever applicable. These refer to the following: 1. flexible work schedules 2, family support services 3. sabbaticals. Flexible Work Schedules. There is an arrangement, called flextime, which allows employees to determine their own arrival and departure times within specified limits. For example, an engineering firm may allow one group "Matlin, p. 141. 47of employees to take the 0:00 AM 40 O:0 I? schedule, another group takes the 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM schedule, and another takes the 10:00 AM to 7:00 PM schedule. ‘An alternative to this arrangement is the adaption of the forty-hour work in four days allowing the employee to choose a “day-off”, ‘An innovation of a popular bank in Makati is the hiring of part-time tellers to work four hours a day from Monday to Friday. ‘There are certain benefits that are offered by flexi- ble work schedules, although it is not appropriate for all situations. Nevertheless, the engineer manager must decide when it is applicable. Family Support Services. Employees are oftentimes burdened by family obligations like caring Progressive companies provide day care fi children of employees. A multinational company in far flung Davao province has even opened an elementary and a high school within the plantation site. Sabbaticals. A sabbatical leave is one given to an employee after a certain number of years of service. The employee is allowed to go on leave for two months to one year with pay to give him time for family, recreations, and travel. It is expected that when the employee returns for work, his motivation is improved. SUMMARY ‘Motivating is the management action of giving em- ployees reasons or incentives to work to achieve orga- nizational objectives. Motivation is the process of activa- ting behavior, sustaining it, and directing it towards a particular goal. 148 ‘The factors contributing to motivation consist of: (1) willingness to do a job, (2) self-confidence in carrying out a task, and (3) needs satisfaction. ‘There are four theories of motivation that are crucial to management: These are: 1. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory 2, Herzberg’s two-factor theory 3. Expectancy theory 4, Goal setting theory Various techniqués of motivation consist of: a) moti- vation through job design, 2) motivation through rewards, 3) motivation through employee participation, and 4) other motivation techniques like flexible work schedules, family support services, and sabbaticals. 149