Biology BSC401

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POPULAR Choice
INTRODUCTION TypeGuestions
BIOLOGY
1.What is
biomimicry?
a) A type of science
Ed
b) The act of mimicking nature [MODEL QUESTION)
for technology¥
c) Copycating nature
Chapter at a Glance biology.
commoniy Idenied
by the
by lun
uman Genome
to deternine many
Answer: (b)
molecular revolutions
in
the human body and bases in of 2.Leaves inspired something
pe
and
Cenomicallowed in prorens of bases
proteins and of acids a) True b) False
us to identity' all cids
0 of amino acids in computers to analyz the [MODEL QUESTION]
Project, has sequencing tne use or
sequences. Our
bioinförmatics. which
on
relies
derstanding of
understanding the in
ol the ft Answer: (a) c) none
d) both
r diIdual
developnment of
puted the for pattems and similarities. The
subsequent
a comprehensive
information
Parts List." ellular
ca
of
ucnces the
creauou manipulated. These advan
manipulated. advances in the 3.Examples of biomimicry are:
sequences resulted in identified and a) Sun---sunflower MODEL QUESTION]
underlyiny the easily
components can now be knowledge to our toolkn
ana spurred the growin a nte ce b) Whale-turbine
l0OK at biology
from d c) Gecko--Gecko tape
cular
understanding of biology added
much
time, we can
d) Elephant trunks---robotic arm
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engineering. For the first operation of biological fiunctiC e) Horse--car
The
Deween biology and attention to detail.
regulation of biological
funet Answer: (6)
much greater ctions
pcspective and with a "biomolecular, machines. he
complex
now be understood as "biomolecular circuits. 4. Human genome project was published in MODEL QUESTION]
in
can be seen as complex

solicit ne knOwledge and practica
lical a) 1999 b) 2008 c) 2005 d) 2002
many areas today that
a few of the Answer: (c)
The following slides show
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot to changes in

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skills of bio-engineers: tlexibility, durabilitY, and endurance

1. In the past. only
mechanical aspects such as Now, bioengineers incorporat
rate 5. In 1857 it was proved that all fermentations are results of microbial activity by
spacestHis. [MODEL QUESTION]1
considered in the design of
Outside conditions were body into the finalization of their designs.
knowledge of the physiology of the human b) Lmark c) Darwin d) Mendle
suits, the design and implantation
ot hip implants was previously a) Pasteur
2. Like the desiyn of space hip wvere studied Answer: (a)
engineering. The mechanics and movements of the
solely a branch of mechanical emphasis placed on the understanding of [MODEL QUESTION
ot
substitute. Today. greater is

to produce the best metal suitability. Use of living organisms
6. to serve humans is
b) Social biology
bone composition and tissue-impant
the body regardless of intervening bone by means of a strong
magnetic a) Biotechnology
3. MRI produces images of d) Service biology
c) Human biology
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field and low-energy radio waves.

in the Langer lab at MIT relies on knowledge ot Answer: (a)
4. Controlled-release drug delivery as explored [MODEL QUESTION]
enzymes and whether certain polymers/drugs would be degraded by them.
the body's
5. Image-guided surgery records surgical processes with greater detail and allows doctors
0 . Protein content called novel is produced by using
Virus
Micro-organisms
consult past steps for comparison and completeness. a) Bacteria d)
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6. The quest for an ideal replacement arificial heart continues to bafle the scientific communt c) Fungi
In the past, engineers devoted their efforts to designs based on nonbiological materials. They
Answer: (d) of yeasts,
pure culturesQUESTION]
met'with repeated 1ailure as ine complex biological systems of the body formed blood Cio rom mixed or
er
extracted [MODEL
signal rejection of tTOreign supsances such as metal, plastic, content which
is
ineers are exploring ways to esign hearts out of biomaterials and polyester. Today, bi0l0 rotein fungi is cal b) single cell
protein
protein
and possibly other tissucs and
7. Bioprocessing ne s bacteria, algae d) tetra cell
at
Oedure of preparing a biological DIological material, especially a pproau protein

of genetic engineerins, for commercial use a) triple cell protein
8. An increasing empnasis is placed
on
envi
Onmental bior c) double cell
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processes must be environment friendlv that all chemica Answer: (6)
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splved are
mistry, tra nsportation,applingwith:
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BIOLOGY
Type Questions ol, benign
cont
Short & Long Answer
three
,
collaboration,energy,
y, food
andmore. producti climate
and
engineering?
[MODEL QUESTION] What are the. els of biomimicry?
between science 6.
Ed
1. w the relationship Answer:
syntheo Bionimicry can work on three levels: [MODEL QUESTION
Answer: doing. SCience iS esis of organisim,

engineering is about
SCience is about knowing and Is "the application The
law of nature, while engineerg behaviour, and
OWledge by understanding the use the scienii Its
ecosystem.
for serving people. Enginees
pe
AnOwledge to transform the nature engneeTS and scientic The
structures and equipment. Botn Buildings on the organism level mimic a specific
ROWledge to build processes, mathematics and technology, but
engineers are trainoed organism
ave sound knowledge of science, creative solutions to the cnanenges. Sclence is abo biomimetic design?
1. What is
ca
o Use these principles in designing ne ver was, Science and
is about creating what
udying what is existing, engineeringother, for to transform nature ellectively require A er: r
[MODEL QUESTION]
Cngineering. both complement each Biomimetic refers to human-made processes, substances.
instrumenS to modify it in devices, or systems
proper understanding, and to discover nature's secrets requires The art and science of designing and that imitate
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experiments. a aS biomimicry because they mimic biological
building biomimetic
apparatus is also
systems.
2. Why Biology is important for engineers? [MODEL QUESTION
8. Similarities between Camera and eye? [MODEL QUESTION
in
Answer:
Biology may not be a typical subject in the traditional engineering disciplines (i.e., civil Answer:
electrical. or mechanical), however, it is a fundamental component of disciplines such as Those who are wndering jUst how similar a camera is to the human eye will be shocked
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot to find out the functions ol a camera that work just the same.
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biosystems engineering. Biosystems engineering -emphasizes the application of.

engineering principles to biologically-based systems (i.e., systems that include plants, The shutter in a camera can be compared to the iris in a human eye. It controls
animals, microorganisms, or humans). how much light is able to enter the lens.
The lens in camera is similar to the lens in the human eye, which are both used
3. What is the difference between bioengineering and biological engineering? to focus light and create an inmage
In the human eye, the image is
ot
Answer:
[MODEL QUESTION] With a camera, an image is recorded on a film.
the caimera stores the image one ime and the retina
Bioengineering focuses on the application of engineering displayed on the retina. However,
agriculture and environmental processes. On on biological processes, food, Isconstantly passing information along. As of yet, the
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the other hand, biomedical it would be 576 megapixels.

focus on the application of engineering
to biological and medical
engincering is the human eye were a camera,
sciences to improve produced is only 50.6 megapixels.
healthcare delivery systems highest megapixel camera ever
[MODEL QUESTION]
4. What is Biomimicry? Camera and Eyes?
.What are the differences between
ia
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: eye is

Biomimicry is an approach to Simply speaking. the human
measuring of light: our brain to create the
innovation that seeks ADSolute versus subjective im harmony with
challenges by emulating nature's sustainable solutions means that our eyes work through the
to human oecive device. Our eyes are adjusting the tocus (by bending the lightour brain can
This
er
time-iested patterns
products, processes, and and strategies. The
earth over the long haul.
policIes-new ways of goal
living-that are well-adaptedis to create
to lite on es you perceive:
eyeballs) and
translating photons (light) into
all about our brain:
an electrical inpulse
ft is continuously
readjusting its
Our what must
at
onwards, it's woras, Our eyes know

5. How do we use biomimicry? From there context. In otner
Answer:
Ss.
colou according to thelighting
Biomimicry is learning from [MODEL QUESTION] alance black elc.
cen as red or white orhand, measuremem devnce- It is
measuring the
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and then emulating is an absolule ana signals recorded need to

ecosystems to create more on the other sensor is dumo. the
circular designs.
The core
natural forms,
processes, and light era,hits a series of sensor, but the
temperature or tne ingnt
numH1atng the Scene,
for example
idea is that nature nat
has alrC suit the color
to
usted
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to use i omimicry
Airplanes DCgan as oncept. BIOLOGY
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS focus. In
In our Shape and mode offlyinga conce Engineers
froin the tilm lo eyes, their wingS, lookeda
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moves closer/tiurther shan men birds and
tocus: In camera, the
lens eyes
muscles in our
change the actual vings and bodies that looked almost ike a hiie,
ns
Le
focus: The
i the
roblem that had existed in the S The shape
able to form
plane
ens changes shape to
unitormly sensitive to
ignt. lhe human retina ontinent to tinent, and he u E Human beings of birds helped
needed way
a
to solve a
Ed
lens inside our eyes. is Snape of an animal to move from
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a camera is power, our eyes in accessibility trade,
ensitivity to light: A tilm in quality image and capturtng havea solved problems business, and to inspire an invention
that nas
O.Theretfore, with respect to of transportation.
locations than a typical
caner
capture easil. biology in our life.
reater sensitivity in dark digital cameras cannot y: The 14. Role of
that a current
nere are lighting situations
digitat noise: AS an example when Answer: MODEL QUESTION]
in a barrage of
pe
come blurry. or you
out
potos will fluorescence image of cells under a microscope, tne image can sea with Knowledge of nature
OOserving a
nigh-on impossible to capture for
an ordinary camera. This is mainly R f biology helps one understand the nature around. One can
Our eyes would be our eyes) is so low know what an animai,
light entering the camera (and lant. microbe, etc. It also teaches the structure of diferent
because of the fact that the amount of parts of plant and animal
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adies. It explains the processes like reproduction, metabolism, food collection.
[MODEL QUESTION] etc. in
10. Write the principle of flying. detail.
Answer:
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ACCording to a principle of aerodynamics called Bernoulli's law,
fast-moving air is at
Benefits to man.
lower pressure than slow-moving air, so the pressure above the wing is lower than the Learning biology can help one understand the benefits of nature to man. We can learn the
pressure below, and this creates the lift that powers the plane upward.
source of our food, milk, meat, eggs and other essential in details. One can also learn how
in
construction, travel, etc. For centuries man relies

11. What are the 4 principles of flight? [MODEL QUESTION nature contributes to agriculture, house
Answer: on animals for travel.

Principles of Flying
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(1) Lit Role in medicine disease better. A

(2) Gravity force or Weight biology helps one understand the concepts of health and
of Knowledge physiology, etc. This helps to
(3) Thrust. and is the body made of, its
student gets an idea of what improvement. It also helps one understand
(4) Drag chances for
understand disease state and also are used for medicine.
Most of the
plants and animals which
the useful substances from
ot
Lift and Drag are considered aerodynamics biological knowledge.

forces because they solution by
movement of the Airplane through the Air. exist due to the disease condition find a
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12. What are and landing on other

the factors of flight? Contribution to research: Even space exploration
to research.
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION] contributes a great deal
All Four Forces Act on an Airplane OlOgy knowledge of
planets can be done bythe use of animals. can be done well by
When an airplane is 1lying biomedical studies bombs
straight and level engineering and capabilty of powerful
balances its weight, and the Lydrugs, the destruction
that even
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at a constant
thrust it produces speed, the lift it proau initeresting point is
of forces changes as tne airplane rises balances its O1Ogy. The
and descends, drag. However, this balan Was done by the use of animals.
as it tums. as it speeds up
er
and slows down, and endangered

Conservation of natu which are
13. How do birds inspire Safe guar tne species conservation is
airplanes? ard and biology, we can understarnd EvEn tne soil, forest
Answer: By kOWledge of extinction.
at
There have beenimany.changes [IMODEL QUESTION them from survival. For

in airplane them. This saves in human
ure. Engineers nave
been drawing designs since Unacistalid ietr roie
biomimicry to inspire their designs their ideas innovatior possible due to biology botany makes us
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tion, development and in

usand years ago, and they even from nature, plant inimportance ofplants.
Study of the plants
and they haveave been using [MODEL QUESTION
trie gs details go through the study off Biology.
.
of ther fel and hurt themselves, have

aing planes, been trying to fly since ovet * importance of
kites and Write the
flying 1from clifis. Most 15. What is biology?
bio
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ineluding
ience and engincering both relat
descriptive
ving organisms,physiol
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1orking vith;similar de
h iptive models models
Answer: studies ife and neraclions, physiologica and to physica
the natural
science that
processes,
moleculkar d engineering arc. In practice. similar physical
eninterinixed, Sical systems. sometimes
coniplexity or the science,
ther are
h astructure,ehemical Despite the scientists thhe accomplishments of (therpopular usaue
ver, Science
development and evolution. conerenm tield. Bio eers (tnere
Ed
single. Nonctheless 5Cs
CCisms. eonsolidate it into
a
heredi ckct scientists). are many
rocket engineers.
to
unitying concepts that ne DsCunit of
ea
ecognizes the cell as the
basice unit
that propels
of life.
the
genes as
creation and extinction of species.
Li
ing
nature. Understanding and engineering
this dilference
12 of the relalionsnip between is essential
differ radically but no
if one is to form
in their
evofution as the engine that survive by transtormg energy and decreasing the her in
possibilities, whether in molecular systems present knowledge and future a ciear
technological
Organisms are open sy stems as honmeOstasis. engineering
pe
vital condition defined How do science and engimeering ditter! In
or elsewhere.
entropy to maintain a stable and kind or
cll research methods employea and the arts with a physical a sense,. they
Sub-disciplines of' biology are detined by the quantitatia system and seeks point in opposite
direcion's.
biology uses mathematical methods to tormulate SC ie theory. to develop a descriptive
Engineering starts with a descriptive
sstem studied: theoretical model- a
enpirical esperimens to test'the validity of S oks to develop
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models while experimental biology performs a physical system. model- an engineering design
understand the mechanisms underlying life and hou and In this, they
are opposites. and from this
proposed thevries and differences in thought and goals. flow
and evolved trom non-living matter about 4 bilio ycars agO through, a deep
t appeared Consider how scienists and engineers choose
their objectives. A scientist
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gradual increase in the complexity of the system. focuses on
what is not yet understood, and studies il. An engineer focuses on what is
already
1understood. and builds with t. Scientists seek simple
Biology is the exploration of life. Researcher examine the structure. work, development systems that challenge their
Starting point. advancement and appropriation of living beings. understanding; engineers seek to build to build systems of challenging complexity using
in
Biology is important to study because understandable components. Where a scientist may contemplate solid-state physics and
-t helps uS get a better understanding about the world in its natural processes seek to unravel the mysteries of correlated electron phenomena. an engineer will use
t is the study of how lives evolves. survives and changes
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot established principles of solid-state physics to describe the behavior of a set of reliable
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-it gives knowledge about the interaction of cells with organs and organism designs for wires, transistors, and capacitors. A scientist may discover phenomena that
environment and ecosystem. enable the creation of a new transistor-like device: an engineer may discover how to
lt teaches how various organs and system works on human body
and how everything is organize a million transistorsinto a new information processing system.
connected in our body. provides an
The molecular warld has been the province of scientists. Their knowledge
-t is an imnportant subject for medical point of view which includes in the molecular world will raise questions that
identifying disease essential guidc, and engineering efforts
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and its cure. doing the work call themselves

Knowledge of Biology helps making a better spur further iscientific study. Whether the people
environment to live in. is of little importance. Regardless of
labels. progress in
Despite the profound advanes SClentists" or "engineers"
made over recent decades in technology, will require an
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like that in other fields of

fundamental processes, some
basic problems have remained
our understanding of life s Oecular systems engineering;
major unresolved problems unresolved. One of th: engineering approach
in biology is
particularly its key processes the primary adaptive
function of sex, an
One view is that sex evolved
in eukaryotes
of meiosis and homologous Process and the Scientific Methods.
primarily as an adaptation recombinati01 . .Compare Engineering Design [MODEL QUESTION
diversity. An alternative
ia
view is that sex is an that promoted increased

repair in germ-line LDNA, adaptation for genet
promoting accurate Answer: products.
and that
D create new tihings. such as
that may be useful in the long run. increased genetic diversity is nature works. engincers dilferent
primarily a by prod study how and scientists have
SCientists
er
Another basic unresolved riences. Because engineers experiments

problem in biology websites, environments, an processes in their work. Scientists perform
there is no consensus view on is the biologic
creativity-bascd engineering
are the underlying basis of aging. At presc objectives, they follow different enginecers folow the
outlined in Ageing Theories. cause of aging. reas.
at
Various competilng USing the scientifie methou:

tne
scribe the relationship design process.
between
science and
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engineering?
[MODEL QUESTIO
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prototype solution Based on results
data becomes
and data, make
ackground
Ture working" design changes.
research for
protolype, lest
in
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again, and revvew
Trutiohax project. Ask
newodats
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Analyze data and experiment requirements requirements
draw conclustons again! partially or not at all
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ARZh or results
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18.
Ilustrate the role of engineers in the field of Biology. [MODEL QUESTION]
Lomunxate results Answer:
Ogy may not be a typical subject in the traditional engineering disciplines (i.c., civil,
rical, r mechanical), however, it is a fundamental component of disciplines such as
ia
rems engineering. Bio systems engineering emphasizes the application of

systems (1.e., systems that include plants,
Cering principles to biologically-based engineering program is designed to
er
hunmans). A biosystems
piv icroorganisms, or principles of engineering and to introduce
knowledge of the fundamental
bioldents
ological concepts to enable' these engineers to successfully interact with relevant
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involving biological systems.

OCSSionals when solving engineering problems
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Follov engineers can contribute:

. i
are the ways where
between biological and
electronic substrates:
Life's Matrix draws 'analogies b1ological concepts and
Ine
nlormation proces and control elements. organizational
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nCiples include fundamental
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enabling
BIOLOGY
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parts. Rele ance 6.
waler manu facturing
ngeable DNA to inloralic echnology
ucrarhy to be able to bivmatical

ot
ea
ereate librarncs engimeerng (AU:),
ai
chcmical
undustrial
engineerin
and
sve ws. Aplicaion
analysis, visuala
and in
databae
ases and
ques as
uques
advancem
wellents
as well
in compu
nputing,
as novel computatioa
sublisciplinas of (t:tE) uisition, uali/ation and managementcomputational imethod
neringcomputer sciene (CS) elevtrival cnginern:
Ed
methods
nemE loicaliconcepts and priiciples include Molecular of biological intormatiofor The
biolo
the
engineering (ISE. chniqucs for cloning. DNA SCquencing. biology and genetic
engineering
uses tnc central dogma cnts..
Microarray appiicalions DNA amplification.
lntonnation Theory experime and hybridization
Biological Cireuits unt Bisogicalenporation of biomolecules nd DNA based tin linite ering subdisciplines
sub
for personalized
ot biomedical engineering medicine. Relevance to
biological intorativn thevry aat the
logic. The biOlogical concepls
and princinl eg computer science (CS),
pe
ples (BME). chemical engineering
state machine to ovintuct sirnple puting to computing Systems.
Process electrical engineering
(EE). mechanical
lite ani the netaphor f (ME) and imaterial science. engineering
ilude tundumental units of tor smooth intormatton TlOw,
Application of
transeription and translutiw: and nulation Kelevance to engineerin
ering
computational paradigms.
nucleic acid hybridizaivn tir ew
subdisciplines of bivmaticai engimering
Computer Science (CSi elsetrical
(BNIE), cheimical engineering (Cheme
engineering (EE) and material scicnce.
Ansuer:
ca
19. What are the similanties between camera and eyes?
Ta beiter understand the answer to this question. let's first

[MODEL QUESTION]
have a quick comparison of

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warious similarities and ditferences found in the working of the human eye and a photo
circuits.
3. Signal Transduction ss Cellular sinaling pathways that resemble electronic
caniera.
Proteins and the prvtein kinase cascade act as amplifiers or switches. The biological
processes and structures needed Image focusing: Human and camera lenses both focus an inverted image onto light-
COncepts and primciples include an understanding of the
sensitive surface. In the case of a camera, it's focused onto film or a sensor chip. In Our
in
in converting chemical signals trom cell surface to the elicit appropriate cellular response
eyes. t* ight-sensitive surface is the retina on the inside of our eyeball.
at the molecular and protein levei. Relevance to engineering subdisciplines of biomedical light entering. On a
engineering (BME). computer seience (CS). and electrical engineering (EE). Light adjustment: Both the eye and a camera can adjust quantity of
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in our eye. it's done

camera. it's done with the aperture control built into our lens. whilst
4. Control Systems and Feadback Control reveals that control loops are ubiquitous and by haying a larger or smaller iris.
can be tound trom irarseriptiona! (bacterial example) and physiological control [MODEL QUESTION]
(antagonistic hormones) to bioregulation. An întroductory description of
theoretical 20. Describe our eye as a camera.
madeling. simulations. and bifurcasion diagrams to inform and guide Answer:
experimental design
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and predietions. The bioogical concepts and principles

include regulatory elements and
feedback control for cell cycle regulation. blood
sugar regulation, and environmental
rutrient sensing. Reulatory control points for
DNA synthesis and understanding
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transport and movement of macromolecules Cilliary

across barriers Relevance to
subdisciplines of biomedical engineering engineering muscle
(BME), chemical engineering (ChemE),
computer science (CS electical engineering (EE),
(EnvimE, industrial and systems engineering environmental engineerng
(ISE) and material
science.
ia
5. Sensors and Detectors Optica

conveys elements
sy stems as welt as our of communication circuits PUp nerve
immune system using in bacteria
biological concepts and principles computer security
er
includc Biofilms: systems analogy.

molecular level and novel quorum sensing characteristics Lens
applications to prevent
of immune system to provide
specificity. memory,
and disrupt biofilm a
forination. Feau
Regulation and meraction Cornea
at
at ihe molecular diversity and self-nonself recogni

Relevance to engneering subdisciplines level as well rs
as the physiological perspec
engineering hemE), computer of biomedical
science (CS), electrical engincering (1BME).
M
ineering (EnvimE), che

mechanical engineeringg enginecring
(ME) and material (EE). environental
science.
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ddition lo straight-up light sensitivit
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aa leIS, Together
lens. dy 1atnic isabs we'll get
element of
ght or in he brightest of sunlight. stonich backk to
com b toiin
the front lens clcnents. The rnea
ornea behaves much like
are the eye's loclising i1stonishingn.Sunlighy just
ing: A human a minu the
the iris,
which is behind
they
Urougn ne pupil, the round absolutely sunlight, can see
ects i
Tens.Widely diverging rays of light and bends them ess

m0onles night-and yet, we are ahleto between the
Ed
Ae's
ot thhe coloured iris.
which, when
ona to see under
two
U0.000,000 times moreextremes is
pening n the central portion aperture of a canera.
The iris IS a muscle
contro
both circumstances. light than
*ur Iris and pupil act like the portion of the lens. alloS adjustable ol 23, What
is Shutter speed of our eye?
central
Contracted. covers all but a small the eye can work veil in a wide range Answer:
eye so that MODEL QUESTION]
yuantity of light entering the
ne Vhere Our comparison gets Complicated
pe
of Viewing conditions, trom dinn to
very brnght light. Is when we mix
. Finally. our Retina is the sensory layer that
lines the very dack Or our
eyes. It acts
camcra. he retna has numerous
I
like-for-like parison betiween the
ertures' and IS0
compare apertures ISO (which
(which
human eye
in shutter speed.
and a camera,
In order to
o
a
very much like the innaging sensor ehip in a digital is the most interesting we can quite Casiuy
pnotoreceptor nerve cells that help change the light rays into electrical npulses and
or speeds makes T compicatea, because exercise. in my opinion).
ca
a camera 15tt
Send them through the optie nerve to the brain wlhere an image (or what
we see) is it t0. In fact, there are exaimples plhotos can stay open for as
long as ve
of taken with a 6-month
inally received and perceived. Because of this reception and perception function, ething which the human eye can obviously shutter opening.
not match.
retina is. perhaps. the most important component of our eyes. AS With the camera, if
dS
nloring what the shutter speed of a human eve is actually
the "tilm" is bad in the eye ti.e. the retina), no matter how good rest of the eye is, we surprisingly complicated. but
let look to animauon Ior a start: it you have ever seen
will not get a good quality image or picture. any simple aninmation. you wil
have noticed'that il you don t get enough frames per second, things can look *stuttery".
If
21. What is ISO and why is it important? vou were to see a footbail Lame aa lips, for example. you would essentially
in
[MODEL QUESTION be sceing a

Answer: series ofI photo per second (at a maxumum of I second shutter speed). Obviously, that's
ISO is the number signify ing the light sensitivity not going to do any good, and the human eye has a 'shutter speed' of faster than that. To
of an imaging sensoi measured in.
(M
numbers (ike 100. 200. 400, 800 etc). Sometimes, explore this question in further depth. I highly recommend the "How many frames per
this number is also known as 'an "ISO
number". or. more commonly, the "film speed".
Historically, the lower the ISO
number, second can the human eye see article over at 100fps.com. Despite the nanme of the site,
the lower the sensitivity of the film
and the finer the grain in the their conclusion is that they don't really know, because it depends on how you mcasure
taking. This has translated pictures or shots you are
pretty well into digital photography, the results.
higher sensitivity. but at the too: Higher ISO gives you
cost of a larger amount of digital For low light photography. however, we don't need to know the minimum shuter speed of
ISO is the indication noise.
of how sensitive a film is to light.
the human eye, but the maximum. Obviously, we can sit perfectly still and stare at forest
a
ot
setting. the more sensitive This means that the

the camera sensor is to light. higher the ISO anything. even though
with ISO 400 settings. you Accordingly, if you take a in the pitch dark for halfan hour. but we might not be able to "see
only need 1/4 of the light picture
we, in theory, have had a half-hour exposure. At the saime time, a camera might be able
with ISO 100 camera that will be needed to
settings. to take a picture
lB
it might not). When it comes to our own cyes.

it
22. Find out the ISO esolve something in that half hour (buta "shutter speed as such-our cyes sce with an
of the human eye. OCcomes less meaningful to speak of
Answer: is continuous process. In other words. our eyes will
[MODEL QUESTION CAponential decay, and our vision a
The real issue with them into a more meaningtul image,
the human eye is that, multiple.'exposures', and our brain will combine
have any definite ISO unlike film and nC taking a inuiti-exposure tiDR
photograplh with our
ia
levels. However, our camera sensors, you might do when you are
to ambient light levels eyes do have our eyes do not ke
a
However, the human even under the most severe lighting great ability to naturally adjust camera.
sensitivity. After eye has a mighty trick conditions.
cameras, versus the human eye?
er
up its sleeve:
rhodopsin in our about 15 seconds in lower it can modify its
own lignt is the ISO when we are
talking about
[MODEL QUESTION]
sensitive. In fact, retina. Over the next half light, our
bodies increase
*Vnat
hour in low the leveli
night than during the
studies have
shown that our light, our eyes o Answer: it becomes
kges m dright light, and now
at
day. eyes are around get more an mo LOvd at resonving

It should also 600 times more misiirng every and
be oled sensitive at he human eye is extremely our ees aren t
in existence. Every umethat the human eye not because (Just think
we change is like the
greatest, quickest gless to speak of 'noise' filters ou any" prools our eyes encouterone in each
simply
M
everything else to compensate- where

nere we're , spotS you have -
we're looking
looking, our automatic camei but because our brain out ne vo tDin never
ensure that our eyesight is as focus,
gooditcan s, oynamic range eye (and retina) is changin nOW our brain is
constantly filtering
one
wn tne other. If you have
eve ana iOONInEastonishing).
be are all constantly eye are closing
even if vou it S rather
adjusting to give it a Shot,
BIO-14 CNperienced our blind spot - BIO-15
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om a brighr BIOLOGICAL
thu the n n [ilnn natS
Currenly LASSIFICATIC
uc
. argument. la's siy that's the lmest-lSO ISO of our eyes is 25,
So. tor the sike of
25. Vhy 25 Bause
est
thelonics
n day. is IS) yuality anmnl. lt ne nAxNUm ISOat
grain and the highest dark. tht imc:uns it
choOSe ISO 10D0 Chapter at a Glance
Ed
n the least seustive in the lI yu our
ol0 times m or so. cvo
IS) 15,00 re conmparing
Csart
humn eye Houhi lund
snewhe* annd
is equally
tair, consnsering N we
maximum cal classification or
Biological plan and
of plants
use SO fir the human
eve (whish
days stat
ial do
tu Our aninals was first
digital St.Rs these orphological characterS. Linnaeus
simple morphologic
proposed by Aristotle
cameras, annd mst later on the basis o
to digital can take photos.at plantae and Animalia. whittaker proposed an classified all living orgánisms
intotwo kingaoms
(Like the Nikon DsS)
pe
(SO is arvund bO,00. highest-180 cameras
elaborate five
When we consiiker that the technology Is starting to lag
behind ista, Fungi. Plantae and Animalia. The main kingdom classi
criteria of the five kingdom
fication - Monera.
that our built-in llstructure, classification were
up to IsO l02.000. it homes elear bodY organisation, mode
of nutrition and reproduction. and
are covking up: relationships. phylogenet
what the camera manufacturrs
25. Write the difference between

Answer
bird and air craft.
[MODEL QUESTION]
Air Craft
in
ca
the five kingdom classilication, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera. Bacteria are
osmopolitan in distribution. Ihese organisms show the most extensive metabolic diversily.
dS
Bird airplanes use a propeller to tly_
Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition. Kingdom Protista includes
Birds tlap therr w ings ta tiy- all single-celled eukaryotes such as Chrysophytes. Dinoflagellates. Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and
Airplanes use cables. and electrical wires to
birds twist their wings to maneuver maneuver Protozoans. Protists have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They reproduce
in
airplanes wings only gives lift aftcr engines, both asexually and sexually. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity in structures and
Birds w ings provkdes thrust and hft
or gravity would provide electricity habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition. They show asexual and sexual
reproduction. Phycomycetes. Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four
(M
classes under this kingdom. The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms.
in this group. The
Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included
and sporophytic generations.
life cycle of plants exhibit alternation of generations -gametophytic
organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the
The heterotrophic eukaryotic. multicellular
organisms is holozoic. They reproduce mostly
Kingdom Animalia. The mode of nutrition of these
organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are
ot
by the sexual mode. Some acellular

not included in the five kingdom system of classification.
lB
Multiple Choice Type Questions

QUESTIONJ
. classification was proposed by- [MODEL
rinomial nomenclature of b) Huxley and Stricklandt
a) Linneaus. Theophrastus
ia
d)
c) John-Ray
Answer: (b)
er
foflowing language
2. M names are drawn from the [MODEL QUESTION]
Most of the botanical
c) Latin d) Spanish
Greek
at
b)
a) German
Answer: (c)
MODEL QUESTION]
.
M
Evolutionary classification is caled- b) Natural system

a) Artificial system d) None of the above
C) Phylogenetic system
Answer: (c)
y
BIO-16
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POPULAR PUSLICATIONS OUs.
groupsr [MODEL QUESTION] Ansver: (b)
than one BIOLOGY
in more Artifical classilication
uc
. System classifies a
classitieation
plant b)
d) Phylegenetic
classitication 14. Which of the foll owingorganisms
) Practical
ciassiticatren ever included
c) Natura Bactorla
a) in prot
b) Red algae
Ed
Ansner: t) (MODEL QUESTION] nswer: (d) [MODEL QUESTION)
c) Slimemolds
.Author of bock "Fiera
British Indied b) J.D. Hookor d) Mosses
a) Father Santapauu d) G. Bentham 15. Among the following
following organisms
c) William Rouxburyh
point out a
completely non-parasitict
anemone
pe
Answer: (e a) Soa form
(MODEL QUESTION [MODEL QUESTION].
c) Tape worm b) Leech
6. Ringdonm monera compriseS
the-
b) All the plants studied in botany Answer: (a) d) Mosquito
a) Piants of econemic importänce
d) Plants of Thallophyta group
ca
c) bldiryetc organisis
Auser: 16. Embryophyta include:
ic
a) Algae b) Fungi
c) Bryophyta
[MODEL QUESTION]
. ACCoraing to Whittaker kingdem monera includes
(MODEL QUESTION]
dS
Answer: (c) d) All of these
a) Uniceliular euharyotes b) Prokaryotes & akaryotes
c Siime meids & protoz0a d) Multicellular & eukaryotes
17. According to tour kingdom system of Copeland,
the fungi belong to kingdom
Answer: td
in
[MODEL QUESTION]
a) Protista b) Mychota c) ldycota
S. Kingdem ef unicsliuiar eukaryotes MODEL QUESTION] d) Plantae
a) Mener b) Protista c) Fungi d) Plantae Answer: (a)

(M
Aaswer:
18. Which animal is "Non-chordate-protochordata" [MODEL QUESTION]
9. Engler and Franti created metachlarnydae Herdamania
to include-[MODEL a) b) Balanoglossus
QUESTION]
a) Polypetalcus dicots b) Gamopetalous dicots c) Branchiostoma d) Botryllus
c) Gamapetalcus mOnccots Answer: (6)
d) Gymnos perm
Answer:(O:
ot
19. Sometimes parasites themselves are parasitised by other organism, such

10. In two kingcam system cf [MODEL QUESTION}1
classification Euglena is included in- parasites known as
a) Symbionts b) Endoparasites
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a) Animalia [MODEL QUESTION] d) Hyperpa rasites

c) Bcth the atove b) Plantae c) Ectoparasites
Answer: (C d) Protista Answer: (d)
11. Whittaker placed organization, animals are grouped
as
prokaryotes and eukaryotes .On the basis of body [MODEL QUESTION]
ia
a) Protistaa in
Answer: (d) b) Protozoa
c)
[MODEL QUESTION] b) Protozoa and parazoa
Plantae d) Monera a) Metazoa and eumetazoa d) Protozoa and metazoan
er
12. According to Parazoa and metazoa

four kingdom Answer: (d)
system of Copeland,
the fungi belong to
a) Protistaa kingdon vertebrates without exception is QUESTION]
at
Answer: (2) b) Mychota [MODEL QUESTION] 41. A common characteristic of al [MODEL

c)Mycota appendage
d) Plantac two pairs of functional
13. According to copeland a)
possession ofwell-developed skull
M
a) Monera the"Red algae" esonce of trunk and tail

6) Protista bolongs to Th into ad, neck,
[MODEL QUESTIONJ] c) The
c) division of body ith an exoSkeleton
c) Plantao0
d) Animalia d) Their body is covorco
Answer:
(b)
y
BIO-18
BIO-19
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uc
Answer 1ype Questions Answer: BIOLOGY
LShort & Long MODEL QUESTION]

It is a taXOnomic category
[MODEL QUESTION]
of the highest
certain lundamental haracteristic
Ed
Classification? rank.
grouping together
1. What is biological
Answer: scientitic study of arranging
organisms into groun
group in
. ne adopted by
scheme by many
man Common: in
(Animalia). plants (Plantae). biologists. separate kingdoms
all forms of life having
the five-kingdom
classification
BOlogical Classitication is thesimilarities and dissimilarities and placing the funi (Fung are assigned
Subgroup on the husis of their protozoaand
eukaryotic
8. What are the diTerent types algae.
hierarchy vf categories of known plante
pe
is to organise the vast numder ts Answer:
of the classification?
purpse vf biological classitication
he caregories and studied. There are three ditferent [MODEL QUESTION]
that cvuld be named, remenbered types
nto of the biological
[MODEL QUESTIONI a) Artificial System of Classification classification:
2. What are the objectives of biological classification?
ca
b) Natural System of Classification
Answer: c) Phylogenetic System of Classification
Objectives of Classification
To identity and desrie all the possible types of species.
dS
9. State the Artificial System of Classification.
To arrange the spacies in various categories on the basis of. their similarities and
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
dissimilaritis.
Artificial System of Classification
To evolve a truly natural or phylogenetic system which should indicate origin and
It is a system of classilicati0n which
in
evolution of the species. uses one or two morphological

character tor
Helping in easy identification otf organisms. grouping of organisims. Some artificial, system
have used habit and habitat for this
purpose. Aristotle (c 350 BC) divided animals into
two categories. enaima (with red
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot blood) and anaima (without red blood). Aristotle also classified animals on
(M
3. Which branch of biology teaches the classification? [MODEL QUESTION] the basis of
Answer: their habitat- aquatic (e.g, fish, whale). terrestrial (e.g, reptiles, cattle) and aerial (e.g
One branch of biolog. called taxonomy, focuses on the birds, bat). Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) used artificial system of classification for both,
Taxonomy is the study of relationships
clawification of living things.
between livi things and, the formal plants and animals dividing them into land. air and water. Pliny distinguished animals
classification of organisms into groups based
upon those
h hesized relationships. into flight band nonflight ones. Flight animals included bats, birds and insects.
ot
4. Who is father of the biological classification?

[MODEL QUESTION 10. State the Natural System of Classification. [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
Carl Linnaeus. Carl Linnaeus. Answer:
also known as Carl von a system of classification which takes into consideration comparable study of
a
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often called the Father Linné or Carolus Linnaeus, IS tis

of Taxonomy. His system for characters so as to bring out nature similarities and dissimilarities and hence
organisns is still in wide use naming. ranking, and classitying number of
today (with many changes) which are
ature relationship among the organisms. Ihe system employs those characterscharacters
anatomical
5. What is taxon? relatively constant. They include morphological characters.
or development, rèproduction.
Answer cytological characters. physiology ontogeny
ia
[MODEL QUESTION] taxonomy. etc. the characteristics are

In biology. a taxon
(pural taxa: back-formation cytochenmistry and biochemistry. experiumental comparable
more populations or an number or similarities in a group and
orpanismor organisms
from taxonomy)
is a group of oneO helpful in bringing out maximum example, mammals are characterised by
seen by taxonomists of organismS. for
er
differences with other group

6. What is Species ? to form a unit.
birds posNesS wngs. Ieathers,
pneumatic bones. ovipary, 4-
nmammae,
the presence of
Answer:
In biology. a species [MODEL QUESTION] chambered. They are coldblooded
at
is
an organism, as welt as theebasic unit of classification Classification. [MODEL QUESTION]
a Phylogenetic System of
group of organisms
can produce
unit biodiversity.
in which any A species is
and a taxonomic
ran 1. State the
Answer:
often defined as the
M
fertile ofispring. mdividuals Clasification

of the appropriate lar ylogenetic System of called phylogenetic
typicany sexual reproduction. sexes or mating evolutioary relationship of organims is
tyP based
Classification on from darwin's book- on.
It is dcd on tne Evolutionary concept
Sy'stem of' classification.
BIO-20 BIO-21
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preservation or lavoured
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The Si.Characters
among the organisms
BIOLOGY
natural selection. ms. First No.
Monera
species by means of relationshps Protista
n of reflects the true (1887-99). Zoologists br
believe 7 Motility Bacterial
the struggle for life (1859). It Prantl Cilia. Fungi
by Engler and
Plantac
relationsnip, their natural flagella, Animalia
Ed
"al
system was proposed agella| Cilia, flagella
Ce
e
Stmilarity in structure
represents close
evolutionary
phylogenetic classification.
and
gliding amoeboid
or contractile OF in
('ilia
some.| lagella andC Cilia
in flagella.
and
represents evolutionary non-motile
hone in most lower
ication [MODEL QUESTION]
fibrils
theof forms
forms,| contractile
ahsent
12. What is five kingdom classificatiot in
Imost of the|
fibrils
Mode
pe
Answer: oAutoropnicPhotosynthesis
nutrition chemosynthet Heterotrophi Autotrophie
Five Kingdom Classificution an American
classification, R.H. Whittaker (1969), |and
ic and photo-|heterotrophic
Heterotrop"
In order to develop phylogenetic As the viruses are on the
by
into five kingdoms. Saprophytic photosynthe ingestion
axonomist. divided all the organisms synthetic,
have been letft out. Whittaker has used five
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border line of living and nonliving, they heterotrophic and parasilic sis
(saprophytic absorptive
criteria for delimiting the different kingdoms.
) Complenity of cell structure. prokaryotic and eukaryotic. and parasitic)
organization, unicellular and multicellular.
dS
2) Complexity of body structure or structural
3) Mode of nutrition which is divergent in multicellular kingdoms- photoautotrophy
in ReproductiConjugation Syngamy and | Fertilization | Fertilization |
Fertilization
means transduction meiosis, conjuga and meiosis,
plantae. absorptive heterotrophy in fungi and ingestive heterotropy in animalia. on/ | and meiosisand meios1s
Photoautotrophy totrophic nutrition is also called holophytic nutrition while ingestive of genetic | transtormatio Lion or none dikaryosis or
recombinati n or none
in
heterotrophy is knovwn as holozoic nutrition. Absorptive heterotroPY none

is saprobiotic (=saprophytic ) nutrition. on
4) Ecological life stye like producers (plantae), decomposers (fungi) and consumers
10 Nervous Absent Primitive 1or Absent Absent Present.

(M
system Conduction often

animalia). complex
stimuli
5) Phylogenetic relationships.
14. What is 'Three domains of life'? Why it is called Six Kingdom Classification?
13. Describe the Characteristics of five kingdom. [MODEL QUESTION] [MODEL QUESTION)
Answer:
Characteristics of five kingdom Answer:
ot
Three Domains of Life

biological classification which was introduced by
Carl
NoCharacters Monera Protista Fungi The three- domain system is a
Plantae Animalia of microbiology, university of llinois,
Cell type prokaryotic Eukaryotic - Woese, a professor in the department cellular life forms into archaea,
lB
Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic 1990 that divides

Urbana- Champaign in
Cell wall bacteria and eukarya domains.
Non Present in some Present (non | into two groups, originally
called eubacteria
cellulosic (various types) cellulosic) Present absent the separation of prokaryotes their tfundamental
polysaccharid (cellulose) t emphasizes
bacteria) and archaebacteria (now archaea) because of with
(now
that each of the two
arose separately from an ancestor
ditferences, Woese argucd
ia
amino a progenote.
acid) machinery, oftern called
system
ChloroplastAbsent poorly developed genetic on the traditional tive- kingdom
Present in some system is loosey Dasea eukaryotic kingdoms
Absent |
Present n fact the three-domain leaving the remaining
Abseent "domains,
er
into two
Mitochondr ADsent Dut divides the monera Kingdom Classification.
Present in,somePresent it is called Six
ia Present n the third domain. So
Present [MODEL QUESTION]
Nuclear Absent classification.
Ptesert
at
domain
6. Describe the three
membrane Present
Present Present
Tissue or Absent AUSen Answer:.
nave a monolayer core of
lipids in the
multicellula n
resent but Present in all | Present )Archaea domain prokaryotic organisis a single kingdom
M
rity limited n IcINA. It contains

fornis domain contains n neir 10
all forms distinct niucieotides
BI0-22 cell membrane and BIO-23
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non-motile BIOLOGY
gliding. Flagella, if r
extreme cnvironiments, present,
Ent, are
by beating
Kingdom archacbacteria prokaryotes which live in
hey composed many,of simple flagella or y
m cotain early Moneran cells are arenot enclosed of intertwined cna
metlhane. microscopic by any membrane a
Ed
For Evumple: dioxide into Most organisins (( to few microns' and grow the tip
hydnogen and earbon bear a rigid cell a
nogens:livemetabolize degrees Celsius).
Reproduction is
primarly asexual by
wall (Peptidogl
in lengh).
yean).
temperatures (upto l0
in salt. I
(6) Halophiles: Mitotic apparatus binary fission'
hermo0acidophiles: line in acid high or
is not formed
during cell division. budding.
18. How bacteria can be classified
pe
(2) Bacteria domain: coverea Cen organelles but do on the basis of
which lack membrane their shape?
ne domain contains prokaryotes aciviues. here iS a single
micro chambers for separating various Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
nve a sort of
.
kingdom. Cocci: hey are oval or spherical in
T
ca
shape. They are called micrococcus
singly as in Micrococcus, diplococcus when occur
domain contains eukaryotic organisms which
originated by when found in pairs as
() Eukarya domain. The pneumoniae, tetracoccus in fours, streptococcus in Diplococcus
it has four
endosymbiotic assaciation between some archaebacteria and eubacieria. Streptecoccus lactis staphylococcus when occurring
when found in chains as in
dS
kingdoms- protista. fungi. plantae and animalia. in grape like clusters as in
Staplhylococcus aureus and Sarcine, when found in
cubical packets of or 64, as in
[MODEL QUESTION] Sarcina. 8
16. Describe the Kingdom Monera.
Bacilli: They are rod-shaped bacteria with or without flagella.
Answer: They may occur ingly
(bacillus), in pairs (diplobacillus) or in chain (streptobacillus).
in
() Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera

2) Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the spherical Coccus, Vibrios: These are small and 'comma or kidney' like. They have a flagellum at oine
the rod shaped Bacillus, the comma-shaped Vibrium and the spiral Spirillum. end and are motile, vibrio bacteria has curve in its cell e.g, Vibrio cholerae.

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(5) Compared to many' other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most Spirillum: They are spiral or coiled like a corkscrew. The spirillar forms are usually
extensive
metabolic diversity. rigid and bear two or more lagella at one or both the ends e.g., Spirilum,
(4) They may be plhotosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic Spirochactes etc.
autotrophic. Some of the
bacteria are autotrophic. i.e. they synthesise their own food Filament: The body of bacterium is filamentous like a fungal mycelia. The filaments
from inorganic substrates.
(5) The vast majornity of bacteria are heterotrophs, are very small e.g.. Beggiota, Thiothrix etc.
i.e.; they do not synthesise
food but depend on other organisms or their own
Stalked: The body of bacterium possesses a stalk e.g., Caulobacter.
ot
on dead organic matter for food.

.Budded: The body of bacterium is swollen at places e.g., Rhodomicrobium
17. Describe the characteristic
feature of Monera.
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION] MODEL QUESTION]
19. Describe the structure of bacteria?
lB
Characteristics of Monera
Monera(NMonos single) Answer:
includes prokaryotes
Ahey are typically unicellular organisms (but and shows the following Structurc of Bacteria a slimy capsule is present outside the cell
one yroup is characters: () In a large number of bacteria,
Capsule:
The genetic material is mycelial). nitrogenous substances (amino acids) are
naked circular DNA, composed of polysaccharides and the
ia
Ribosomes and simple chromatophores not enclosed by wall. It is

capsule. The bacteria,
are the only subcellular
nuclear envelop
present in addition. This slime layer becomes thick, called,
cytoplasm. also capsule 'is usually
organelles in tn capsule, are' called capsulaed or virulent bacteria. The
The ribosomes are 70S. Wnich form a
15acius, anihracis, DiplococCus
pneumoniae,
er
Mitochondria. plastids. TOund in parasitie forms eg.

centrosome, erc., are golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endoplasmic Mycobacterium tubereulosis. a strong. rigid cell wall. Therefore, they
lacking reticuiul cells .are covered by
Sap vacuoles do not occur. (2) Cell wall: All bacterial cewat is present. are It 'is made up of
at
Instead, gas vacuole linmer to the Capsure

The predominant may be are classified under plants. o Dacteria there two important
mode o
photosynthetic (holophytic) nurition is absorptive present.. ine celt wai
polysaccharides, proteins and lipids.in(N-ucetyigucOsamine
and chemosynthetic.
and N-acetyl muramic acid)
but some groups are NAG and NAM
M
Sugar derivatives i.e., acid and

Olaminopimelic acid are also found.
and besides L or D
alanine, D-glutamiC
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in the altachment of the
uc
membrane: Each
harteria! cell
sSp Plasna which DNA of one
bacterial
cells. Some:
cell passes into
BIOLOGY
cell wall. t sex pili
1asma inemal tu the the other acts as conjugation
canals througn
atedand just
differentially rselatNC 20. What is Staining of Bacteria?
nin, elastie Ameun
Ed
compvsed of iing
membrane. It is amuUnts o Answer:
neadie
phospholipids. prvteins and svne oy
ctaarateriseal
Cell Wall Capsule Staining of Bacteria [MODEL QUESTION]
stenv!s. it is
saccharides but lacks ground substane
pssessin rspiratr cnzyinies. fluid or semitluid Gram Positive
is comples aqucDUs
a
Ctoplasm: The eytoplasn Gram Negative
pe
crtvhyurates soluble pteins. Fixation
matia) cUnsisting ot lipids. nineral. salts
mes cUenzymes, vitanmins
Cy vrzanis matter is in the
collodat
and rucleic acids. The or a
to presence
ca
is granular due Cytoplasm
SEate. the cytoplasn
Ribosomes in bacteria are Crystal violet
large number of ribsems.
polyribosome. Nlembranous
found in the form of
itrhondia. endoplasmic
dS
Orgareiles Sch as
are
buis hssomes and vacuoles
lodine treament
reticulum. oli the plasma
absent In some phRSY nthetic bacteria
are rich in bacteriochlorophylls
membrare gs ris to lange vesicular thylakoids which
in
and proteins. Decolorization

(5) Nucleoid: lt is also known as genophore. naked nucleus, incipient nucleus. There is
nuclear material DNA which is double helical and circular. It is surrounded Some

(M
ypical protein (poiyamine) but not histone proteins. Histones (basic proteins) are
altogether absent it bacteria. This incipient nucleus or primitive nucleus is named as Counter stain
nucleoid or genoptore. safranin
(6) Plasmid: In addition to the normal DNA chromosomes many bacteria
(e.g., E.coli)
have extra chromosoma genetic elements or DNA. These elements are
called plasmids.
Plasmids are sirall circuar double stranded DNA molecules.
ot
The plasmid DNA (1) Simple staining: The coloration of bacteria by applying a single solution of stain to a
replicates independently maintaining independent
identity and may carry some important
genes. Plasmid terms was given by Lederberg
(1952). Some plasmids are integrating into fixed smear is termed s nple staining. The ells usually stain uniformly.
in 1884. It is
the bacteral DNA chrom.osome called (2) Gram staining: This technique was introduced by Hans Christian Gram
lB
episomes. groups Gram +ve and

(7) Flagella: These are fine. thread-like, a specific technique which is used to classify bacteria into two
protoplasmic appendages crystal violet. The
which extend through the cell
wall and the slime layer Gram -ve. The bacteria are stained with weakly alkaline solution of
flagellated bacterial cells. These of the percent iodine solution. This is followed
help in bacteria to swim stained slide of bacteria is then treated with 0.5
the liquid medium. Bacterial about in ethyl alcohol. The bacteria which retain the
flagella are the most primitive by washing with water or acetone or 95%
ia
motile organs. Each is composed of all +ve. Ihose which become decolourised are called as
of a Single thin fibril as purple stain are called as Gram
the 9+2 fbrillar structure against
of eukaryotic cells. The Gram -ve.
composed entirely of flagellum is
er
ilagellin
(8) Pili or Fmbriae: Besidesprotein. Gram +ve Bacteria and Gram -ve Bacteria?
present on bacienal cell flagella, some 21. What are the differences between [MODEL QUESTION]
surface. These
tiny or small hair-like outgrowtns
They measure are-called pili and
abou-2mm in length and
at
are made up of pilin

I1, 111, IV, V, VI,
VILand F types. 3-5mm in diameter. prolc
all gram-ve bacteria I to F are called These are of 8 type>
anaiew gram sex pili. These
holding the bacteria ve bacteria. are present in a ost
M
to solo sgiaces. Fimbriae take

The function part in atlachment
of pili is not in motility but uey
BIO-26 BIO-27
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pifference between Bucteria
and
uc
BIOLOGY
-ve Baeteria Sl. Bacteria

nobacteria
Answer: and Gram
tve Bacteria Gram-ve Bacteria The cells are comparatively
terences Between Gram Cyanobacteria
Ed
smaller.
stain w The cellwall is 1-2
SI. Gram tve Bacteria di no rean the when yered. ne
cells are comparatively
No or purple| The bacteriaalconol. Plasmodemata
and pores The cell wall is four larger.
coloured bluce with absolure walls do not occur
washing with washed layered.
eain
ngram stain even
Outer meiuorane
ered. Outer
layered. me. They exhibit lesser
structural
in cell| They
are often present.
absolute alcohol or acetone. wall is two elaboration.
Outer| The
pe
single layered.
is present. They show higher degree
ne all IS
morphological complexity as of|
membrane is absent. It is 8-12nm. well as
wall is 20-8Onm. Bacteria are structural elaboration.
The thickness of the OOtn autotrophic
20-30%. heterotrophic. and Cyanobacteria
contain chlorophyi
content of the wall is
ca
.
wall is quite low. | The lipid Autotrophic as found in eucaryotic autotrophs.

he lipid content of the bacteria'
possessCyanobacteria contain chlorophyll
ana comes contact
in bacteriochlorophyl. a s
The wall is wavy Photosynthesis anoxygenic. lound in eukaryotic autotrophs.
The wall is straight.
with plasimalemma oniy at a tew places. is
dS
. erein
S0%
or mucopeptude content is 70-|
It is 10-20/%.
occur the basal

Photoautotrophic bacteria do
phycobilins.
not
Photosynthetic is oxygenic.
contain| They possess accessory vater solubie
photosyntlhetic pigments known as
two| Four rings of swellings phycobilins.
in
Basal body of the flagellum has Flagella may be present.
Flagella are absent.
in
rings of swellings. body Carbohydrate reserve food

Mesosomes are less prominent. J. is glycogen. Carbolhydrate
Mesosomes are more prominent.
reserve food is a

(M
more susceptible to| They are more resistant to antibiIotics.

Special starch
The bacteria are
Known
antibiotics.
cyanophycean
Fewer pathogenic bacteria belong to| Most of the pathogenic bacteria are (Giram* Starch.
Gram 7ve group. Ve.
Porins are absent. Porins or hydrophilic channels occur in| 23. Describe the kingdom Protista? [MODEL QUESTION]
ot
outer membrane of cell wall. Answer:

12 Cell wall contains teichoic acids. Teichoic acids are absent. All Single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this
kingdom are not well defined.
lB
22. What is Cyanobacteria? How it is different

Answer:
from bacteria? [MODEL QUESTION] Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
Cyanobacteria This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
and other
Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains well defined nucleus
a
(Blue green algae, Cyanophyceae,
Myxophyceae) membrane-bound organelles.
Cyanobacteria or blue green
ia
-
algae are gram F) photosynthetic - Some
have flagella or cilia.
perform orygenic photosynthesis. prokaryotes wnic
.
process involving cell fusion and zygote

Photosynthetic pigments
include chlorophyll a, Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by,
Food is stored .in the carotenoids and phycobilins. formation.
Saprotrophic, parasitiC and symbionts. Sone
er
form of cyanophycean
granules. starch, lipid globules may be photosynthetic, holotrophic, +
Cyanobacteria evolyed and prottein It
nave mixotrophic nutrition (holotrophic saprobic).
more than 3 billion are collectively called phytoplankton.
They added oxygen,to years back. photosynthetic, floating protists
at
the atmosphere and Ihe are collectively termed zooplankton.

forms, including aerobic bacteria. paved the path free-floating, holozoic protozoans groups:
for evolution of aeroo he
*Unicellular protists have been broadly diyided in to three major
Diatoms, Euglenoids
Protists: Example: Dinolagellales,
M
(a) Photosynthetic moulds or Myxomycetes

Protists: Example: Slime
(b) Consumer L0olagelata, Sarcodina, Sporozoa, Ciliata
Protozoan Protists: Exampie:
(c) BIO-29
BIO-28
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Protista?
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Life cycle of . This is found in the
es of
different ype
[MODEL QUESTION mat BIOLOGY
uc
cycle? What
are the
similar.
moulds of
protozoan
protists, diatoms
4. What is Life and tlhat milar phase The organism spends and acellular slime
most of its
in one gecralion The gametes are life cycle
any given phase only in the 2nconditio
called genetic meiosis). In
Ed
Answer: betueen (haploid) ition.
ence
Thes ofeventsgeneration constitute a lite eeic.
next succeeding in prvtists
The gametes tuse to Torm
that are produced
by meiosis
als
the
wo types of lite eyele are found
zygote that grows
to form the diploid
Showing Zygotic Meiosis: Ciametes individual.
(a) Life Cyele 25. What are the major groups of
(n) Protists?
pe
Major Groups of Protists
Chrysophytes
Sexual Reproduction
This group includes diatoms and golden
ca
(oflspring produced algae (desmids).
AS meiosis)
They are found in fresh water as well
as in marine environments.
Repit They are microscopic and float passively in
(ettspring
rtid water currents (plankton).
dS
tisis) ALture Fertilization In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping
shells, which fit together as in a
Growth ygote Soap boxX.
Mexss (n
2n) The wals are embedded with silica and thus the walls are
indestructibie.
HaploidN diatoms have. lett behind large amount of cell wall depositsin their habitat; Ihus,
in
this
Diploid accumulation over billions of years is referred to as 'diatomaceous carth.
von stosch, Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
It occurs in some dinoflagellates (Example: ceralium, gVmnodinium:.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot Diatoms are the chief producers' in the oceans
(M
1973) and cellular slime moulds.

The zygote is 2n that divides by meiosis (also called zygotic meiosis) and
produces vegetative cells with In chronmosome number.
These cells divide repeatedly by mitosis and all the resulting daughter cells
maintain the In number of chromosomes.
Sorne of the vegetative cells produce gametes.
ot
When these gametes combine in fertilization, a zygote is formed and the life cycle
is completed.
lB
(b) Life Cyele Showing Gametic Meiosis:

Dianoflagellates
organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
These
hey appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments
ia
present in their cells.

on the outer surface.
The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates in a
one lies longitudinally and the other transversely
Most of them have two Nagella;
Asevaal reproduction
Sexual reproduction
er
ofsring produccd plates.

(offspring produced by Turrow between the wall
yartos.is (Exaniple: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
meiosis) Very often, red dianotlagelates appear red (red tides).
sea
e multiplication that they make the
at
Mature animals such as

Fertilization numbers may even Kill other marine
Mitosis
Cen Toxins released by such large
(n)
fishes. formation of
1laploid througn cell aiVISion or by the
M
Meiosis Diploid Dinoflagellates reproduce asexUaiy

2 (2n)
Z00Spores and cysts.
BIO-30 BIO-31
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uc
division, ceni BIOLOGY
During cell microtubules.
fhom
posterivr end. eytoplkasnmie ,
he cell division starts

spindle is
neplaced by chronatiuls. The Du
nuclear
rurs of
spindle are not secn. the break up into
Ed
Durin chromosomes
the
mtosis,
and nuclevlus
elops
persists during,
divisiot.
is isogamous
or anisoganS.
v ,
occurs. it where the two

amoedod gamcles fusa
se to
Sexual reproductionby conjugation canal
conjugate a
Cells (iyninodinium etc.)
pe
or
form a diploid zygote. (Example: Ceratum.
Lie cy cle involves zygotic meiosis Slime Moulds
(Example: Notiluca).
gametic meiosis . Slim moulds are saprophytic protists.
ca
The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves
, Starh inclusons engulfing onanic materia.
Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation
l inelusSAOINS called asmodium which may
grow and spread over several feet.
dS
During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiaes and forms fruiting
Cingulum
bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. The spores are
Transverse Undulpodium dispersed by air currents.
They are extremely resistant and survive for many yearš even under adverse
in
Nucleus
conditions.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot 26. What is Protozoa? What are the different types of Protozoas? Describe them.
(M
ChrvTItAptare Sulcus [AODEL QUESTION

Undulipodium Answer:
(lagellum Protozoans
Euglenoids All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. Tey are believed to be
Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in primitive relatives.of animals.
ot
Instead of a cell wall. they have a protein rich layer stagnant water. There are four major groups of protozoan
body tlexible. called pellicle which makes their
They have two tlagella. a
short and a long one. The Group 1. Flagellated Protozoans
lB
at a swelliny called two flagella join with each other Characters:

paratlagellar body. An orange
located atthe base of red coloured eye-spot
tlagellum attached to the
membrane of reservoir
or:stigma i
paraflagellar body. at the levelO
Both paralagellar
body; and eye spot act
organism towards as photoreceptors
ia
the optimum light. and direct the

Thoughtheyare photosy
nthetic in the presence
they behave like heteroirophs of sunlight, when deprived for locomotion.
the pigmenis ofeugenoids by predating on other smaller of sunlign ( They possess flagella
living aquatics, parasites,
Commensals or symbiont.
(1) They may be free
er
Euglena. They conmain are identical to organisms. Interesting occasionally multinucleate.

red pigment
those present in
higher Zooflagellates are generally uninucleate,
Nutrition is holophytic astaxanthin.
(photoautotrophic).
plants. ExainnP ) covered by a firm pellicle.
(e.g. Peranema). Even saprobic (e.g.. v The body isholozoic, saproboic and parasitic
holophytic forms Rhabdomonas) Nutrition reproduction
at
outside medium. is
can pick up or zoic is by binary tission.
Such a mode organic compounds ho the ) Asexual
Euglena
mixotrophic,a
is connecting link nutritionis
when light
called
between animals mixotrophic. fron Exanmples: nce pars or sieeping sicknes. It was sleen
first
is available t and plants. Trypanosome gambiense: that the paraite e of eping
M
absorbing food from is photosynthetic, Nutrition in Euglena 1901. Fruce discovered

surrounding water. in darkness it observed by Forde in It causes Gambian sleepikg sickness. The
is sapropiy transmitted by tse-tSe Tiy.
BIO-32 sickness is' BIO-33
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POPULARPUBLICATIONS Exumples:
in
iwestern and central
stern anI BIOLOGY
trypanosomiasIs, Is foUnd Plasimodium, monocystis, cimeria
Gambain
Ed
Scase. also cailel disease is also
parts of Africa Rhodesan siekiess, The Group 4. Ciliated Protozoans
pansoma rhxlesiense: t causesThe parisile is transtnitea by the bites Characters:
trypanosomiasis. is pre-
Initia parasite Ciliates are protozoan protists which
Caled Rhodesiar palpalis and glossina moslas).
flud.
Sese tly nan but later en it enters the cerebospnal
(glossia of the life cycle. develop a
(alo number of cilia
American panOSomiasis so during a part or wno
pe
n tne tioNof causes South
panosome cruzi: It
the disease are Tever, diarrhe
The sv mptoms of
called Chagas usease).
lymphnd glands.
anaemia and enlryen:ent ot
Group 2. Amoebid Przoans

Pseudopodium
ca
dS
Ectoplasm
Endoplasm (ii) Cilia are used tor locomotion and driving
food.
(ii) There is a high degree of morphological and physiological
Cell membranc specialization.
(iv) Most ciliates are free living individuals in fresh
and marine waters. A few are
in
parasitic.
(v) The body is covered by a pellicle.
(vi) Nutrition is holozoic except in the parasitic forms.
Fod vacae.
(M
Contractile (vii) there are definite regions for ingestion and egestion. The region of ingestion consists
acuole of an oral groove, cytostome (mouth) and gullet.
Characters Examples:
() They develop pseuepodia which are temporary protoplasmic outgrowths. They are of Paramecium, vorticella, opalina, balantidium.
four types- lobopodiai broad and blunt). filppodia (slender,
unsupported, independent), 27. What are the characteristic features Fungi? IMODEL QUESTION]
apodia (slerder withirial support) and reticulopodia (slender, reticulate).
ot
(ii) Pseudopodia are ved for locomotion and engulfing food Answer:
articles.
(i) Sarcodines are sly free living. found in fresh water, sea Characteristics of Fungi.
Only a few are parasiic. water and on damp soi. Thallus Organization
lB
(iv) The body may b Covered w

T
he plant body of true fungi (Eumycota). the plant body is a thallus.

ith plasmalemma or a shell. non-mycelial forms are unicellular;:
Eramples: Amoebepetomyxa, entamoeba, Itmay be non-mycelial or mycelial. The
radiolarians, foraminiferans, budding. In mycelial forms, the pant
heliozoans. however, they may form a pseudomycelium by (sing. hypha).
structures called hyphae
Group 3. Sporozons body is made up of thread like
aseptate (non-septate) or septate. When non-septate
and
Characters: he mycelium may be
ia
(1) All sporozoansare described as coenocytic.

endoparsites. multinucleate, the mycelium is non-septare Phycomycetae. In higher forms it is
(in) Some sporozans mycelium is eg.
such as Eimeria cause several
diseases like coccidiosis in lower fungi the Basidiomycotina and
Deuteromycotina.
in) Loconotory rganelles (cilia,
Septate e.g., Ascomycotina. is unicelled at one stage and mycelial at the other. Their
er
flagella.pseudopodia, in the birds.

(iv) Nutrition etc.)are absent. body
is prasitic (absorpiive). In some forms the plant
The body is avered with Phagoirophy is rare. described as dimorphic.
Organization is sometimes
(
an elastic pellicle or cuticle.
(ti) Contractile wcuoles are
at
absent
(vi) Asexual reroduction occurs
(ix) Life cycie onsists of wo through syngamy.
distinct
one (monogenet) or two difterenm asexual and sexual phases.
M
hosts (digenetic). They may be passea n

BIO-35
BI0-34
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Reproduction is primarily BIOLOGY
uc
(6)
multicellukar. asexual
classification of Fungl. or sexual.
The
Describe the lticellular enbr ductive organs ar
S.
Answer: (7) A
multicellular einbryo S lormed
during developnent
Classification of Fungi oryo stage. Lile cycle cOnSIsts
Ed
of alternating from the zygote. Algac
generation. This
te gencration.
SporopnytC haploid gametophyte lack
nis phenomenon and diploid
is called alternation of generation.
Describe the classification of Plantae.
pe
Fumycota Classilication of Plantae
(Axenuvt?
(vanuta)
Myecliumn
septate
LSt Wilhelm Eichler (1883)a Vinnese
ydoms mainly on the basis
botanist, divided
plant kingdom into two sub-
of presence or absence of secds.
ca
Sline \Luids now
)Cryptogamae (ur. Cryplos hidden; gamos marriage):
eufudeu trer tungt UN Lower plants in which sex
nder Pnvisi
gans are hidden and seeds and flowers absent. It
pi includesThallophytes. Bryophytes,
pteridophytes.
dS
(2) Phanerogaimae (Gr. Phaneros visible; gamos =
marriage): Higher plants in which
7y gomy cetes Mycophycophyta sex organs are evident; seeds present. It includes Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Phy cumycetes
Conjugation fungi) (Dual organisms)
(omy ceres \lgd
I.ichens. e.g..
in
tumgi Phytopithrs cg. Rhizopus. NMucor Thallophyta

Usnea, P'armelia
Alfugo. Pythium Comprises the sinplest plants which posess undifferentiated or thallus like forms.
Reproductive organs single celled no jacketed called gametangia
(M
Embryo stage, vascular and mechanical tissues are all absent.

Deuteromycota
of
(Fungi imperfecti) Sexual
Differentiation true roots, stems and leaves is also absent
reproduction absent. g. Asexual reproduction by accessory spores is very common. Presently. it includes
Alternaria. Cercospora only Algae.
Microsporum. Trichophyton
ot
Bryophytes
Ascomycota (Sac Basidiomycota (Club These are nonvascular terrestrial plants of moist
habitats in which a multicellular diploid
gametophyte that
sporophyte lives as a parasite on an independent multicellular haploid
fungi) Aspergillus. fungi) Puccinia.
lB
Penicillium. Neurospora Ustilago. Agaricus

develops multicellular jackted sex organs.
29. Describe charactes
of plantae. [MODEL QUESTION
Answer: Pteridophytes- pteridophyta plants that have sporophytic plant
Kingdom plantae includes green, Fteridophytes are seedless vascular or cryptogamic partially
containing small sessile antheridia and
ia
brown and red algae, liverworts,

plants with or without tlowers. mosses, ferns and seeu DOdy, inconspicuous gametophytes
They have the following nec.
() Multicellularorganisms with characters. cmbedded archegonia with 4- rowed
walled and frequently vacuolated
(2) They contain photosy eukaryotic cells.
er
nthetic pigment in plastids.

(3) Principal mode surface
of nuurition is photosynthesis Gymnosperms in which the seeds remain exposed over the
absorptive. but number of plants
have beco e nnosperms are those seed plantslatter are not folded to form pistils.
because the
at
(4) Primarily non-motile, megasporophylls

Tiving anchored
(5) Stnuctural ditferentiation to a substrate.
e
Angiosperms are formed inside fruits and the
support and in higncr leading towards plants in which sceds
foms towards specialised
organs of photosynthesis,
anchorage and giosperms are those seed
M
tissues. photosynthetíc, porophylls are organized into TIOueid

vascular and coveE
BIO-36 BIO-37
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS [MODEL QUESTI
TION BIOLOGY
Ansiver:
Animalia.
31. Describe the Kingdom Viruses are obligale parasites.
Ed
Answer: organisms that addition to proteins
onc viruses also contain
heterotroptie cUkary are genetic material,
Kingdom Animalia charicterised by or DNA. that could be either
e RNA
is
nis kingdom lack cell wallsS their food No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
muticellular and their cells tor tood. hey digest
T
depend on plants an virus is a nucieoprolein and the genetic

directly or indirevthy or a. material is infectious. In general,
pe
hey fand reserves as glycogen
that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses viruses
cavity and stor
enal is holoz0ie - by
ingestion of to0d.
*Iheir mode of nutrition growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded that infect animals have
DNA. Bacterial viruses or
hey tollow a detinite bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA
ca
and size. mechanisnm viruses.
elaborate sensory and neuromotor
iigner torms show is by copulation of male and
female followed by embryolooi. The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
The sexual reproduction
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric
dS
development. forms.
[MODEL QUESTION] Viruses cause discases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in
32. Define the following terms.
Answer: humans is also caused by a virus. In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation,
leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
in
Anaemia: Animals without red blood e.g, sponges, cnidaria, mollusca, arthropoda,
echinodermata etc.
34. What is Virods and what is Lichens? [MODEL QUESTION]
Enaima: Animals with red blood e.g., vertebrate
(M
Vivipara: Animals which give birth to young ones are included in this subgroup e.g. Answer:
man. dogs. cows. etc. Viroids: In l971 T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller
found to be a free RNA;
than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease. was
Ovipara: Animals which lay eggs are included in this subgroup e.g.. It
frogs, toads, in viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA of
lizards. snakes. birds. etc. it lacked the protein coat that is found
Anamniotes: Vertebrates without embryonic membranes the viroid 'was of low molecular weight.
e.g., fishes, amphibians. i.e, mutually useful associations,
Amniotes: Vertebrates with embryonic membranes Lichens: Lichens are symbiotic associations is
ot
(chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk known as phycobiont and fungal

sac) e-g. reptiles. birds, mammals. algae and fungi. The algal component
between respectively.
Acraniata or Protochordata: Chordates as mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic,
without cranium (brain
box). It includes Component absorb mineral nutrients
urochordata and cephalochordata. fungi and fungi provide shelter and
lB
Algae prepare food for

Chordates: Animals with notochord
dorsal tubularnerve cord, paired pharyngeal and water for its partner. areas.
slits. g indicators - they do not grow in polluted
All urochordates, Lichens are very good pollution
cephalochordates and vertebrates are
Craniata or Vertebrate: called chordates. Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms.
Chordates with cranium. 35. State the difference between [MODEL QUESTION]
ia
It Includes cyclostomes.
pisces, amphibians,
Nonchordates: Animals reptiles, birds and
supports without notochord mammals. Answer:_
the body). Phylum Porifera (a rod like elastic structure ch Multicellular Organisms
w
er
nonchordates. to phylum Hemichordata are Unicellular Organisms

Invertebrates: Animals is composed of
urochordates and without vertebral The body of the multicelular organism
cephalochordates column (backbone). The body of the
All the noncnor lates. numerous cells.
at
are collectively is
called invertebrates. unicellular organism
33. What are the
features of Virus? composed of a single cell.
Have a definite shape.
M
[MODEL QUESTION] shape

rregular in
s10-38 BIO-39
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BIOLOGY
Answer:
The
TTC term prokaryote
"proka is derived from
"karyn(n (meaning: kernel). lt translates the Greek word "pro", (meaning:
before) and
yotic cells are comparalively smaller
Proka
to "before nuclei."
r
other defining characteristic of prokaryotic
and much simpler
than eukaryotic cells. he T
cell cells is that it does

bound organelles such as a nucleus. not possess membrane
Reproduction happens
binary fission. through the process otof
n)
Structurally. prokaryote; have a capsule enveloping
io
protective coat. This is its entire body, and it functions as a
crucial for preventing
the process of phagocytosis
at
bacteria gets engulied by other (where the
eukaryotic cells such as
macrophages.) The pilus is a hair-
ike appendage found on the external surface of
uc
organism to attach itself to various most prokaryotes and it helps the
environments. The pilus essentially
Ed
flushed, hence, it is also called attachment resists being
pili. It is commonly observed in bacteria.
Right below the protective coating lies the
cell wall, which provides strength
to the cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm
and rigidity
pe
that helps in cellular growth, and this
contained within the plasma membrane, which
separates the interior contents of the cell
is
from the outside environment. Within the cytoplasm,
ca
important role in protein synthesis. It is also one of the
ribosomes exist and it plays an
dS
smallest components within the
cell.
in
Some prokaryotic cells contain special structures called

mesosomes which assist in
cellular respiration. Most prokaryotes also contain plasmids, which
(M
contains small,
circular pieces of DNA. And to help with locomotion, flagella are
present, though, pilus
can also serve as an aid for locomotion. Common examples
of Prokaryotic organisms
ot
are bacteria and archaea. Also, all members of Kingdom Monera

are prokaryotes.
lB
37. What is Eukaryotic Cell? [MODEL QUESTION]

Answer:
ia
The term "Eukaryotes" is derived from the Greek word "eu", (neaning:
good) and
er
karyon" (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to "good or true nuclei." Eukaryotes

are more complex and much larger than the prokaryotes. They include almost all
at
the
major kingdoms except kingdom monera.
M
Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma
membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it controls the entry and
y
exit of certain substances.

ud
he nucleus contains DNA, which is responsible for storing all genetic information. The
hucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus exists the nucleolus,
St
ind it plays a crucial role in synthesising proteins. Eukaryotic cells also contain
mtochondria, which are responsible for the creation of energy, which is then utilized by
the cell.
Tesent in only plant cells, chloroplsts are the subccllular sites of photosynthesis.
LSndoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation ot materials. Besides these, there are
also
also other cell organelles that perform various other functions and these
BIO-41

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POPULARPUBLICATIONS cnromOsONIes, vlc
viicuoles,
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citopIasnm, and Prokaryotes
balies, BIOLOGY
lysosomes. Ciolgi
0eS,
centrosomes. every uicellular
nism with.
organism with a nucleus and a
Reproduction Asexual Eukaryotes
Ed
alnrost
Examples of cukary otces inclue
Both asexual
multicellular organisnts. Example Bacteria and and sexual
Eukaryotic CelIs. Archaea
Prokaryotic and MODEL QUESTIONI
between Plant and Animal
0. State the Difference cell
39. Classity the organism on the
pe
basis of C source
Answer: and N source.
Eukaryotes
Prukaryotes Ansiwer: [MODEL QUESTIONI
SubType
ca
Unicellular and multi-cellular
Alwaps uniceliular Heterotroph Photoheterotroph Csource N SOurce
Type of Cell Example
Preformed Sunlight
Ranges in size from 0.2 um
-
2.0 SIze anges from 10 um--100 um organic
Purple non-
Cell size sulfur bacteria
dS
in diameter molecules
LuIm in dianieter
e.g. sugars
chemolithoheterotroph
Cell wall Usually present: chemically When present, chemically mple Pretormed Oxidation of
cemplex in nature in nature organic inorganic
in
molecules compounds
Nucleus Absent Present
chemoorganoheterotroph
Cg ugars Cg. H:S
Preformed Oxidation
of
(M
organic organic
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in molecules
spkerical in shape size and linear compounds
in shape e.g. Sugars
Autotroph Photoautotroph Carbon Sunlight
ONA arrangement Circular Linear (lithotroph) dioxide
Chemoautotropth Carbon Oxidation ot
litochondria methanogens
ot
Absent
Present dioxide Inorganic
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent compounds.
Present. cell organelles present
lB
Endoplasmic 40. Define aminotelic, uricoteliec and ureotelic. [MODEL QUESTION]

Absert
reticulum Present Answer:
ammonotelic organism exeretes nitrogenous waste as soluble ammonia. Most of the
Plasmids
Pre>ent qualic animals including protozoans, crustaceans, platyhelminths, cnidarians, poriferans,
ia
Very rarely found in eukaryotes CCninoderms, fishes, larvae / tadpoles of amphibians are ammonotelic.
Ribosome
Small nbOSomes
Large ribosomes as urea. Urea is less toXIC and needs less
ureotelic organism excretes excess nitrogen
er
Ly sosomne include cartilaginous fish, few

In this. the lysosome.
mesosome. aer in comparison to Ammonia. Ureotelic organisms
humans. The uricotelic organism
and cemrOsome is
absent
MesOsome, Lysosomes, and .0ny fishes, adult amphibians and mammals including
centrosomes are present to Ammonia and Urea, Uric acid is the least
reres uric acid or its salts. In comparison
at
Cell division
Through binary fission It can be stored in cells and body tissues without
IC and the least soluble in water.
and is highiy efticient mode of excretion
in
Through mitosis
Flagella effects and tlhus needs least water
he flagella are smaller AC
M
in size omparison to two other melh ethods.

The flagella are larger in size
BIO-43
BIO-42
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BIOLOGY
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS (imclhuding insects
cts), lizar snakes mamma
arthreorls only 1n E. colt are
paste. able to survive in
terrestrial While raustic and used in digestion. the presence of bile salts, which arc
include picaly'
organisms organisms is ty
addition
Ed
Urice of
uricotelic tothriVing in the colon, E.
irus, The encreta IMODEL QUESTION
Cnvironmental E. coLi can be spread colican also survive outside the
through feces as bouy
Classification? the bacteria pass out of the bouy
. What is Molecular composition o
distributnon and compositi0n of chemnieat
hese two habitats are about as opposite as you
can get. The colon is relatively
stadi
basis of warm, anaerobic, and nutrient-rich. Outside
Answer: organism on the of the colon, conditions can be extremeiy
TheCassitication of Classilication. harsh and variable, much colder, aerobic,
pe
callead Molecular
and provide fewer nutrients.
Substances in them is organism2
significance of model Model Organism
organism? What is the [MODEL QUESTION
%. What is Model The fact that E. coil is able.to survive such variable conditions is one advántage that ied
Answer:
Amodel organism is a non-human specics
particular biological phenomena.
extensively studied to
that is
with the expectation that
undr
ierstand
discoveries made in the model
ca
to its use as a model organism. A model organism is a species that is extensively studied
to understand a specitic phenomenon, expecting that the knowledge gained can be
applied to other species as well.
dS
insight into ihe workings of otner organisms. Model organisms are
organism will provide unfeasihla E. coli has many attributes that make it an ideal candidate for use as a model organism.
when human experimentation would be sible
idely usei to research human disease common descent of all li Let's discuss the five major atributes that make E. coli an excellent model organism.
is made possible by the
or unethical. This strateg
genetie Attribute 1: E. coli is a single-celled orgunism. There are no ethical concerns about
and developmental pathways and
organisms. and the conservation of metabolic
in
growing, manipulating. and killing bacterial cells, unlike multicellular model organisms
material over the course of evolution. like mice or chimps. They are also tiny cells, so in a small laboratory you can have flasks
Studying iadel organisms can be informative, but care musl be laken when generalizing
containing billions of celis that take up very little room, allowing many experiments.
(M
from one organism to another.

In researching human disease. model organisms allow for better understanding the Aturibute 2: E. coli is able to reproxduce and grow vey rapidhy, doubling its population
disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species chosen about every 20 minutes. This is helpful in a lab situation where waiting for subsequent
generations to produce experimental data can be the rate-limiting step. With E. coli
it is
will usualy meet a detemined taxonomic equivalency to humans, so
asto react to as easy and fast as letting them grow overnight. Trying to study the same process in
disease or its treatment in a way that reseimbles human physiology as needed.
of
Although biological activity in a model organism does not ensure subsequent generations of elephants, for exanple, would require several generations
an etfect in humans,
ot
many drus. treatments and cures for human

diseases are developed in part with the scientists and more elephants than we have on the planet!
earlier,
guidance of animal models. There are three main
types of disease models: homologous, Allribute 3: E. coli can survive in variuble growth conditions. As we discussed
Culture media
isomorphic and predictive. Homologous animals
have the same causes, symptoms and this leads to it being very adaptive yet forgiving in lab situations.
successtfully spur E.
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treatment options as would humans

who have the same disease. containing simple and inexpensive ingredients and nutrients cain
the same symptoms and Isomorphic animals share and divide.
treatments. Predictive models coli to grow
are similar to a particular human are hurmless. Those food-
disease in only a couple
of aspects, but are useful in Attribuie 4: Most naturally occurring sirains ofE. coli
about mechanisms of a isolating and making prediction are the exception, not the rule. When
set of disease features. poisoning E. coli that sprang to mind earlier
chose a strain that was
scientists first started using E. coli for lab experiments. they
ia
43. Why Escherichia Coli E. poses Iittle threat to researchers and the public.
Answer:
is selected as model
organism? harmless. This means that studying coli
[MODEL QUESTION
Escherichia coli,.or E. coli Why it is considered as model organism?
Describe Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
er
for shorn, is a Gram-negative, 44.

normal inhabitant
of rod-shaped bacteria that [MODEL QUESTION]
estimate that E. coli he lower yastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded itists
first evolved between animals. Answer:
years ago, aboutsci same as baker's yeast) is a single-celled
time as the appearance 120 and 160
of mammals. It is likely million Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known
at
of mammals for theentire that E. coli

the relatively rare abtity history of both groups. Further has been living in
ns eukaryote that is frequently used in scientilic
research. S. cerevisiae is an attractive model
ofE. coli to utilize lactosc, n
evidence for his syyo e is organism due to the fact that its
genome has been sequenced, its genetics are easily
lab. Because many yeast proteins are
d manipulatcd, and it is very easy to maintain tne other organisms, studies performed in
in
which
M
is the sugar ot
mik to those found in
Similar in sequence and function
BIO-44 BIO-45
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There are many reasons the fruit fly is a
POPULAR PUBLIÇATIONS protein functions in higher Its care and culture choice as a model
uc
or require little equipment, orgnism:
particular gene large cultures. space, and expense pven wne
a hen uSing
determine how scores tavourabl,
tavourably on
yeast can help us to it sCores ..It can be safely and readily anesthetized
eukaryotes (including hunans). model
organism becuse (usually with ether, carbon
cooling, or with products such
Ed
as a dioxide gas, D
Cereiusiue has developed short generatio time
as FlyNap).
small wina s morphology is easy to identify once anesthetized.
number of these criteria organism, S. cervisiae is
and can be easily cultured These It has a short generation time
AS a
single-cell °C or 86 °F) production and (about 10 days
hours at 30 tne sWit generations can be at room temperature), so severa
(doubling time 1.25-2 they allovW Tor
in that studied within a few weeks.
characteristics
are all positive lowV COSt. sev It has a high fecundity (females lay
pe
specimen lines at a candidate for sexual up to 100 eggs per day, and perhaps 2000 in a
maintenance of multipe allowingl to be lifetime).
meiosis,
Cerevisiae divides with Males and females are readily distinguished,
either the addition of new gene or
genetics research. and virgin females are easily isolaed
can be transformed
allowing for facilitating genetic crossing.
ca
Cererisiu recombination. Furthermore, the ability to
deletion through homologous strains.
The mature larva has giant chromosomes in the salivary glands called
simplifties the creation of gene knockout
polytene
grow S. cerevisiae as a huploid chromosomes, "puffs", which indicate regions of transcription, hence gene
the complex internal cell structure of plants It has only four pairs of chromosomes
activity.
As a cukaryotc. S. cerevisiae shares
dS
DNA that can confound
-
three autosomes, and one pair of sex
and animals without the high percentage of noi-coding chromosomes.
research in higher eukaryoles. Males do not show meiotic recombination, facilitating genetic studies.
S.cerevisiae research is a strong economic driver, at lecast initiany, as a result of Recessive lethal "balancer chromosomes" carrying visible genetic markers can be
in
its established use in industry.

used to keep stocks of lethal alleles in a heterozygous state without recombination
due to multiple inversions in the balancer.
45. Describe Drosophila melanogaster. Why it is considered as model organism?
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot The development of this organism-from fertilized egg to mature adult-is well
(M
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer: understood.
Drosophilu melanogaster is a species of fly (the taxonomic
order Diptera) in the
Genetic transformation techniques have been available since 1987.
family Drosophilidae. The species is known
generally as the common fruit.fly Its complete genome was sequenced and first published in 2000.
inaccurately) or vinegar ly. Starting (though Sexual mosaics can be readily produced, providing an additional tool for studying the
with Charles W. Woodwortli's
of this species as a model organism. D. proposal of the use
development and behaviour of these flies.
ot
melanogaster continues to be
biological research in
genetics. physiology, microbial
widely used for
evolution. pathogenesis, and life history
D. melanogaster
Genetic markers
is typically used in research Genetic markers are commonly used in Drosophilu research. for example within balancer
lB
laboratory. has only because it can be

four pairs of chromosomes, readily reared in the
geographic range includes breeds quickly, and chromosomes or P-element inserts, and most phenotypes are easily identifiable cither
all continents, including lays many eggs. its with the naked eye or under a microscope. In the list of a few common markers below,
pest in homes, restaurants, islands. D. melunogaster
Flies belonging
and other places where is a commo the allele symbol is followed by the name of the gene affected and a description of its
to the family Tephritidae food is served.
phenotype. (Note: Recessive alleles are in lower cas. while dominant alleles are
ia
confusion. especially are also calied

"fruit
Mediterranean fruit fhyin the Mediterranean, Australia, flies". This can cause
capitalised.).
Ceratitis capilata and South Africa,
is an economic
pest.
where tne Cy: Curly: the wings curve away from the body. flight may be'somewhat impaired
er
D. melanoguster e: Ebony: black body and wings (heterozygotes are also visibly darker than wild
remains one
particularly in of the, most studied type)
genetics and developmental organisms
biology. in biological Sb: Stubble; bristles are shorter and thicker than wild type
researi
at
casons for
model w: White; eyes lack pigmentation and appear white
melanogaster organism
types (clockwise): bw: Bron; eye color determined by various pigments combined.
es with ebony
body. vermilion eyes,Brown eyes with black
M
y: Yellow; body pigmentation and wings appea yellow, the fly analog of albinisnm
white eyes, body, cinnabar
and wild eyes, s
BIO-46 type eyes with
yellow boay BIO-47
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the
molecular biology of many BIOLOGY
cause hen mutaled, plant traits,
phenotype they Sensing including flower
Classic genetic nutations atler the w ill result in a mu ant development and light
traditionally named Droxyiilau
Ed
Drusophilu gensarei
urticular gene
in
gene timnan 1:3med
the absence of a called isS dbaliana is now wiaeiy
For Seiemists have thus Stvenbahy Rena ene.dcause used lor studying plant
develop a heart. in the
ryothatdves not the sune name. likew ise ehnges lation genetics, and
plant development.
sciences,
including genetics,
karvae. This system nificance evolution
er the Qy character of hairs in roseyhilu
stchlni
organisms.
of for agriculture, it Although A.
has several traits thuliuna has little direct
the of
loss dorsal cuticular names than in otner derstanding the genetic, cellular, that make it a. useful
gen
wider runge of model tor
pe
and molecular biology
ITiCature results in a of flowering plants.
Similarity to humans compariing the frui Reasons for model organism
Human Genome Research institute Genomics
Marc 2000 studs by National
ca
A betiveen the tivo
about 60% of genes are coiServed
two
tly and human genome estimatad that Nuclear genome
disease genes have a recognizable match
in the
species. About 75°» of known human The small, size of its genome, and the fact
sequences have mammallan honologs. An that it is diploid. makes Arabidopsis
genome ot truit flies. and s0°s of tly protein thaliana useful for genetic mapping and sequencing-
dS
online catabase called Homupila is available to. search
for human disease gene with about 135 mega base
pairs and five chromosomes, A. thaliana has one
homolegues in tlies and vice versa. Drosophila is being used as
a genetic model for of the smallest genomes among plants.
It was long thought to have the smallest genome
Several human diseases including the neurodegenerative of all flowering plants, but that title is
now considered to belong to plants in the genus Genlisea, order Lamiales,
disorders Parkinson's. Huntington's. spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer's disease. The with enlisea
in
tuberosa, a carnivorous plant, showing a genome size of approximately 61 Mbp. It was

ly is also being used to study mechanisms underlying aging and oxidative
the first plant genome to be sequenced, completed in 2000 by the Arabidopsis Genome
Stress. immunity. diabetes. and cancer. as well as drug abuse.
Initiative. The most up-t0-date version of the A. thaliama genome is maintained by the
(M
46. Describe Caenorhabditis elegans. MODEL QUESTION]

Arabidopsis Information Resource (1TAIR). Much work has been done to assign functions
Answer: to its 27,000 genes and the 35,000 proteins they encode. Post-genomic research, such as
Caenorhabdiris elegaus is a free-living. transparent nematode, metabolomics, has also provided useful insights to the metabolism of this species and
about I mm in length, that
fives in temperate soil environments. It is how environmental perturbations can affect metabolic processes.
the type species of its genus. The name is a
blend of the Greek caeno-
(recent). rhabditis (rod-like) and Latin
elegans (elegant). In
ot
1900. Maupas initially

named it Rhabditides eleguns, Osche Chloroplast genone
the subgerus C'uenorhabditis placed it in The plastome of Arabidopsis thaliana is a 154. 478 base pair long DNA molecule, a size
in 1952, and in 1955, Dougherty
raised Caenorhabdilis to
typically encountered in most flowering plants. comprises 136 genes coding for small
the status of genus. It
lB
C. eleguns is an unsegmented
pseudocoelomate and lacks, Subunit ribosomal proteins (rps, in yellow), large subunit ribosomal proteins (rpl,
respiratory or circulatory proteins
systems. Most of these
nematodes are hermaphrodites orange), hypothetical chloroplast open reading irame proteins (vcf. lemon),
specialisedtails for mating and a few are males. ribosomal RNAs
that include spicules. Males have nvolved in photosynthetic reactions (green) or in oher functions (red).
47.
rrn, blue). and transfer RNAs (n, black).
DescribeArabidopsis
ia
thaliana. Why it is considered

as model organism? Mitochondrial genome
Answer: is š67,808 base pairs long and
Arabidopsis thaiana, [MODEL QUESTIONJ The mitochondrial genome of Arabidopsis thaliana
many repeated regions in the Arahilopsis mitochondrial
er
small flowering plant the thale cress, mouse-ear contains 57 genes. There are genome. Like most
nativeto Eurasia
tound by roadsides and in disturbed and Africa. A. thuliana
cress or arabidopsis, is a genome. The largest repeats recombine regularly and isdmerize the
genome exists as a complex
A winter annual With land. is considered a wced, it is plant mitochondrial genomes., the Aranictopsis mitochondrial
a reatively molecules in vivo.
at
organism in plant short life arrangement of overlapping branched and linear

bioiogy ana genetics. cycle, A. thulianu is rouine. utilizing Agrohacterium tumefaciens to
thaliana has a relatively For a complex a popular odel Genetic transformation of A. tholiana iS
genome i transfer DNA into the plant
genome. Ine crrent protocol, termed "floral dip". involves
was the irst plant to navesma1 of approximately multicellular eukaryo
carrying a plasmid of
M
a Cotaining AgrObacterim
iS
EOme sequenced. 135 megabase
pairs (Mo Simply dipping flowers into soiuuon
and is a popular
tool for understana BIO-49
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POPULARPUBLICATIONS lor tissue plam (Dilute, Brown and
BIOLOGY
the need uu) inbred mouse
method avoids generation of inbred strains. The mouse strain and initiated
This the matic
detergen anism and is associated has since been
Ed
nterest and a
with many important used extensively as a model
rgenertion. 21st Centuries. biological discoveries
DIology made of the 20th and
0pt
resolurce
m3 The Jackson Laboratory in
are a unique Bar Harbor, Maine
Geneties Knockout eollections for genomin is
ndliuimi gene transtormation and runalng Suppliers of laboratory mice, at around 3 currently one of the world's largest
nc.. availability of
high-hroughput
deterinea 0r over 300.000
world's source for more than 8,000 strains
million mice a year.
The laboratory is also the
pe
OSSible by the insertions has been
resourves. The site of T-DNA and seeds accessioie through online T. the Mouse Genome Informatics database.
of genetically defined mice and is home o
with the information nmutants are available for mocs
hdependent transgenic lines. collections. insertional
st
DNA datakases. Through these
Senes im.i. tiailii.
43. Describe Mus musculus. Why
it is considered
as model organism since lona
[MODEL QUESTION)
ca
dS
time?
Answer: the order Rodentia.
is a small mammal of
the house mouse (Jfus musculus)
ears. and a long and hairy tail. It
.
charactenstically hav ing a pointed snout, large rounded

Alus. Although a wild animal, the house
in
1S one of the most abundant species of the genus

to the point
mouse has benetited signiticantly from associating with human habitation
that truly wild popuations are significantly less common than the semi-tame populations

(M
rear human activity.

The house mouse has been domesticated as the pet or fancy mouse, and as the laboratory
mouse. which is one of the most important model organisms in biology and medicine.
Thecomplete mouse reference genome was sequenced in 2002.
Mice have been used in biomedical research since the 16th Century
ot
when William
Harvey used them for his studies on reproduction and
blood circulation and Robert
Hooke used them to investigate the biological
consequences of an increase in air
pressure. During the 18th century Joseph Priestley
lB
and Antoine Lavoisier both used mice

to study respiration. In the 19th
century Gregor Mendel carried out his eariy
investigations of inheritance on mouse coat
color but was asked by his
breeding in his cell "smelly creatures superior to Stop
that, in addition, copulated
switched his investigations to peas and had sex". He then
but, as his observations were
ia
obscure botanical jourmal, they were published in a somewnat

virtually ignored for over
rediscovered in the early 20th 35 years until they were
century. In 1902 Lucien Cuenot
experiments using mie which published the results otrni
showed that Mendel's laws
er
for animals-results that of inheritance were also vand

were soon contirmed
and extended to other
species.
In the early part of
the 20th century, Harvard
at
conducting studies on mouse undergraduate Clarence

genetics in the laboratory Cook Litile wa
and Castle collaborated closely of William Ernest Castle.
with Abbie Lathrop L
rats which she inarketed to who was a breeder
M
selling in large numbers

rodent hobbyists
and keepers of fancy imice a
toSenilic researchers. Together of exotic pets, and later
beg
they generated the LDD
BIO-50 BIO-51
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Multiple Choice
Type Que ions
GENETICS 1. The tendency of an offspring
Ed
to resemble its parent
is known as
a) Variation [MODEL QUESTIONJ
b).Heredity
c) Resemblance
d) Inheritance
Answer: (b).
Chapter at a Glance
pe
process by which this occurs is 2. Who is known as the "Father of Genetics"?
arise fhom
preevisting cells. The
ACCording to the celi theory. cells lie cycie rom a single-celled [MODEL QUESTION
reproducing oryanism starts its a) Morgan b) Mendel
caled cell division. Any sexually
mature orgams.dut continues Watson d) Bateson
with the formation of the Answer: (6)
ca
ZYSote. Cell division does not stop
throughout its lite cycle.
3. The alternate form of a gene is [MODEL QUESTION]
division to the next is called thecell cycle. Cell
The stages through w hich a cell passes from one a) Alternate type b) Recessive character
period of preparation for cell division,
dS
Cyee is diided into tvwo phases called (i) Interphase-a lurther subdivided into
c) Dominant character d) Allele
and ( tosis (NI phase) - the actual period of cell division. Interphase is Answer: (b)
G.S and G2.Gl phase is the period when the cell grows and carries out normal metabolism.
Nlost of the organelle duplication also occurs during this phase. S phase marks the phase of
DNA.
4. The genotypic ratio of a.monohybrid cross is [MODEL QUESTION]
replicatien and chromosome duplication. G2 phase is the period of cytoplasimic growth. Mitosis is
in
a) 1:2:1 b) 3:1 c) 2:1:1 d) 9:3:3:1

also div ided into four stages namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Chromosome
condensation occurs during prophase. Simultaneously. the centrioles move to the oppOsite poles. Auswer: (a)
The nuclear envelope and the nucleolus disappear and the spindle fibres start appearing
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot [MODEL QUESTION]
(M
Metaphase is marked by the alignment of chromosomes at the equatorial plate. During anaphase 5. The crossing of F1 to any of the parent is known as
a) Test cross b) Back cross
tne centromeres divide and the chromatids start moving towards the two opposite poles. Once the d) All of the above
chromatids reach the two poles. the chromosomal elongation starts, nucleolus and the nuclear c) F1 cross
membrane reappear. This stage is called the telophase. Nuclear division is
then followed by the, Answer: (d)
cytoplasmic division and is called cytokinesis. Mitosis thus, is
the equational division in which the
chromosome number of the parent is conserved in the 6. Which of the following statements is true
regarding the "law of segregation"?
daughter cell [MODEL QUESTION]
ot
In contrast to mitosis, meiosis occurs in

the diploid cells, which are destined to a) Law of segregation is the law of
purity of genes
called the reduction division since it reduces form gametes. It is during gametogenesis
the chromosome number by haif b) Alleles separate from each other
gametes. n sexual reproduction when while making tne to the segregatjon of chromosomes during
c) Segregation of factors is due
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the two gametes fuse the chromosome

the value in the parent. Meiosis is
divided into two phases meiosis I
number is restored to
meiotic division the homologous and meiosis I1. In the first meiosis
Meiosis has a long prophase,
chromosomes pair to form bivalents,
and undergo crossing ove d) All of the above
which is divided further into five Answer: (d)
zygotene. pachytene, diplotene
and diakinesis. During metaphase I phases. These are leptotene,
equatorial plate. 1his is followed the bivalents arrange on of an individual can be determined by
by anaphase I in which Homozygosity and heterozygosity [MODEL QUESTION
ia
opposite poles with both their homologous chromosomes 7.

chromatids. Each pole receives
the chromosome number to
Imove
parent cell. In telophase the nuclear half or t b) Self-fertilization
mitosis. During anaphase lH
I, membrane and nucleolus
a) Back cross
the sister chromatids reappear. Meiosis II is d) All of the above
similar c) Test cross
er
cells are formed. separate. Thus at the end

of meiosis fourhapio Answer: (a)
EMODEL QUESTION]
Mendel's law is
8. An exception to assortment
at
b) Linkage
a) Independent d) Purity of gametes
c) Dominance
M
Answer: (b)
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QUESTIONJ BIOLOGY
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS (MODEL 17. If a plant with genotype
because
experiments contrasting characters genotype will be (A and B are AaBb is selfed,
not linked) the probability of
Mendel's had a) getting AABB
9. Pea plants were Used in b) They above b) [MODEL QUESTION
Ed
a) They were cheap d) All of the Answer: (b) c) %
They were available easily
C)
d) 1/16
Answer: (6) phenotypic effect on 18. How many phenotypes can
which produces a [MODEL QUESTION] A13? occur in the human
genetic material blood group ABO with alleles
maSmaliest unit of d) Nucleic acid a) 2 b) 3 [MODEL QUESTION
mutation is c) Reconn
pe
b) Gene Answer: (d) c)4 d) 1
a) Muton
Answer: (c)
MODEL QUESTION] 19. The geometrical device
that helps
11. Mendel's findings were rediscovered
by male and female gametes is known as to find out all the possible combinations of
ca
b) De Vries a) Bateson Square IMODEL QUESTION]
a) Correnss d) All b) Mendel Square
c) Tschermark c) Punnett Square
d) Mendel Square
Answer: (d) Answer: (c)
dS
[MODEL QUESTION]
12. Alleles are 20. Which term represents a pair of contrasting
a) Alternate forms of genes a) Heterozygous
characters? [MODEL QUESTION]
b) Homozygous
b) Linked genes c) Codominant genes d) Allelomorphs
C Chromosomes that have crossed over
in
Answer: (d)
d) Homologous chromosomes
Answer: (a)
LShort Type Questions & Long Answer
(M
13. When the activity of one gene is suppressed by the activity of a non-allelic
gene, it is known as [MODEL QUESTION] 1. What is Genetics? [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Pseudo-dominance Hypostasis
b) Answer:
c) Epistasis d) Incomplete dominance
Answer:(C)
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and
heredity in organisms.
ot
14. Cystic fibrosis is

[MODEL QUESTION] 2. Define Mendel's Law. [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Sexiinked recessive disorder b) Autosomal dominant disorder
c) Autosomal recessive disorder d) Sex-linked dominant disorder Answer:
Mendel's Law of Segregation states individuals possess two alleles and a parent passes
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Answer: (c)
only one allele to his/her offspring. Mcndel's Law of Independent Assortment states
15. 9:7 ratio in the F2
generation represents the inheritance of one pair of factors ( gencs ) is independent of theinheritance of the
a) Incomplete dominance [MODEL QUESTION]
b) Co-dominance other pair.
c) Epistasis
Answer: (¢) d) Complementary
interaction
ia
[MODEL QUESTION]
What do mean by discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws?
3.
16. A small amou Answer:
At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete
of lethat mutation is ahways present
in the population due to
er
a) Positive selection [MODEL QUESTION heritable units, called genes, from parents to orispring. This property was first observed
c) b) Negative selection by Gregor Mendel. who studied the segregation of heritable
traits in pea plants. In his
Frequency-dependent selection the flowers of each
Answer: (d) d) Mutation-selection experiments studying the trail for flower color, Mendel observed that
at
balance pea plant were either purple or whitebut

never an intermediate between the two colors.
same gene are called alleles.
These different, discrete versions ol the
In the case of the pea, which iS aiploid Species. each
a individual plant has two copies of
M
Iromm each parent.Many species. inçluding humans. have

each gene, one copy inlherited
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6. What is allele?
uc
POPULARPUBLICATIONS allc BIOLOGY
Of the Same llele of a
two copiC's two.different Answer:
orgunisms nitlh organusnis with [MODEL QUESTION]
this atterm of
inheritance. Diplo locus, vhile An allele 1s a variant iorm
ol a gene. Some genes
homozygous at that ge* are locatea at the Same
Ed
given gene are ealled tHhe obse
observable traits posilion, have a variety of ditferent
are called heteroz\
goUS. gemtype, while diploid organisms because or genetic locus, forms, wnici
alleles of a given gene its
organisn is callet organisnis are heterozyg gous at a gene. they have two on a chromosome.
Humans are caeu
The set of alleles
tor a given hen inherited from each parent. alleles at each genetic
are called its phenoty
pe
W
domiate ne phenotype of the Each pair of alleles locus, with one aci
qualities Genotypes are described as homozygous represents the genotype a
of the organism is called
dominant as its qualities receae and
are not
if there
of specilic gene
often ene allele rcessive as Ils locus and as heterozygous if the two are two identical alleles at a particular
other allele is called instead nave incomplete alleles differ. Alleles contribute
pe
organism. while the dominance and phenotype, which is the outward to the organisms
complete oy expressing both
not have appearance of the organism.
observed. Some alleles do intermediate phenoty pe. or codominance Some alleles are doiminant or recessive.
an
dominance by expressing locus and caries one dominant and one
When an organism is heterozygous
at a specitic
one of the
alleles at once. otfspring randomiy inheril recessive allele. the organism will express
repraduce sexualiy, their
ca
dominant ,phenotype. Alleles can also refer tne
When a puir of organisms of discrete
inheritance and the to minor DNA sequence variations between
observations alleles that do not necessarily influence
trom each parent. These or the Law of the gene's phenotype.
tvo alleles known as Mendel's irst lav
segreyation of alleles are colletively
7. What is gene mapping used for?
dS
Seyregation. [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
[MODEL QUESTION]
4. What are the different Mendel's Laws? Genetic maps are a necessary tool for mapping of disease genes or trait loci, a
Answer: two laws:
.
also commonly known as linkage mapping. Integrating genetic
method
mapping and
depends upon an understanding of Mendel's
in
An analysis of genetie crosses disease gene mapping with next-generation sequencing has proven to be a powerful
seyregation {First Law): The two members of a gene pair (alleles)
The principle of strategy in genetic rescarch
seyregate (separate) trom each other in the
formation of gametes. Half the gametes

carry the other allele.
(M
carry one alleie. and the other haltf 8. How do researchers create a genetic map? [MODEL QUESTIONI
The principle of independent assortment (Second Law): Genes for different
traits
Answer:
assort independently oi one another in the forination of gametes. 1o produce a genetic map, researchers collect blood or tissue samples from members of
In practice, the manitestation of Mende!'s laws is seen by characteristic ratios of families in which a certain disease or trait is prevalent. Using various laboratory
phenotypic classes. such as 3:1 and 9:3:3:1. Further, the Mendelian principles just
techniques, the scientists isolate DNA from these samples and examine. it for unijue
stated include the simpe assumption that one allele is dominant to the other allele. patterns that are seen only in family members who have the disease or trait. These
ot
In the time since Mende's original experiments, we have come to learn that there are characteristic. patterns in the chemical bàses that make up DNA are referred to as
extensians to Mendelian principles. including the fact that some alleles are markers.
ncompletely dominant. that some genes are sex-linked, and that some pairs of genes DNA markers don't, by themselves, identily the gene responsible for the disease or trait:
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do not assort independently because they are physically linked on a

chromosome. but they can tell researchers roughly where the gene is on the chromosome.
a
5. What is gene and its function? This is why: when eggs or sperm develop. the paired chiomosomes that make up
person's genome exchange stretches of DNA. Think of as a shuffling process, called
it
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
Genes are a set of instructions that determine
recombination. The single chromosome in a reproduciive cell contains some stretches of
some from his or her father.
ia
what the organism is like, its appearance DNA inherited from the person's mother and
how it survives. and howit behaves
in its environment. Genes are made of a a DNA marker, the gene and marker will likely stay
called deoxy ribonucleic acid or DNA. They substance If a particular gene .is close to
will likely be passed on together
molecules called proteins
give instructions for a living being to makc together during the recombination process. and they
with a particular disease or trait also inherits
er
from parent to child. If each family member

a particular DNA marker. it IS very likeiy
that the gene responsible for the disease lies
Genes are actually unit of heredity
which is transferred from
springs. Genes are found in the chromosomes, parents to the o near that marker. are on a genetic map, te more likely it is that at least one
at
this chromosomes are found in The more DNA markers there a

of a cell. Function of genes are the nucieu gene-ana the easier it will be for researchers to
to give specific character marker will be located close to disease
from their parents, like eye color. no. OT to the off-springs the irst major acnievements of the HGP was to
develop
imbs, haircolor, etc. zero in on that gene. One of
M
eveniy cross tne entire human

genome.
markers spaced
dense maps of
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MODEL QUESTION] Examples of polygenic BIOLOGY
POPULARPUBLICATIONS inh itance
in human height, skin in nature
color, and ound in many places
hair color;
n
resistance. ana _plants
Ed
Interactions? with grain in animal size,
9. What is Gene gene in color, length of maize, longevity, o isease
aoscnce o another these traits are intluenced
or flower size. A of
Answer: Interactions: pesence vr at ditterent loci th by multiple genes
and considered polygenic.
Meaning of Gene one gene depends on the interaction oT gencs
13. Why Is body size
expressionknown of gene interaction. 1he plhenotyp controlled by more
as genes on normal ypic Answer: than one gene? [MODEL QUESO
hdividal. it is character epistasis.
is callai
allelic or nn-allele genes ot ne same allelic pair
pe
the same of The sizes of all or these body
det
Gene
interaction is the
intiuerse where [wo
nonis, cases ntuence one another 1S
called geno skin, hair, and eye color are
parts are, in turn, determined
also polygenic traits
by numerous genes. Human
trait. ln xher than one allele at different loci. The because they are influenced by mor
Cpression of the ditfert allelic is
more result is the perception of continuous
or geaes of two or the expression of these traits. gradation in
interaction.
10. What is
Complementary Gene
Interaction?
[MODEL QUSTION]
by twO Interacting
genes of ca
14. What is Epistasis?
dS
Answer: is the production
Complementary Gene lnteraction Epistasis Is the phenomenon where the effect of one
The either one separately. presence of one or more 'modifier genes', i.e.
gene (locus) is dependent on the
those praducad by
effects distinct from the genetic background.Originally the
[MODEL QUESTION] term meant that the phenotypic effect of one gene
is masked by a different gene
11. Give example of
supplementary Gene. (locus).I Thus, epistatic mutations have different effects in combination than individually.
in
own effects It was originally a concept from genetics but is now used in biochemistry,
Answer: are able to produce their computational
genes which not only form a new
They are two non allelic state but can also interact to
biology and evolutionary biology. It arises due to interactions, either between genes, or
in the dominant

independently when prasent supplementary genes, P and within them, leading to non-linear effects. Epistasis has a large influence on the shape
(M
types in pouliy is an example of collaborative

trait. Comb of evolutionary landscapes, which leads to profound consequences
R for evolution and evolvability of phenotypic traits.
Give example.
12. Define "polygene" or "multiple gene inheritance". [MODEL QUESTION 15. Define CELL CYCLE. [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
ot
Answer a group of non- Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During the division of a
A "polygene" or "multiple gene inheritance" is a member of
epistatic yenes that interact additively to influence a phenotypic trait. The
term cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these prOcesses. i.e. cell
monozy go0us is usually used to refer to a hypothetical gene as it is often difficult to division, DN replication, and cell growth, hence. have to take place in a coordinated
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characternse the effect of an individual gene from the effects of other genes and the
way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.
environment on a paricular phenorype. Advances in statistical methodology and high The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other
throughput sequencing are. however, allowing researchers to locate candidate genes fo constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
process, DNA
the trast. In the case that such a gene is identified, it is referred to as a quantitative trait Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous
The replicated.
locnsQTL). These genes are generally pleiotropic as well. The genes that contribute to synthesis occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle.
ia
pe 2 diabetes are thought to be mostly polygenes. In July 2016. scientists reported chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to daughter nuclei.by a complex series of
genetic control.
Identitying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) o events during cell division. These events are themselves under
er
all organisms living on Earth.

Cell Cycle. [MODEL QUESTION]
Traits with polygenic determinism correspond to the classical 16. Describe the different Phases of
quantitative characters, a
opposed to the qualitative characters with monogenic Answer:
or oligogenic determinisn is illustrated by human cells in culture. These cells divide
essence instead of two options, such as freckles or no freckles, A typical eukaryotic cell cycle
at
there are many variatio1. this duration of cell cycl can vary from
Like the color of skin, hair, or even eyes. once in approximately every 24 hours. However, to
type cell type. Yeast for example, 'can
organism to organism and also from cell
90 minutes. The cell cycle is divided into
progress through the cell cycle in oniy about
M
two basic phases:

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uc
Prophase which is theCf
rst
the S and yz pnasCs the new of nitosis follows the S and
Interpase DNA molecules G2 phases of interphase.
Phase (Mitosis phase)
[MODEL QUESTION] rophase 1S marked formed are n
by
chromosonal material the initiation of condensation not distinct but intertwined.
M
Ed
of cet cycte becomes untangled of chromosomal materia.
17.Describe the InterPhase The centriole, which had undergone during the process
of chromatin condensation.
ph.iSCS move towards oppoSite duplication during
Answer: S phase of interphase, now
into thre fut/her poles of the cell. begins
ne nterphase is divided marked by the following
characteristic
The completion
of prophase can
phase (Giap 1) events: thus be
Gl Chromosomal
pe
phase (S nthesis)
I
material condenses
S
Chromosomes are seen to be to form compact mitotic
composed of two chromatids chromosomes.
G2 phase (Giap )
DNA replication
n. the centromere. attached together at
and iniliation ol
interval between mitosis grows but does not Initiation of the assembly
ca
coresponds to the continuously of mitotic spindle, the microtubules,
o phase metabvlically active and
components of the cell the proteinaceous
cell
during which DNA synthesis or
is
During GI phase the cytoplasm
phase marks the period Cells at the end of prophase, when help in the process.
replicate its DNA. S or synthesis DNA per cell doubles. If the viewed under the microscope,
place. During this time the amount of complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, do not show goigi
replicatien takes
dS
is denstai as 20 then il
u "cases to 4C. However, there is no nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
Initial amount of DN.A
number. if the celi had diploid
or 2n number of
increase in the chromseme Metaphase
ol chromosomes remains the same,
chromosomes at Gi . esen arter S phase the number The complete disintegration of the nuclear
replication begins in the nucleus, and envelope marks the start of the second phase
i.e. 2n. In anima! cells., during the S phase, DNA
in
are synthesised of mitosis, hence the chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell.
the centriole duplicates in the cy1oplasm. During the G2 phase, proteins stage, condensation of chromosomes is completed By this
in preparation for mitosis w hile cell growth continues. and they can be observed clearly under
the microscope. This then, is the stage at which
Some cellsin the aduit animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g.. heart cells) and morphology of chromosomes is most
(M
easily studied. At this stage, metaphase chromosome is

many other cells divide only occasionally. as needed to replace cells that have been lost made up of two sister chromatids,
because of injury or cell death. These cells that do not divide further exit Gl phase to
which are held together by the centromere. Simall disc-shaped
structures at the surface of
the centromeres are called kinetochores. These
enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0 ) of the cell cycle. Cells in this stage structures serve as the sites of attachment
emain metabolically ative bur no longer proliferate unless called on to do so depending
of spindle fibres (formed by the spindle fibres) to the chromosomes
that are moved into
on the requirement of he organism. position at the centre of the cell. Hence, the metaphase is characterised
by all the
ot
In animals. mitotic cell division is only

seen in the diploid somatic cells. Against this, the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator with one chroimatid of each chromosome
plants can show mitotic divisions in both
haploid and diploid cells. From your
connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole and its sister chromatid
recollection of examples of alternation
of generations in plants identify plant connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from the opposite pole. The plane of
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stages at which mitosis is seen in haploid species and alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as. the metaphase plate. The
cells.
key features of metaphase are:
18. Describe M PHASE
in detail. Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
AnSwer: [MODEL QUESTION]
This is the most dramatic period Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase
ia
virtually all components

of the cell cycle, involving plate through spindle fibres to both poles.
a major reorganisation
progeny cells is the same,
of the cell. Since the number
of chromosomes in the parent ana
o
it isalso called as equational Anaphe(1se
mitosis has been divided division. Though for
er
understand that cell

into four stages
of nuclear division, convenienc At the onset of anaphase. each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is split
division is a progressive it is very essentia
drawn between various process and very Simultaneously and the two daughter chromatids, now referred to as chromosomes of the
stages. Mitosis is
divided into the clear-cut lines cannor future daughter nuclei. begin their migration tovards, the two opposite poles. As each
Prophase
at
following four stages:

Metaphase chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromerc. of each chromosome
is towards the pole and hence at the leading edge, with the arms of the chromosome
Anaphase
M
Telophase trailing behind. Thus, anaphase stage is characterised by the following key events:
Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
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BIOLOGY
POPULAR PUBLIÇATIONS 21. What is MElOSIS?
opposite
pores Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
Chromatids move to chromosoes
chromosomes tha
that have The production of oflspring by sexual
teloplhase, the repr
Ed
individuality. The individual with a complete
ch with
each complcte haploid set of chro
mitosis, i.e.. diploid cells. his specialised ncudes fusion of iwo gametes,
of chromosomes. Gametes the
lose their tends to collect in a. mass i
T
Telophase stage of and kind of cell division are formed from specialised
tinal decondense
At Deginning
roa
of the
respective poles chromatin
material followin wing key events: half results in the production of haploid that reduces the chromosome
daughter cells. This number
reached heir be seen
and which shows the identity is
is lost as meiosis.Meiosis ensures the production kind of division
is caliea
no longer stage their of haploid phase
mes can This is the and eproducing organisms whereas fertilisation in the life cycle
of sexually
spindle poles
pe
the ta poles(Figure 10.2 d). restores the diploid phase. We come across
( opposite meiosis duiring gametogenesis in plants
hromosomes cluster at
the two and
chromosome clusters. haploid gametes. he key features meiosis animals. This leads to the formation ot
T
of are as follows:
discrete elements. assembles around the
envelope MeiosIs involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division
ca
Nuclear reform. called meiosis
complex and ER and meiosis lI but only a single cycle of DNA replication.
Nucleolus. golgi [MODEL QUESTION]
Meiosis I is initiated after the parental chromosomes
have replicated to produce
identical siter chromatids at the S phase.
Cytokinesis. into daughter
dS
19. Define duplicated chroinosomes separate Meiosis involves pairing of homol:us chromosomes and
Answer: segregation of daughter cells by a recombination
not only the divi1ded into two between them.
Mitosis accomplishes cell itself is complete. In an animal
cel
(karyokinesis). but the division is . Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis I.
nuclei
cytokinesis at the end of
which cell
plasma membrane. The furro
the
in
process called a furrow in

the appearance of cell cytoplasm into two.
this is achieved by ultimately joins in the centre dividing the 22. Mention the significance of meiosis. [MODEL QUESTION]
gradually deepens and inextensible cell wall, thererfore they Answer:
a relatively
are enclosed by formation starts in the
(M
Plant cells however. In plant cells, wall Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosome number of each
different mechanism. The formation of
undergo cytokinesis by a existing lateral wals. species is achieved across generations in sexually reproducing organisms, even though
grows outward to meet the precursor, called the cell-plate
centre of the cell and a simple the process, per se, paradoxically, res ults in reduction of chromosome number by half. I
begins with the formation of time of
the new cell wall two adjacent cells. At the also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one generation
lamella between the walls of
that represents the middle mitochondria and plastids get disributed between to the next. Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
cytoplasmic division, organelles Iike followed by cytokinesis as
organisms karyokinesis is not
ot
the two daughter cells. In some leading to the formation of syncytium. 23. What is Gene mapping? [MODEL QUESTION]
which multinucieate condition arises
aresult of Answer: on a
[MODEL QUESTION] Gene mapping is the sequential allocation of loci to a relative position
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20. What is Significance of Mitosis? markerS

chromosome. Genetic maps are species-specific and comprised of genomic
Answer:
diploid cells only. However, and/or genes and the genetic distance between each marker.
Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the
in some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells alsó
divide by mitosis. It is
24. What are the differences between Mitosis versus Meiosis? [MODEL QUESTION]
very essential to understand the significance of this division in the life of an organism.
ia
Are you aware of some examples where you- have studied about haploid
and diplo
Answer:
insects? Mitosis usualy results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identicat ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis results in two
Cells divide and reproduce in two
genetic complement The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.e four sex cells. Below we highlight the
er
Identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in

growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It thereo between the two types of cell division.
Keys ditferences and similarities
becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A
at
significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair. The cells of the úpper layer ot
epidermis, cells of the, lining of the gut, and blood cells are being constantuy rpelt Differences Meiosis_
Mitosis nvolves two successive cell divisions
Mitotic divisions in the meristematíc tissues the apical and the lateral cambium,
i Involves one cell division Results in four daughter cells
M
in a continuous growth of plats throughout their life. Results in two daughter cells Results in haploid? daughter cells
Results
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BIOLOGY
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uc
Nialved fron the
is alleles of a gene pair in the recessiverecessive is applied both to tle organism
(chnimosOme nunOer condition and to having
itosis(chronosome' number | rcnt cel masked by another allele of thesame gene. the allele ihose effect can be
daughter cells"
gcnelcalyY dilferent
Ed
n diplod
renmains tie same
as parent celn
Daughter cells are fungi 27. What is Dominance in genetics?
Occurs only in
anin:alS. PlanS nd Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
are genetically tdcnttcl sperm) ,only
Dughter cells germ Ceis (EES and Dominance, in genetics, is the phenomenon
\inis tronm|Cre:alcs
ccurs in all organisins exCpt apart a chromosome masKing or overriding the effect
of one variant (altle) of a gene on
all
cells (somatic?)
body of a different variantof the same gene
rEaes on the other copy or the chromosome.The first variant is
pe
and spen
the erm cells" (egs takes much longer
ProphaselrecomoinallioncroSSing second recessive. Ihis state of having two different variants termed ominant and the
of
over o of the sime gene on each
Propnase Is muctt shotcr occurs 1nnvoives I chromosome is originally caused by a mutation in one of the genes,
revOmbination crossing
over chromosomes in prophase eiternew (de novo)
or inherited. The terms autosomal dominant or
ca
autosomal recesive are used to
prophase Chronmosomes line describe gene variants on non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and theivassociated traits,
metapnase Ipars or
individual chromosomes (pairs of In equator. while those on seX chromosomes (allosomes) are termed X-linked dminant, X-linked
In merapnise up along the
eyuator the SIster chromatids recessive or Y-|inked, and these show a very different inheritance and presentation
dS
During anapnase
T
chrumattdS) line uP alony the

sister chromatids are| move together to the same pole. pattern to autosomal traits which depends on the sex of the individual. Aditionally, there
During 3i12phse the chromatids
Separated to OFposite poles. During anaphase Il the sister are other forms of dominance such as incomplete dominance, in whih a gene variant
are separated to oppoSite poles. has a partial effect compared to when it is present on both chromsomes, and co-
in
dominance, in which different variants on each chromosome both shov their associated
[MODEL QUESTION] traits.
of Mitosis versus meiosis?
25. What are the Similarities

(M
Answer:
Mitosis
Diploid parent cell
and telophase
Consists of inierphase. prophase. metaphase, anaphase
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids)
line up along the
equator.
ot
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

Ends with eytokinesis.
Meiosis
lB
Diploid parent cell

Consists of interphase. prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (but twice
In metaphase II individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along tne
equator.
ia
During anaphase Il the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

Ends with cytokinesis.
er
26. WhatsRecessiveness in genetics? [MODEL QUESTION

Answer:
Recessiveness. in genciics, the, failure of one n an
at
individual to express itself in an observable of a

pair of genes (alleles) prese
manner because of the greaer luence, or
dominance. of its opposteacting
partner. aherited
characteristic. but the presence otthe recessíve Both alleles affect the same atioll
M
gene cannot be determined by

of the organism; i.e., althougn present in the organism's oDsait is
genotype. the recessic BIO-65
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BIOMOLECULES ipids
BIOLOGY
(1) Terin Iipid was coined by Bloor.
Ed
(2) These arc esters
aY 1 latty acids and alcohol.
They are hyurophobiC insoluble
in water
(4) Lipids are classilied into three groups:- but soluble in benzene, ether and chloroform.
A) Simple lipids: These are the esters
of fatty acids and glycerol.
Chapter a a Glance (a) Fats and Ous: (Natural
Pats which are liquid at room
lipids or true fats). These. Again they are typed as:
pe
are triglycerides of fatty
temperature are called acid and giycero.
called polyunsaturated e.g. suntlower oil, oils. Oils with polyunsaturated tatty acids are
cellulosSe. lower blood cholesterol.
stanch and
Carbohydrates:
glyavfn (animal starch), plant eNists only' in To but constitutes 80% bf (b) Fatty acids: Obtained by hydrolysis
of fats. Formi acid is simplest fatty acid
Csugas.of carbo nthesis. It
drate: Mainy phutrsy These are of 2 types:- (HCO0H).
ource
ca
Cn2N. It is also called
in the ratio 6) Saturated 1atty acids: The fatty acids which do not have double
dry weight of plats.
the hydrogen and oxygen bond in between carbon
Compositivn: lt onsists of cartvn. atoms.e.g. butyric aCId, palmitic acid, hexanoic acid, etc. They
aYInNVieNs. have high melting points. solid at
SICchartde and sugar are their basic room temperature and increase blood cholesterol.
dS
Candydrates (ii) Unsaturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which have double bonds
in carbon atoms. e.g. 8
hexadecanoic acid, 9 octadecanoic acid etc. They have lower melting points mostly found plant
in
fats, liquid at room temperature and lower the blóod cholesterol.
Polysaccharides (number of (c) Waxes: These are simple lipids composed of one molecule of long chain.fatty acid and long
(number ot
As monosaccharides over T0) chain monohydric alcoho. Waxes have high melting point, insoluble in water, resistant to
in
Monosxehurdes and 10
their éerv aves
L teasachandes etc.) atmospheric Oxidation, chemically inert and not digested by enzymes. They reduce rate of
transpiration by makings plant tissue water proof arnd work as excellent lubricant.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot (B) Compound lipids: They: contain some additional or element. Group' with fatty acid and
(M
alcohol on the basis of group they may be of following types:

(a) Phospholipids: These contain phosphorie acid. it helps in transport, metabolism., blood
Denaaves of Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides
furosaetartes clotting and permeabilityý of cell membrane. It is a bipolar molecule i.e. phosphate containing end
locosacchardes, (starch. amylopectin. (glycoproteins, starch. 1S hydrophiliç whereas fatty acid molecules represent hydrophobic (non-polar tail).
Trmose C. Tetrose -CC gycogen, cellulose etc.)
Pertuse-. Hexuse £
proteins)
(6) Glycolipids: These contain nitrogen and carbohydrate beside fatty acids. Generally. found in
teptase-C.Octoses-C white matter of nervous system. e.g. sesocine frenocin.
ot
(c) Chromolipids : It includes pigmented lipids eg carotene.

andses .DecoSes IUC
with fatty acid

(d) Aminolipids : Also known as sulpholipids. contains sulphur and amino acids
It
lipids resistant to water, and also provide

and giycerol. Cutin and suberin are also compound
lB
Glycosides e.g. mechanical support in plants.

eg of simple and compound lipids.
(ii) Derived lipids: These ar obtained by hydrolysis
ArOIe acads Annosaccharndes Phosphosaccharides
Ure acds eg
Eycouronc acad, grucaroic acd g ghcosamine,. e.gglucose -6- nucleotides,
nucleosidcs. (5) Functions of lipids
galactosamine phosphate, fructose 1,6 more energy in the cell than protein and
biphosphate etc. Coenzymes etc. (a) Oxidation of lipids yields comparatively
39.1 KJ.
4}Properties of nnosaccharide onydrates. Igm of lipids accounts for to embryo
mustard, coconut store fats fo provide nourishment
ia
(a) Monosaccharide are colourless. sweet tasting, solids (D) The oil seeds such as groundnut,
(b) Due to asymmric carbon. they
exist in different isomeric forms. They can rotate polari giring germination. the membrane systems of the cell are made up of
light hence they ardextrorotatory and leavorotatory.
They function as structural constituent i.e. all
(c) D-glucose aftereduction gives rise to a
er
mixture of polyhydroxy alcohol, sorbitol or mannito lipoproteins.

(d) The sugars wn a free aldehyde emulsifier.
or ketone group reduce Cu" to
(e) Sugars show Kidatiorn, sterification and Cu' (cupric to cuprous) ) Amphipathic lipids are
fermentation. (e) It works as heat insulator.
() The aldehy der ketone group of homiones.
ofa simple sugar can join an alcoholic () Used in synthesis
at
D, E, and K.
group of another vitamins A,
compound bond-9-C the process involves loss
H+OH- H:O.
of water and is called condensation (H-0°7 Oo 6 ats provide solubility to
M
BIO-67
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BIOLOGY
PUBLICATIONS
POPULAR
amuo acnd). c Acid
prokar otes NuCnition: Nucleic, acids are the polymers
prvtems (called
universSil in
virUses.
and (1) of nucleotide made up of carbon,
Ed
components ot
vell nitrogen and phosphorus and
which controls the basic functions hyaroge
nt
Amino Acids
ds are normal spevitiad ki
genetic code
and made
up of
o
Ox
e were first reported by Friedrich
(2)Thes Miescher (1871) from
of the cell.
011) Irom the nucleus of pus pus cell.
are
T
eukaryoteS
20 in
number
acids are
basic units oI
Composition: Aminoonganic acids with a
Structure and S. Amino acids arr Carboxyl group
prorein
carboxyl group
attributes acidic
(-COOH
properties andOne
maintain pH
amino
TYpes
nucleic acid
/3) Altmann called it first time as
(3) Are found in nucleus. They help in transfer
of genetic informátion.
cell.
of nucleic acids :On the basis of nucleotides i.e. sugars,. phosphates and nitrogenous
sometimes nelp-to maintain pH. General
nd group(-NH:) on the a arbon atom. buffers and nucleic acids are of two ypes which are further subdivided. These are DNA
pe
they serve as
Jmind In solution. Deoxyribonucieic acia) and RNA (Ribonucleic
nucleic acid),
u gives
basic otes. (Deoxyribonycleic acides)
formula is
R-CHNH:COOH (A) DNA
Classification Types of DNA: It may be linear or circular in eukaryotes and prokaryotes respectiveiy.
ca
(4)
e.g glycine,'alani ne (a) Palindromic DNA: Ihe DNA helical bears nucleotide in a serial arrangement but oPposite in
Based on R-group ofamino

acids group in the side Cnan. two strands
no functional
(a) Simple amino
acids: These have T-T-A-A-C-G-T-T-A-A..
serine, etc
alcohol group in side
chain. eg. threonine, -A-A-T-T-G-C-A-A-T-T..
dS
leucine. valine ets. e.g. methionina
acids: They have sulphur atom in siae
cnain. onine, of arrangement is found near centromere of chromosome and is
(6) Hydroy amino acids: They have. (b) Repetitrve DNA: IhiS type
amino
() Sulphur containing lysine, arginine.
inert in RNA synthesis. The sequence of nitrogenous bases is repeated several times
Cstenine group (-NH;) in side chain. e.g. (c) Satellite DNA: It may have base pairs up to 11-60bp and are repetitive
in' nature. They,are
They have basic acid, glutamic acid
d) Basic amino acids: group in side chain. e.g. aspartic
is deutrorotatory and
carboxyl used in DNA matching or finger printing (Jefferey). In eukáryotes, DNA
in
(e) Acidic amino acids:

They have
amino acids. In this
group, onee of
acids:-These are the derivatives ot acidic sugars have pyranoOse configuration.
() Acid amide amino e.g. aspafagine, glutamine. is second type of nucleic acid which is found in nucleus as
converted to amide (-CONHh). (B) RNA or Ribonucleic acid: 'RNA
the carboxyl group kas been the side chain includes a ring carry the genetic information
These are the amino acids in which well as in cytoplasm 1,e. mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes etc. They
(g) Heterocy clic amino acids:
(M
in the cell.
e.g. tryptophan, histidine. in some Viruses. hey are wIdely distributed
I
ene atom other than carbon.

Invoiving least
at chain. e.g.
(a) Aromatic amino acids: They have
aromatic group (benzene ring) in the side
phenylaanine. tyrosine etc. Multiple Choice Type Questions
Nucleotides: enzymes, which are associated in converting fats into
Some of the [MODEL QUESTION]
) Structurally a nucleotide can be regarded as a phosphoester of a nucleoside.
1.
carbohydrates, are present in
ot
)A combination of nitrogens base and a sugar is called nucleoside and combination of a base,
a
b) Golgi bodies
a) Liposomes
Sugar and phosphate group is known as nucleotide. d) Glyoxysomes
c) Microsome
Answer: (d)
lB
Types of nitrogen base Nucleoside Nucleotide

Adenine [MODEL QUESTION]
.
Adenylic acid are
Largest physical and chemical molecules
Adenosine
|
2. b) Lipidss
Guanine Guanosine Guanylic acid a) Carbohydrates d) Nucleic acids
|
Cytosine Cytidine Cytidilic acid c) Proteins
Thymine
ia
Thymidine Thymidylic acid. Answer: (C)

Lracil Uridine Uridylic acid [MODEL QUESTIONJ]
3. No cell could live without b) Enzymne
er
(3) Functions of nucleotides:

Following are the major functions a) Phytochrome Protein
a)
(a) Formation of nncleic acids: Different nucleotides polymerizeof nucleotidees. c) Chloroplasts
RNA. together to form DNA and Answer: (d)
(b) Formation of;enerzy [MODEL QUESTION]
at
carrier: They help in formation of ATP, characteristics of plants

TDP,TTP. CDP, etc. which on
breaking release energy. AMP, ADP, GD 4. Which of the following is the b) Pyruvic acid and glucose
a) Glucose and cellulose
(c) Formation of Coenzymess
Coenzymes like NAD,
ormea, d) Starch and pyruvic acid
Coenzy mes are non-proteinaceos NADP, FMN, FAD, CoA,
etc are T Cellulose and starch,
M
substance necessary
for the activity
of the enzymes. Answer: (C)
BIO-69
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BIOLOGY
A5. A nucleoside differs from
PUBLICATIONSS a nucleotide
POPULAR
of many units
of a) Phosphate in not having
[MODEL QUESTION)
compounds made [MODEL QUESTIOM c) Phosphate and sugar b) Sugar
cellulose are the
Ed
Answer:(b) d) Nitrogen base
.otarch and
b) Fatty acid
sugar d) Amino acid
a) Simple 16. DNA was first discovered by
c Glycerol a) Beadle and Tatum MODEL QUESTIONJ
Answer:(a MODEL QUESTIONI b) Watson and Crick
c) Friedrich Miescher
particles are found in
pe
d) Kornberg
eccntric starch d) Rice Answer: (6)
6. Oval shaped and Maize c) Potato
Wheat
a) b)
Answer: (¢) 17. Which one of the following is a
[MODELQUESTION base analogue [MODEL QUESTIONJ
ca
molecules in the cell a) Nitrous acid b) Colchicine
T. What are the most diversed b) Proteins c) 5-bromouracil d) Caffeine
Lipids (c)
Carbohydrates d) Mineral salts Answer:
c)
dS
Answer: (b)
18. Isolation and purification of specific DNA segment from a
[MODELQUESTIONI living organism was
The fomm in which sugar is present.in sugarcane
8. achieved by [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Maltose b) Sucrose c) Fructosse d) Glucose a) Crick b) Nirenberg
Answer: (d) c) Khorana d) Beckwith and his colleagues
in
Answer: (6)
9.Peptide bond is fomed between two amino acids through [MODEL QUESTIONI
a) Addition of water b) Loss of water
.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot 19. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate was discovered by [MODEL QUESTION]
(M
c) Decarboxylation d) Deamination a) Bekhor et al b) E.W. Sutherland

Answer: (d) c) Beerman d) Weismann
Answer: (6)
10. A basic aminoacid is [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Leucine b) Methionine [MODEL QUESTION]
c) Aspartic acid
20. Clover leaf model of tRNA has
d) Lysine a) Acceptor arm and C arm b) Anticodon arm
ot
Answer: (6)
C)D arm d) All the above
11. Most abundant Answer: (d).
organic compound on earth is
a) Cellulose [MODEL QUESTION
lB
b) Proteinn c) Lipids 21. Micrococcas nucilease enzyme [MODEL QUESTION]

Answer: (c) d) Steriods
a) Cuts the DNA from a specific site
12. Most common b) Joins the DNA segment
monosaccharides found c) Cuts the DNA at the junction between nucleosome
a) irioses in nucleus are
Answer: (B}
b) Tetroses [MODEL QUESTION) d) Binds the DNA with histone
c) Pentoses
ia
d) Hexoses Answer: (C)

13. Hydrolysis
of nucleic acid yields DNA double helix is [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Only sugar 22. The mean diameter of
c) 4.5 A
er
c) Ntrogenous b) Phosphoric [MODEL QUESTION b) 3.4 A° d) 10 A°

a) 20A
Answer: (c) base only d) All of the acid onlyabove Answer: (a)
14. Nucleic at 82-90oC, then [MODEL QUESTION]
an isolated strain of DNA is kept
at
acidswere discovered 23. If

dwatson and ch vered by RNA b)It divides into one million pieces
c) Wilkins ick a)it changes into d) It uncoils into helixes
b) Khorana [MODEL QUESTION c) No effect
Answer: (c)
M
d) Miescher Answer: (d)

BIO-71
BIO-70
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS [MODEL QUESTIONI c) Dispersive
uc
d) 34 A° d) Both (a)
A Answer: (a) and (b}
24. The length of a helix of DNA
IS
c) 30
b) 20 A
a) 10A 3. Which one of the following is
not a process of
Ed
Answer: (d) m-RNA molecule DNA replication
bonds to a [MODEL QUESTION
molecule hydrogen a) Palindromic [MODEL QUESTION]
*Ich site of a t-RNA c) Conservative
b) Dispersive
b) Anticodon molecule d) Semiconservative
a) Codon d) 3¢ end of the
t-RNA Answer: (a).
molecule
c) S¢ end of the t-RNA
pe
Answer: (6)
[MODEL QUESTION] Short & Long Answer Type
Questions
are known
Z6. How many types of ribonucleic acids b) Two types
1. What are the molecules of life?
ca
a) One type [MODEL QUESTION]
d) Four types
c) Three types Answer:
Answer: (Cc) All life on Earth is built from four different types of molecules. These four types of
dS
[MODEL QUESTION] molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life.
27. The element absent in RNA is The four.molecules of life are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Each of
a) Nitrogen b) Sulpher c) Oxygen d) Hydrogen
the four groups is vital for every single organism on Earth. Without any of these four
Answer: (b)
molecules, a cell and organism would not be able to live. All of the four molecules of life
in
28. Who was awarded Nobel Prize for synthesis of RNA in 1959 are important either structurally or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are
[MODELQUESTION] important in both ways.

a) S. Ochoa b) A. Kornberg
(M
c) H. Khorana d) Nirenberg 2. What are the four molecules of life? [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer: (2) Answer:
All organisms need four types of organic molecules: nucleic acids, proteins,
29. Breakthrough of the year 2002
a) cDNA [MODEL QUESTION] carbohydrates and lipids; Iife cannot exist if any of these molecules are missing.
c) rDNA
b) 16 SrRNA
Nucleic Acids. The nucleic acids are DNA and RNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid
ot
d) miRNA
Answer: (d) and ribonucleic acid, respectively..
Proteins...
30. Uridine monophosphate
Carbohydrates. ..
lB
is found in
a) Centrosome [MODEL QUESTION]
b) Lysospme Lipids
Answer: (d) c) Cell wal d) RNA
[MODEL QUESTION]
molecules living things?
3. Are
31. Franklin and Wilkins
a) Contains four
showed that DNA . Answer: a lot of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
ia
bases
c) Has equal amount b) Is a helix
[MODEL QUESTIONI But as well as carbon, living organisms also contain
to form complex molecules of
d) Is made up of of adenine and
thymine sulfur, and phosphorous. Those atoms combine together
nucleotides lipids, and nucleic acids
Answer: (b) various types: proteins, carbohydrates,
er
molecule of life? [MODEL QUESTION]

32. Feulgen reaction
is a special 4. What was the first
) RNA
b)DNA test for Answer:
at
RNA, found in all living cells, would

The widely accepted view among Scientists that hypothesizing an "RNA-first" view
[MODEL QUESTION] isS
Answer: (b) c) Protein
of lite, of
d) Carbohydrate have likely represented the first moleeules
34. In which from non-living molecules.
type of DNA the origin of living systems
M
purely a new one replcation

and of the two newly
a) Conservative the other oneis old formed molecules one s
b) Semiconservative MODEL QUESTIONJ
. Why is carbon so basic to life? [MODEL QUESTION]
BIO-12 BIO-73
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Swer:
POPULARPUBLICATIONS Ansher of carbon ato
number of atoms present is
hents, includin If Glucose, 6, then it is known
any eiemenUs, including itself, Example: a Hexose Sugar. Fo
Ed
with arge and
form stable
bonds of very
Answer: ability to nuge varietycarbon-based comn
ne reasin is carbon's carbon to fornia, lion
million earbon-based compounds
allows nearly t0
his property fact ther ar*
ln
omplex molecules. H-C OH
in living things! [MODEL QUESTIONI
pe
HO- C- H
6.What is macromolecule?
as protein, commonly created' by
Answer:
A macromolecule is
a very
large molecule, such
(monomers). Iney are
typically composed e
ca
smaller subunits
common
H-C- OH
the polymerization of The most macromolecules
thousands of atoms or
more.
proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids) and CHOH
are biopolymers (nucleic acids,
in biochemistry as lipids and macrocycles). Synthetic Fig: Structure of Glucose or Hexose Sugar
dS
non-polymeric molecules (such
large and synthetic Tibers as well as experimental
macromolecules include common plastics If number. of 'carbon atoms present is 5, then it is known as Pentose Sugar. For
materials such as carbon nanotubes. Example: Ribose.
[MODEL QUESTION
in
7. Give the Definition of Carbohydrates.

Answer:
Carbohy drates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can also be defined H=C--OH

(M
as Pplyhydrory Aldehydes or Ketones.

H-C OH
8. Describe the Carbohydrate Structure. MODEL QUESTION] H-C-OH
Answer:
Generally wrd saccharides are used for carbohydrates. Saccharides includes. H-C -H
starch,
sugars, cellulose etc. Formaldehyde is considered as simplest carbohydrate. OH
They have
ot
general formula (CH:O), where n is three or more. They

have aldehyde or ketone. with Fig: Structure of Ribose
hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group.
If number .öf carbon atoms present is 3, then it is known, as Triose Sugar. For
lB
Example: Glyceraldehyde.
CH,OH c.
H-C-OH
H-C-OH =0 H
HO-C H HO-C
ia
HO-C - H
HO-C- H
H-C OH HO H
CH:OH
H-C O H-C-OH Fig: Structure of Glyceraldehyde

er
CHOH
H-C- OH
H-C- OH QUESTION]
of Carbohydrates? MODEL
Glucose
CHOI
CHOH 0.What are the different classes
Answer:
at
Galactose
of Carbolydrates
Fructose lassification of Carbohydrates /Types of units of sugar
9. Classify the
E Structure of Carbohydrates Classification on the basis of number
Monosaccharideson Saccharides can be
M
the Basis of Number

of Carbons sen t. monosaccharides,
[MODEL QUESTION BIO-75.
BIO-74
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PUBLICATION BIOLOGY
POPULAR acids: Obtained by hydrolysis
uc
(HCOOH). These are of 2 types: of fats. Fomic acid
is simplest raty a d
disaccharides. NlonosSaccharidee Saturated fatty acids: The fatty
oligosaceharides and acids which do not
sacchariudes ac
known as s between carbon atoms.e.g. butyric have double bond in
Ed
saceharides. glycosidic bond, thecy acid, palmitic acid, hexanoic
Rly saccharide or unit of ane joimed by Glucose and Fruch
uctose.
They have high melting points,
solid at room temperature and
acid, ele
Ihe siplest monosaccharides composed of cholesterol. increase Dioou
When tuo Suenose. Sucrose is Oigosaccharidas
ltose.Disaccharides, such as are joincd, they'
Torm Such Unsaturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which have
.
form
of
monosaccharides monosaccnarides are joinedd, they atoms. e.g nexadecanoic acid, 9 double bønds incarbon
When 2 to 10 units more than
10 octadecanoic acid etc. They have lower
pe
Raftinose. When etc. melting points mostly found in plant fats, liquid at room temperature
as
Polysachharides. Such as
starch, celluloSe lower the blood cholesterol. and
torm Group Present:
Functional (c) Waxes: These are simple lipids composed of one molecule, of long. chain fatty
Monosaccharides on the Basis of (MODEL QUESTION
ca
11. Classify the acid and long chain monohydric alcohol. Waxes have high melting point,
insoluble in water, resistant to atmospheric oxidation, chemically inert and not
Galactose;. Rihn.
Answer For Example: Glucose, digested by enzymes. They reduce rate of transpiration by making plant tissue
Aldoses contain the aldehyde group.
dS
water proof and work as excellent lubricant.
Glyceraldehyde. etc.
For Example: Fructose Types of waxes
Ketoses contain the ketone group.
group. For. Example: Glucose Plant wax: Forms coating.
sugars contain a hemiacetal or hemiketal
Reducing Bee's wax : t is secretion of abdominal glands of worker honeybee. It consists
Galactose. Fructose. AMaltose, Lactose
in
groups. For Example: Sucrose and al of palmitic acid and myricyl alcohol.
Non-reducing contain no hemiacetal
polysaccharides are non-reducing sugars. Lanolin or Wool fat: It is secreted by cutaneous glands, also obtained from
wool of sheeps. it consists of palmitic acid, oleic or stearic acid and
(M
12. State the Functions of Carbohydrates. [MODELQUESTION cholesterol.

Sebum : It is secretion of sebaceous gland of skin.
Answer:
Functions are .Paraffin wax Obtained from petrolium.
:
It isthe most common source of energy.

or element. Group with fatty acid
Cellulose is present in cell wall of plants that provides and rigidity to it (ii) Compound lipids: They, contain some additional
ot
Lactose sugar is found in milk. and alcohol on the basis of group they may be of following types:
It helps in transport, metabolism,
Chitin is also another sugar found in exoskeleton of insects. a) Phospholipids: These contain phosphoric acid.
It is a bipolar molecule i.e.
It is a dietary fiber. blood clotting and permeability of cell membrane.
lB
molecules represent
phosphate containing end is hydrophilic whereas fatty acid
13. What is Lipids?
[MODEL QUESTION hydrophobic (non-polar tail): Phospholipids' again comprises.
in ether and alcohol but insoluble in
Answer: Lecithin: These are yellowish grey solids, soluble phosphoric acid and choline.
em lipid was coined by Bloor. These are
esters of fatty acids and alcohol. a acetone, On hydrolysis they yield glycerol, fatty acid,
Tney
to lysolecithin. The enzyme is found in
ia
hydrophobic insoluble in water

but soluble in benzene,
ether and chloroform. Lecithins are broken down by enzyme lecithinase
venom of bee and cobra.
14. What are the different soyabean o. Cephalin contains choline
types of Lipid? [MODEL QUESTION Cephalins: Found in animal tissue and
er
Answer: linoelic and arachidonic acid.

Lipids are classified or serine sometimes and stearic acid, oleic acid, fatty acids.
into three groups: nitrogen and carbohydrate beside
(i) Sinmple lipids: Theseare b) Glycolipids: These contain or nervous system, e.g. sesocine frenocin.
the esters of fatty acids and white matter
Generally found in
at
as
(a) Pats and Ois:(Natural glycerol. Again they yped pigmented lipids e.g. carotene.
aic c) Chromolipids: It includes
.
lipids or true fats). id and

as sutpholipids. It contains sulphur and amino acids
glycerol. Fats which are These triglycerides a
liquid O 'acid Also known
at room oils w d) Aminolipids: resistant
polyunsaturated
faty:acids are called temperature are called oil glycerol. Cutin and suberin are also compound lipids
M
10we with fatty acid and

blood cholesterol. polyunsaturated provide mechanical support in plants.
e.g. suntiow Oll, to water and also
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS and compound lipids
uc
simple
hydrolysis vf'
obtained by BIOLOGY
These are
(ii) Derived lipids: following componens are called sterols. They
are om 17. Describe the Structure and Composition
of amino acid. [MODEL
Derived lipids include straight chains chaun. Best knoi stérol of Answer: QUESTION]
Ed
Lipids withut hydrocarh0n side is Anino acids are basic units oft
aSterols:hydrarbon protein and made
rings and a coNLentration in nervous tissue and
long
testoe bile Amino acids are organic
acids with a carboxyl group
up of C, H, O, N and sometimes
S.
fused high progesterone, LNH2) On the a -carbon
cholesterol. present in hormoneslike va alom. Carboxyl group (-COOH) and oneamino group
prcursor of obtained firom attributes acidic propertic
Cholesterol is also the vitamin D. Diosgenin is group gives basic ones. In solution, they
serve as buffers and help
and amno
estradiol and
cortisol and
anti- infertility
pills.
. General formula is R-CHNH2,COOH. to maintain p.
pe
(Dioscorea) usevi in making FoNglove (Digitalis
lantana) is a heart are
trom leaves of
Amino acids anmphoteric or bipolar ions or
prpannd other by peptide bond and long chains Zueitter ions. Amino acids link with each
() Digitalin: It is
stimulant. and yeast. It is
precursor of anosther are called polypeptide chains.
food. found in ergot
ca
in
(c) Ergosterol: Present 18.What are the different Classes of amino acid?
ergocalciferol (D:). MODEL QUESTIONJ
form of vitamin D. as a result or the. reduction Answer:
in feces. It is formed
(d) Coprosterul: It is found cholesterol between Cs, and C. Classification
from the double bond of
bacteria in intestine
dS
o1ls o, camphor, eucalypts Based on R-group of amino acids:
oil and present mostly in
(e) Tarpens: lt is essential in
Phytol is a terpenoid alcohol present in Vitamin'A, K, E and (a) Sinmple unino acids: These have no functional group in the side chain. e.g glycine,
lemon and mint.
are licopene, gibberellins and alanine, leucine, valine etc.
piyments like chlorophyll carotenoid. Other forms
(b) Hydroxy amino acids: They have alcohol group in side chain. e.g. threonine, serine,
in
natural uber.
derived from arachidonic acid. etc.
() Prostaglandin: lt is hormone ike compound
Mostly present in secretion of seminal vesicles in males and menstrual cycle
fluid (c) Sulphur containing amino acits: They have, sulphur atom in side chain. c.g.
,
methionine, cystenine.
(M
in females.
(g) Blubber: A very thick layer of subcutaneous fat in whale. (d) Basic amino acids: They have basic group (-NH:) in side chain. e.g. lysine, arginine.
(e) Acidic anino acids: They have carboxyl group in side chain. e-g. aspartic acid,
15..What are the Functions of lipids? [MODEL QUESTION glutamic acid.
Answer: ) Acid amide amino acids: These are the derivatives of acidic amino acids. In this
(a) Oxidation of lipids yields comparatively more energy in the cell than protein and group, one of the carboxyl group has becníconverted to amide (-CONH:). e.g. asparagine,
ot
carbohydrates. I gm of lipids account for 39.1 KJ. glutamine. includes

tb) The oil seeds such as groundnut, mustard, coconut store fats to provide nourishment (8) Heterocyclic amino acids: These are the amino acids in which the side chain
histidine.
to embryo during germination. a ring involving' at least one atom other than carbon. e.g. tryptophan,
group (benzene ring) in the side chain.
(n) Aromatic amino acids: They have aroniatic
lB
(C) They function as structural constituent

i.e. all the membrane system of the cell are
made up of lipoproteins. C.g.phenylalanine, tyrosine, etc.
(d) Amphipathic lipids are emulsifier.
basis of the synthesis amino acids in body and
(e) It works as heat insulator. On the basis of requirements: On the
as:
() Used in synthesis of hormones. their requirement, they are categorized in body hence to be provided in diet
amino acids: These are not synthesized
ia
g) Fats provide solubility to vitamins A, D, E,

and K. (a) Essential
isoleucine, theronine, lysine, etc.
Cg valine, leucine, Syntheized partially in the body but not at
the rate to
16 What is Amino Acid? (b) Semi-essential aminio ucids:
[MODEL QUESTION) e.g.. arginine and histidine.
er
Angwer:
eet the requirement of individual. are derived from carbon skeleton of
Amimacids are normal components cell aculs: These amino acids
of proteins (called amino acid). They are in ( Non-essential aminn metabolism. In humans there are 12 non- essential
amino acids
numberspeciied in genetic code and universal ipids and carbohydrale acid etc. Prolne and
hydroxyproline have,
in viruses, prokaryotes yotes. e.g. alanine, aspartic acid, cysteine. glutamic are
at
Otherw ise amino acids and eukayu called imino acids. Tyrosine can is
bee
may be termed rare amino NH: hence,
synthesis e.g. hydrOxyproline acids, which take part n rotein NH (imino group) instead of pigment melanin., Glycine
and non protein amino ein thyroxine and adrenaline and skin
synthesis e.g. Ornithin, nicotinamide
citrullin, gama-amínobutyric acids do not take part i" e. Converted into hormone
nccessary for production of heme.
Iryptopnan iS tne precursor of vitamin
M
etc. acid (GABA) a neurotransmitter
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ano acnt l can
torm glucose n
uc
BIOLOGY
trom
yrvupis remoNed
lf anino tornms istnine.
remo'ed. it amies c.g
up Is MODEL QUESTIONI
Ed
Amino Acid 7
Functions of
19. What ars the -c H-C
Answer:
Functions of Amino. Acids blecks of proteins and
enzymes.
)Amino acids are building foanm glucose.
pe
(b By ghogenolysis they formed with the help of tyrosine.
adrenaline and thynoxine are Adenne Guanine
(c) Hormones like
oten contain non-protein amino acids.
(d) Antibietics
substances.
(e) They are precursour of many
20. What are the Significance of nucleic

Answer:
acids$?
[MODEL QUESTION
ca N
dS
Deoxyribonucleie acids and ribonucleic acids are the key centres which control all the c=o
metabolic àctivities of cell and in turm the whole organism. H H =
(1) f there cceurs any deficiency in the DNA amount, nucleus loses its capacity to
support aderusine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis.
in
Cytosine Uracil Thymine

(2 Nucieus alse becomes inefficient to incorporate amino acids into proteins. Fig: Nitrogenous bases
3) Besides. DNA is the main genetic material constituting genes and chromosomes

(M
which cary hereditary information from generation to generation. DNA helps in the
DNA contain deoxyribose sugar whereas RNA contains ribose sugar.
RNA Symthesis in the cell. if the loops of amphibian oocytic chromosome (lamp brush)
are exposed to actinomy cin (which has the property to fuse with DNA and thereby S' Carbon S' Carbon
causing decrease in DNA amount), RNA synthesis is inhibited.
() Recently. McConnell and Cameron (1968) have produced the evidence that RNA S
amount increases the intelligence and learning capacity of men. HOCH: HOCH
ot
21. Define of Nucleic Acid.

[MODEL QUESTION]
Answe r:
lB
Nucieic acids are large, organic molecules

present in living cells. DNA ard RNA are
nucleic acids. They are the polymers of
nucleotides. There are three chemically disurn
components in a nucleotide. These
are as follows- Phosphate group,
sugar kno
as Deoryribose or Ribose and nitrogenous 3 Carbon OH
bases. There are two types of 3 Carbon OH
ia
bases -Purines and Pyrimidines.

Purines includes adenine
nitrogc Ribose
Deoxyribose
p'rimidines include thymine and cytosine. and guanine 2
DNA contain all 4 bases,

guanine. thymine and cytosine. But in that is, aden Fig: Structure Deoxyribose
and Ribose Sugar
er
RNA, thymine is replaced

by uracil.
DNA. MODEL QUESTION]
22. Describe the
Structure of the
each
two polynucleotide chains around
at
Answer: helix formed by twisting of diffraction studies.

DNA is a double proposea tne DNA Structure using X-ray
Crick the helix. The
other. Watson and antiparallel to eacn Otner. ne dases are stacked inside
1
M
The two strands are

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24. How nucleic acids are i
POPULARPUBLICATIONS hvdrogen bonds
hydrogeN mportant
uc
tornis tiwo Answer: for life?
hyungen bml. ldenmegukaine. All the heredilary (genetic) [MODEL QUESTION]
together via bonds with information
are
e
nkoad
tosine forms thar
aihd cy
hyudnogen reproduce and mainan a new
DNA is replicated and distributed
of the cell (i.e., all the information' necessary
organism) is stored
in coded form in molecules,
to
Ed
standand DNA to daughter cells of DNA.
uble all the 'hereditary, iniormation
accumulated over
during cell division, and in
this way
from cell to cel and Irom one generation an billions of years of.evolution is
pasSed
hdngenu of organism to another.
With the aid or RNA, this information
is expressed
pe
synthesis. These nucleic acids are as specific patternsof
of two types: (i) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) proei
ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the major and (11)
store of genetic information. This information
pure is transmitted by transcription into RNA molecules,
is proteins are then synthesized in a
process involving translation of the RNA.
smallca
DNAtranscription
amount of
RNA translation Protein
In higher cells DNA Is localized mainly in the nucleus
as part of the chromosomes. A
DNA iS present in the cytoplasm and contained within mitochondria and
dS
chloroplasts. RNA is found both, in the nucleus, where it is synthesized, and in the
cytoplasm, where the synthesis of proteins takes place.
Nucleic acids consist of a sugar (pentose), nitrogenous bases (purines and pyrimidines),
and phosphoric acid. A nucleic acid molecule is a linear polymer in which nucleotides are
in
linked together by means of phosphodiester 'bridges' or bonds.

These bonds link the 3' carbon in the pentose of one nucleotide to the 5'.carbon in the
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot pentose of the adjacent nucleotide. Thus the backbone of a nucleic acid consists of
(M
3 deoxyribose alternating phosphates and pentoses. The nitrogenous bases are attached to the sugarsS of
this backbon.
Fig: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
Nucleic acids are basophilic, i.e., stain readily with basic dyes. After a mild hydrolysis
the nucleic acids are decomposed into nucleotides.
DNA is negatively charged due to the presence of phosphate groups.
ot
This negative [MODEL QUESTION]

charge is stabilized by basic proteins known as histone proteins. 25. Describe the structure of DNA in details.
Answer: spectrophotometrc analysis. Chemically it
. What do mean by Denaturation of DNA. It forms about. 9% part of nucleus as found by
lB
[MODEL QUESTIONJ
consists of mainly three components: phOsphoric acid, sugar, and
bases.
Answer:
DNA exists in double stranded form. When two DNA strands 1. Phosphoric acid:
separate from each other, It, may occur also as phosphate and forms the
backbone of DNA. molecule along with
DNA is said to be denatured. Heating or alkaline
pH denatures the DNA. The deoxyribose (pentose sugar) of two
temperature at which DNA double strands can be sugar molecule. It links the nucleotides by joining the
separated is known as Melting bond. These bonds connect carbon 3' in one
adjacent nucleotides with an ester-phosphate a channel for the chemical energy used by
ia
Temperature. Breakage of G-C base pairs needs high

temperature as compared to nucleotide with carbon 5' in next. This aCid
is
breakage of A-T base pairs due to triple bond in G-C
base pairs. But if denaturing agents
are removed, the DNA will regain its structure the molecule.
and it is said to be renatured.
er
Boiled eggs become hard because egg

proteins and DNA gets denatured. A 2. Pentoses: and deoxyribose in DNA.
DNA has oné oxygen
example of denaturing in proteins comes classi These are of two types: ribosesin RNA sugar in nucleic acids is always ribose-, in RNA
from egg whites, which of RNA. The pentose
albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, are typically largely eBs atom less than that OH on C-I carbon which is
egg whites are transparent it is deoxyribose. It Is always the
at
the thermally unstable whites turrs them and liquid. CoOK it is D-ribose and in DNA,
opaque, forming an interconnected attachnment of the base.
Quantification of DNA Content
is performed using
solid mass. the point of
Absorption at 200n
M
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V-uu in 2. 1ransyer or dupter RNA:
POPULAR pyrinufincs ave a pen
uc
ot entagona It is anotlher important type of ribonucleic
in vase sugars of 11cicc cds) acid which is present in the cytoplasi,
l-nitnogen atom
(/entose attached to pho
Mtacncd phosphoric acid there in proteinsynhesis. has been recently found that t-RNA originates trom
It
the
This linked todevxyribose and ribhse (i.e..Md I) are near the nucleolar region.
nes. Both
carbons, amng
which two
3. Ribosomal RNA:
Ed
tive
th
and three ()w the base. This ribonucieic actid is the major component of cytoplasmic particles called ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA comprises up to 80% of the cellular RNA of Escherichia coli. It is ne
3. Bases:
types: site of amino acids union.
These may be of tvoa7rd (6) FPriiduns.
(a) PurineS may be ades:
benzene rings. I hey combination
pe
(a) Purines: the presenee of
tvo fused thymine. I he of 27. Describe the Importance of Nucleic Acids/Functions of Nucleic Acids.
nese are charsterisaiRNA
by
coMtains uracil (U)
instead of adenine [MODEL QUESTION]
(G). nucleoside. For example, IS a
(A) and gunine phasphate, forms a Answer:
penmose. minus the the corresponding nucleoside 1.e,
base plus a ribose) IS
Deoxyribonucleic acids and ribonucleic acids are the key components which; contro
ca
ademasine (adenine +
purine base: almost all the metabolic activities in an organism
deoxy adeOsine and deoNyguanesine.
(T DNA is necessary for transferring genes from parents to ofispring.
(6) Pyrimidines: benzene ring. T hey are thymine DNA stores all the information of a cell.
the occurrence of Single
dS
These are characterizad by
Loss of DNA content is associated with lots of diseases.
ard cytosine (C).
Nucleotides: linked to DNA samples are used to identify the suspect or father of an unidentified child.
nucleosides, purine or pyrimidine bases DNA Sequence helps in studying relationship between the two organisms such
as
ucleotides are phosphate esters of
sugars. In the nuclaxides. the 3-nitrogen of
the pyrimidine bases or the 9-N of the purine
which organism originates from vhich ancestor.
in
sugar, and the phosphoric acid residue is

bases is atachad to the l-carbon atom of the Without DNA, no protein synthesis will occur.
attached to the s' carbon atom oi the sugar. ..
RNA is essential for protein synthesis.
cure of genetic diseases.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot RNA and DNA helps to understand the diseases and to find the
(M
[MODEL QUESTION]
28. Describe the double helix model of DNA.
Answer: Watson and Crick (1953)
2 nm
On the basis of X-ray diffraction data of Wilkins and Franklin,
model for DNA structure. It is composed of two right-handed helical
proposed a
central axis. The two
ot
polynucleotide chainse that form'a double helix around the same

5' phosphodiester links run in opposite
strands are antiparallel, meaning that their 3, perpendicular to the helical
(sce view
mnor major directions. The bases are stacked inside the helix in a plane
lB
TOove groove
axis.
Fig: Double-helical model
of DNA bonds present between pairs of bases.
Thus nucleotides of purines are
deoxyriboadenylic acid The two strands are held.together by hydrogen sugars in the opposite strands. onlyy
of pyrimidines are deoxyribothymidylic and deoxyriboguanylic acid, ana Since there is a fixed distance betiween two pentose
acid and deoxyribocytidylic structure.
acid. pairs can fit into the
ia
certain base
26. What are the different bonds are formed between A and T. three are formed
As shown in figure two hydrogen
5
types of RNA?
Answer is more stable than AT pair. In addition to
[MODEL QUESTION betweenC and G, therefore a CG pair
The ribonucleic acids are established betwcen the stacked bases are-
er
I. Messenger RNA:
of three types: hydrogen bonds. hydrophobic interactions helical structure.
important in maintaining the double
This ribonucleic acid is
the nucleus to the of nuclear origin and conveys
genetic information
at
ribosomes in the from DNA

form proteins. cytoplasm, where
amino acids become groupc
M
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The axial of base
Sequence of bases along one
uc
NH: ae polynucleotide
other chain the sequence
on must be complementary,chain may vary consiaeta but
as given below-
-N G T
N G
Ed
s CH First chain C G T 3'
A
HC GA C
H:N Ribose
TG CAS
Guunne
Because of this property, order of bases on one
chain, the other chain is complimentary.
During duplication, the two chains dissociate
Adenime
and each one serves as a template for the
pe
synthesig of 4 new complementary chain.
HN HOH.CO
C-CH H-N 29. Describe the Structure of the RNA. [MODEL QUESTION]
ca
N
Answer:
C-H RNA exists as. single stranded structure.
N
H O
C-H
o OH H
3. major classes of RNA found:
In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil. There are
dS
H Deoxyribose Messenger. RNA is a sequence of nucleotides that codes for proteins. In
Thymane
Uracil messenger RNA, nucleotides are arranged in the form of codons.
Cytosune
and sugars Transfer RNA is used during protein synthesis. It is found in the cytoplasm.
Fig: Chemical formuláe of bases
in
Ribosomal RNA is also found in cytoplasm and is the most abundant RNA
found in cels.
O23 nmP
Telegram - Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot [MODEL QUESTION
(M
aderine 30. Describe the Structure of RNA
-® - o
Answer:
RNA is a long-chain molecule built up of repeating
phosphate diester bonds. Sugar component of
adenine, guanine and cytosine are the
nucleotide units linked by 3' to S'
RNA is ribose and three out of four bases,
same as in DNA, and the fourth base
is uracil in
ot
chain, one methyl group less.

chains DNA, Uracil has
place of thymine of
1.1 nm
lB
Nucleotides: ribose, phosphoric acid and either

formed from, pentose sugar
0.29 nm RNA nucleotides are (U). Nucleotides are regarded as
phosphorylated
ani adenine guanine, cytosine

derivatives of nucleosides.
or uracil.
Nucleosides
attached phosphate
are combinations of a nitrogenous base
group.
and a
pentose sugar without an
-
A single
ia
030 nm sugar, a base and a phosphoric acid.

consists of a molecule of molecular
A nucleotide unit of nucleotide umits consisting of high
orcsne contains a large number
nucleic acid.
er
029 m -s4/A. o chain

weight (about 8,000,000).
Nucleotides are the
monomeric units of the nucleic
acid macromolecule. The
a
nucleotides
heterocyclic base to the pentose.
bonding of a phosphate and
nucleoside.
result from the covalent combination of a base with the pentose forms a corresponding
at
108 Within the nucleotide, the adenoSine (adenine+ ribose) is the and
adenine is a purine base; adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
For example, monophosphate (AMP),
M
Fig Two base pairs in DNA. Complimentary bases the building

are T=A and nucleoside, and adenosine are nucleotides. Nucleotides, thus constitute
CGtinkedwith hydrogen bonds adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) transfer chemical energy.
are aiso uSed to store and
acids and they
Dlocks of nucleic
y
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POPULAR BIOLOGY
a covalen ribonucleic acid (RNA), the
uc
In
polynucleotide chain by sunka nucleotides are
Polynuleotide: together to
form a
and 3
carbon of the
on the
the most part KNA EXISts as
a single
not arranged in double
strand. Sometimes
helical mode but
Nuceaides ar joined one nucleotidephosplhodiester bond, bera. olices in ome parts aue to tolding it may form also smaler
acid residue of he and convolutions.
phsphorie a 3, S RN are regular acCording to
in RNA
These secondary helical structures
Ed
eTueen the ealled ana one attached
arbon and
3" carbon
linkage is often attached to the
recent research. In
Cent research. the formation of helix, bases
nuclevtide. This hydrogen-bonded like DNA
DNA
next OH groups, one exçept uracil substitutes become
to two
phosphate is esterifies sugar and pho
thymine.
nosphate
to the Scarbon. consists of alternating
polynuclevtide chain thus
The backbone of a
their genetic functin
pe
tions,juss
units. RNA is the key to
nucleotides in DNA and
The sequene of the biological activity of a particular protem.
as the sequence of
amino acids determines composed or only four dife
RNA are uually
Even though bxh DNA and is enormous in a large
ca
sequences of nucleotides
nucleotides. the number of possible
olymer.
polynucleotide chain and have no regular helico
ical
RNA usualy exists as a single-stranded
dS
ways, with certain
certain
configuration. Thelinear chain is thought to be folded ni lany
double-stranded regions.
ucieotides paining off and forming short
arrangement of components in nucleic acids.

in
31. Describe the Molecular

[MODEL QUESTION
Answer:

(M
In deoxy7 cleic acid (DNA), nucleotides are arranged in the form of helixes or
chairs spirally coiling around each other. According to Watson and Crick (1962), DNA
consists of two helixes coiled about each other. The chain of each helix is made
of sugar
and phosphate group.
These two helixes are interconnected by the bases through
hydrogen bonds. Generally
one purine becomes attached with one pyrimidine
ot
to form base connection between the

chain Thus, adenine along with thymine, and cytosine
connected with the sugar molecule
along with guanine becomes
of chain alternately.
lB
*.
Sugar Thymine Adenine Sugar
Phosphate Phosphate
Sugar -
Adenine EE hymine Sugar
Phosphate Phosphate
ia
Sugar-Guanine Cytosine Sugar

Phosphate
Phosphate
Sugar Cytosine
Guanine- Sugar
er
fig Molecular arrangement

of components in DNA
The direction of öne helix
at
for the formation of is opposite to

complementary
the other. In DNA
new helix and similarly helix,i.e., adenine
cytosine effects
one helix serves as a
in one helix forms the
e nplate
M
the formation
of guanine in new helIX.
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ENZYMES BIOLOGY
uc
S. No. ctivators ',
Enzymes
|5 Manganese (Mn)
Peptidase, Decarboxylase
Ed
6 Molybdenum (Mo)
Glance
Chapter at a
Nitrate reductase
which are capable of
ances which
substances Nickel (N)
proteinaccous Orease
:yt* yeast) are themselves undergoing anv change.
(Gh. en= in, without Boron
Enzy nes chemical reactions of biologIeal origins Enolase
pe
cataly sing
sts. or Diochemical reactin but
Enzymes are biocatalydetined enlhances tne rate Mode of Action of Enzymes
as "a protein that
An enzyme may be product." There are two viewS regrding the mode of enzyme action:
nature of final mitochondrion. The study of he
dees not atfevt the
ca
(7O*%) in the cell
are found in (1) Lock and kéy hypothesis
Maximum enzmes enzymology.
of the enzy me is known as (2) Induced fit hypothesis
cemposiuen and function
(1) Lock and key hypothesis: The hypothesis was put forward by Emit Fisher (1894). According
dS
Classifieation of Enzymes Examples
Reaction Catalysed to this hypothesis the enzyme and its substrate have a complementary shape. The specific substrate
Group ot Enzy me molecules are bound to a specific site of the enzyme molecule.
Transfer of hydrogen and| Dehydrogenases oxidases
1.Ovidoreductases (2) Induced fit hypothesis: This hypothesis was proposed by Daniel, E. Koshland (1959).
oxygen atoms or electrons According to this view, the active sites of an enzyme are not rigid. When the substrate binds to
in
from one substrate to another enzyme, it may induce a change in shape of the enzyme molecule in such a way that it is fit for the
2.Transferases Transfer of a specific groupIransaminase Substrate-enzyme interaction. he change in shape of the enzyme molecules can put strain on the.
(a phosphate or methyl etc.) | Kinases
substrate. This stress may help bonds to break, thus promoting the reaction.
(M
Trom one substrate t0 another

5.Hydrolases Hydrolysis of a substrate Estrases "Lock and Key: model of substrate binding (Fischer)
Digestive enzymes
4. Isomerases Change of the molecular Phospho hexo isomerase,
form of the substrate Fumarase
5. Lyases Nonhydrolytic removal of a | Decarboxylases
ot
group or addition of a group Aldolases

to a substrate
6. Ligases Joining of two molecules by Citric acid synthetase
lB
enzyme/ substrate
Synthetases) theformation of new bonds Substrie ClZyine
:complex
Inorganic part of enzyme acts as prosthetic group
activators are generaly metals. Hence
in few enzyme they are
called
these enzymes are called "Metallo enzyme
activao
suc a>
hese "Induced Fit" model ofsubstrate binding (Koshland) . Futy active *
enzyme
ia
S. No. Activators Enzymes

conformalion
Iron (Fe)
ACOtinase, Catalase and
Cytochrome oxXIaas
er
Zinc (Zn)
Dehydrogenase;
Transition ste
Carbonic andydrase Su
Copper (C) enzyme ' substrate -
Triosinase, Ascorbic,
at
acid oxidase substrate enzyne complex

Magnesium (Mg)
Kinase, Phosphatase
M
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Questions 9. The organelles whose majort
Choiceype Is storage of hydrolytic
Multiple [MODEL QUESTIONI a) Centrioles enzymes are
[MODEL QUESTION]
Ed
c) Lysosomes. b) Chromoplasts
discovered by b) De Duve Answer: (c)
1. "Lysosomes" were d)
Purkinje. d) Chloroplasts
a) Haekel
10. A lysosome in which intracellular
c) De Vries
[MODEL QUESTIONI organells is getting digested
is called
Answer: (6)
pe
protease a) Primary lysosome MODEL QUESTION]
is b). Acid
enzyme of lysosome Beta-galactosidase c) Autophagosome b) Secondary lysosome
2. The "marker" (muramidase)
d) Answer: (c) d) None of these
a Lysozyme
phosphatas
c) Acid
Answer:(C)
3. Which of the following

statements is incorrect [MODEL
lysosomes
with reference to QUESTION]
ca short &
Long Answer Type Questions
dS
enzymes 1. What is Enzyme?
hydrolase and other function Answer: [MODEL QUESTION)
a) They are filled acid in structure and
are monomorphic and uniform Almost all enzymes are proteins. There are some nucleic acids
They may be autophagic polysaccharides that behave like enzymes.
C)They
proteins, nuclei acids, lipids
and These are called ribozymes. One can depict an enzyme by a
line diagram. An enzyme
d) They can digest
in
like any protein has a primary structure, i.e., amino acid sequence
Answer: (b) of the protein. An
enzyme like any protein has the secondary and the tertiary
[MODEL QUESTION structure. In the tertiary
has single membrane structure it will be noticed that the backbone of the protein chain folds upon itself,
4. Which of the following organ
(M
the
b) Cell wall chain criss-crosses itself and hence, many crevices or pockets are made. One such pocket
a) NucleuUs
d) Spherosomes is the 'active site'. An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which the
c) Mitochondria
Answer: (6) substrate fits. Thus enzymes, through their active site, catalyse reactions at
a high rate.
[MODEL QUESTION] 2. How enzyme is different from inorganic catalysts?

5. Lysosomes are rich in [MODEL QUESTIQN
b)Lipoproteins
ot
a) Polyribosome Answer:
c) DNA ligase d)Hydrolytic enzymes Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways, but one major difference
Answer: (b) needs mention. Inorganic catalysts work efticientlye at high temperatures and high
lB
pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high temperatures (say above 40°C). However,
6. Lysosomes are generally found in [MODEL QUESTION]
enzymes isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely high temperatures
a) Animal cells onlyY b) Animal cell and in some plant cells
(e.g., hot vents and sulphur springs), are stable and retain their catalytic power even at
c) Plant cells only d) Bacterial cells
high temperatures. (upto 80°-90°C).
Answer: (b)
ia
3.Whatare the Biological Importance of Enzyme? [MODEL QUESTION]

7. Which of the function is performed by lysosome [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Breakdown of cell substances b) Photosynthesis
Answer:
of chemical reactions are taking place in the body of a living organism, all,
er
c) Breakdown of water d) Synthesis of protein

Th sar
Answer: (a) of them are mediated by enzymes.
operate at biological temperatures.
) Enzymes are specialized catalysts that
do not require harsh treatment.
at
8. At which pH enzymes of Lysosomes,are

usually active [MODEL QUESTION l1) enzyme mediated reactions operate in different parts
a) pH 5 b) pH7 C) pH 8 (V) They are pH specific so that reactions requiring ditferent pH
Answer: (a) d) In any pH of the body.
conditions, enzymes force the organisms to live
M
(V As they operate under favourable

under favourable environment
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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS controllea by Answer:
fomnation is
De fnction In older imes enzyines were
regulated. Their certan C1zneso or classified into
nzynesandarerepression
highly genes allo (i) Hydrolyzing: two broad categories.
of Catalyzing nyarolysis ot
Ed
Cvation amylases,prolcases, Iipases,
large molecules
into smaller ones,
nontunctional in cells. [MODEL QUESTION] esterases, phosphorylases, e.g., tarbohydratess or
Nature Of Enzymes?
hydrolyzing In nalurc. I hey amidascs. Diagestive enzymes are
are often grouped
4. Describe the Chenmical exCcption of resn. and lipolytic intothree types- proteolytic, amyioyuc
(Sumner, 1926) With
the cently
Answer: a nonpro. (ii) Desmolysing:
enzymes are globular proteins enzymesmay adanoky conain rotein
pe
Some Catalyzing reactions other than
discovered RNa enzymes. and coijugate. hyroysis, e.g., aldolases,
types of enzymes. simple peroxidases, catalase, carboxylases, dehydrogenases, oxidases,
made up or protein. Active.sité
group. Acvordingly there are two etc.
enzyme which is wholly The modern system of enzyme classification
Simple Enzyme lt is an amino acids. Additional
substance or grom
oup i Biochemistry (IUB) in 1961. It groups was introduced by interational Union
ca
specitic grvuping ot its own enzymes into the following six categories
of
Tormed by
urease. (a) Oxidoreductuses
absent. e.g. pepsin. trypsin, parts- a protein pat
which is formed of tow
Conjugate Enzyme. lt is an enzyme . The They take par in oxidation and reduction reactions
and a. nonprotein part named cofac or transfer of electrons.
called apoenzyme (e.g. tlavoprotein)
dS
Oxidoreductäses are of three types- oxidases,
complete conjugateenzy me. consisting of
an, apoenzyme and a cofactor, is reductases, e.g
dehydrogenases and
called holoenzyme. Active site is fornmed jointly bapoenzyme

and cofactor. Cycytochrome oxidase (oxidizes.cytochrome), succinate dehydrogenase,
nitrate reductase.
understand by Active Site or Active Spot? [MODEL QUESTION
in
5. What do you (b) Truusferuses

Answer: They transjer a group from one molecule to another e,g, glutamate-pyruvate
The whole of enzyme molecule is not active in catalyzing a chemical reaction. Only a
transaminase (transfers amino group from glutamate to pyruvate durinig synthesis of
(M
small portion of it is active. It is called active site or active spot. alanine). The chemical group transfer does not occur in free state.
Subsrate (c) Hydrolases
They catalysehydrolysisof bonds like ester, ether, peptide, glycosidic, C- C, C-- halide, P
- N, ctc. which are formed by dehydration condensation. Hydrolases break up large
Enzyme-substrate molecules into smaller ones with the help of hydrogen and hydroxyl groups of water
complex
molecules. The phenomenon is called hydrolysis. Digestive enzymes, belong to this
ot
group, e.g., amylase (hydrolysis of starch), sucrose, lactase.

Active (d) Lyases
The enymes cause cleavage, removal ot groupS without hydrolysis, addition of groups to
lB
Site
double bonds or removal of a group producing double, e.g, histidine decarboxylase
(breaks histidine to glyceraldehydes phosphate).
(e) Isomerases
Ihe enzymes cause rearrangement Or molecular
structure to effect isomeric changes.
to ketose group or vice- versa like glucose 6-
ia
They are of three types, isomerases (aldose

Enzyme poSition of one constituent or
phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate). epimerases (change in and mutases ( shifting the
An enzyme may have one to
several active sites. carbon group like xylulose phosphate to ribulose phosphate)phosphate).
er
to glucose-1-
An active site or spot is an area
of the enzyme which position of side group like glucose-b-phosphate
holding particularsubstrate is capable of attract and
molecules by its specific as Ligases (synthetases)bonding of two chemicals with the help of energy obtained from
to allow the chemical change.
It fails to recognize charge, size and shap
SO
The enzymes catalyse as -0, C- S, C-N and P- 0, e,g., pyruvate
at
other molecules. ATP resulting in formation.of such bonds

6/What are the different classes It combines pyruvjc acid with CO to produce Oxaloacetic acid. .
of Enzymes? carboxylase.
[MODEL QUESTION
M
BIO-95
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POPULAR PUBLIÇATION
Enzynmes. BIOLOGY
(Properties) of temperature. Enzyme
Characteristics becom inactive
yond maximum temperature. below minimum
escribe the :ave additi
protems. They iay
itional
Otinum pll: lvery enzyme has an optimum temperatur and
Ed
Answer: are: globular
Properties of Enzymes
Enzymes are
generall pll reduces enzyme acuvity pH when it is most
moiccules wil by changing effective.
nature: A
ten
aie or organie
substances for their
weight: Being
actu
pateinaavus, the enzi meS
are gant
+,o00,0OU (PVruvale
dehydrogen
A change in pt may aiso start
(3) Enzyme concentration:
reverse reaction.
the degree of ionization
of its side chains.
*olecular odAW (hucteria!
ternadonin) to onZyme concentration
The rate
of a biochemical reaction rises with the increase in
upto a pont called
toiecular weight ot
pe
state. limiting or saturation
hydnisol in the tree 4) Product concentration: point.
complen). úryphilie and form increase the rate f lt the products
are
nature: They are hy reaction but Revers reaction can also start. allowed to remain in
the area oI the
.Colloidal Enzymes de not start
a chemical ver
adOUt equilibrium ery
.Chemical Reaction: equilibrium but bring (5) Activators: Ihey increase activity
change the of enzymes
Chemieal reaction. They do na
ca
function as cofactors (e.g, K , (e.g.. chloride for salivary amylase),
Mn*) and convert proenzymes
sovn. per minute by a molecule or (6) Protein poisons: Cyanides, azides, to enzyme state.
sudstrate molacules changed iodoacetate, and salts
5) Efmciency: The number of turn-over number, the more tertiary.structure ot enzymes by either combining of heavy metals destroy
number (4**): The higher thne
enzyme is called turn over with cofactor or a group of apoenzyme
dS
an enzyme
(-SH group, -COOH).
etficient i or usea up in the chemical (7) Radiation Energy: High energy radiations
in no way transtormea
6) Unchanged Fornm: Enzymes are break hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and
reaction. other weak linkages to destroy enzyme structure.
reacton dut come cut unchangad at the end of
) Reversibility: Theoretically, all enzyme
controlled reactions are reversible. (8) Substrate Concentration: Increase in substrate
concentration increases the rate of
in
Reversibility is. howerer. daperdent upon energy requiremens, availability of reactants, reaction. The enhanced rate is due to two factors:
cencentration of end prducts and pH. (a) occupation of more and more active sites by
the substrate molecules;
8) Enzyme specificity: Enzymes are highly specific in their action. For example, enzyme (b) higher number of collisions between subctrate molecules.
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot The rise in velocity.
(M
maltase acts on sugar maltose but not on lactose or sucrose. Different enzymes may act is quite high in the beginning but it decreases
progressively with the increase in
on the same suhstrare bur give rise to ditferent products. For example, raftinose gives rise substrate concentration.
tomelitiose and tructose in the presence of enzyme an enzyme may act on different Michaelis Constant
Substrates. eg. sucrose can act on both sucrose and raftinose producing (MichaelisMenten Constant, Km). it is a mathematical derivation or constant which
different end
products. indicates the chemical reaction catalysed by an enzyme attains half 1ts maximum
9) Heat Sensitivity: All enzymes are heat velocity.
ot
sensitive or thermolabile. Most enzymes

operafe optimally between 25' 35°C.
-
10) Protein poisons: Being made 9. What do.you

of proteins, enzymes are inactivated or denatured mean by Activation Energy? [MODEL QUESTION]
those substances and forces which destroy by all
A nswer:
lB
energy radiations.
12) pH: Each enzyme functions
at a particular pH. e.g., pepsin Most of the chemical reactions do not start automatically because the reactant nmolecules
salivar amy lase (6.8pH). trypsin (2pH), sucrose (4.5 pH).
inetfective.
(8.5pH). a change in
pH makes the enzymed have an energy barrier to become reactive. The energy barrier may be on account of
13) Enzyme- substrate A Mutuarepulsion due to presence of electrons over their surfaces.
Complex: The active sites B Salvation or holding of reactants in solution form by hydrogen bonds.
conformation for atiracting of enzymes have a specinc
ia
and holding substrate. It

where the substrate fíts in
a complementary fashion.
usually possess a crevice or
poCK
C) Reaction sites of the reactive molecules beinig smalil, precise collisions do not occur.
supply of energy is needed for the start of the chemical reaction. It
herefore, an externalenergy.
8. Mention the Is called activation Activation energy of the system and brings about forceful
er
factog which are influencing

the enzyme collisionis between the reactants. The requirements of activation energy is quite high.
activities?
Factors Influencing Enzyme V10. Explain the Mode Of Enzyme Action. [MODEL QUESTION]
at
(1) Temperature: Activity Answer:

An enzyes
temperature at generally active within a narrow here are two view points by which enzymes are supposed to bring about chemical
coTesponds to range
animals.e.g., 37°C the body temperatureof temperatur. The reaction.
M
in human beingsEnzyme
activity decreases of warm bIo cd (1) Lockand key hypothesis. It was put 1orvard by Emil Fischer in 1894. According to
above and below this hypothesis, both enzyme and substrate molecules have specific geomtrical shapes.
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ne Chyne iS such
contguraioN ol stlCs also contailloluw forlis of an cnZyme occurring in.the some
sites the
surtidce
it. The ictive
in special ivity are callcdiisoezymes or isozymes. organism and having
a similar substrae
n te rgion of actie molerules tu be hehl o1er comict with the together causing
estiblishing the
Ed
substrate
tne paticular -SH tor What are the inhibitoes of Enzyme
NH', CORI, 2.
--
SFoups having - Action?
chemixal chngo.
Inbibition of Enzyme Action
Deduction or stoppage ol enzyme
Lock and key model activity due to presence
of adverse conditions or
micals is, called enzyme inhibition. It is of several
pe
chem
types. Inhibition can be classilicd
into two
(a) Competitive and noncompetitive
(b) Reversible and irreversible
ca
Competitive inhibition is caused by swamping
similar in structure to the substrate but does not
of the active sites by a chemical which is
undergo chemical change. Competitive
inhibition is usually reversible. Non competitive inhibition is caused by
dS
-
alteration of
conformation of the enzyme by a chemical that binds to a site other than the active site.
The pradcts remain attached to the anzyme for
some time so Ihat an enzyme-produes Irreversible inhibition is of permanent nature as the enzyme conformation is harned.
complex is also formed. However, the products are sOon releasea and the freed enzyme is
Denaturation ot enzyme is an example of irreversible inhibition. Reversible inhihition is
thatinhibiuon which can be overcome by withdrawal of the inhibitor because the effect
in
able to bind more substrate malecules.

Enzyme -Substrate- Enzyme Substrate ConipleX of the latter is of temporary nature due tó blocking of active site or binding to linkages
required for maintenance of active site. Dilution and dialysis reduces or climinates the
Enzyme-Substrate Complex ~-- enzyme-products. complex
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot effect of reversible inhibition.
(M
Enzyme -Products Complex-Enzyme+ Products

(2) Induced-fit theory. It is modification of lock and key hypothesis (1) Protein Denaturation. Enzyme activity is, dependent upon the maintenance of
by Koshlarnd in 1959. According to this
which was proposed tertiary structure of the protein moiety.the latter is destroyed by several factors like heat,
theory the active site of the enzyime contains two
groups, butressing and catalytic. The buttressing group is meant
for. supporting the
high energy radiatons and salts of heavy metals.
substrate. The catalytic groups are normally at a distance.
As soon as the substrate comes 2) Competitive Inhibition. It is the inhibition of enzyme activity by the presence of a
---
in contact with the buttressing group,
the active site of the enzyme undergoes chemical that competes with the substrate for binding to the active site of the enzyme.
ot
contomational changes so as to bring the catalytic group chemical is, also called substrate analogue or competitive inhibitor. It
The inhibitor substrate
opposite the substrate bonds to
be broken. resembles the in/tructure and gets bound up to the active site of the enzyme
without getting transformed by the latter.
lB
Induced fit hypothesis 8) Non- competitive Inhibition. It is.an irreversible inhibition of enzyme activity by the
presence of a substance that has no structural similarity with the substrate. It is of two
types, reversible and irreversible. The irreversible noncoinpetitive inhibitor destroys or
combines irreversibility with a functional group of enzyme that is essential for its
catalytic function.
ia
inhibition
(4) Allosteric Modulation or Feed Back Inhibition. lt is a type of reversible
O Tound in allosteric enzymes. The inhibitor is noncompetitive
and is usually a low
a chain of reactions
molecular jntermediate or product of a metabolie pathway having
er
end product or feedback

involving a number of enzymes. It is, theretore, also called
11. What is Isoenzymes Inhibition. The inhibitor is also called modulator.
(Isozymes)?
at
Answer
At one time it was [MODEL QUESTION
believed
a metabolic reaction. It that an organism has only a single
was later discovered enzyme for a of
M
number of variants that a substrate given

of an enzyme producing the may be acted upo y aa
same product. BIO-99
The multiple mo
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watson and cricks suggestion of the
oi the parent strand as template was complementary strand synthesis
one of taking
proposed in
Ed
[MODEL QUESTIONJ
a) 1869 b) 1909
Chapter at a Glance
c) 1953
) 1952
Answer: (c)
nulei in 1S70
frvm
DAA was fist extrastd 4. Which of the following statements is true with respect to the
their SUNe. phosphorous. DNA double helix?
named nuclem sisatr- detemured that DNA was a weak acid rich in
pe
acid: -it contains [MODEL QUESTION]
Chemical analy deoxyribose nucleic co
intermativn about DNA: -
a a) Composed of two or more polynucleotide chains
lts name prov ides a lot ef and is found in the nucleus.
(darnyridse), - it is weakly acidic.- b) The base pairs have opposite polarity
sugar nwiety
nurlear lxalzation - subsequent
Identification a
as compinönent c) Covalent bond exists in base pairing
ca
of
Because of its: -
3 Are genes composed

as a carrier of genetic intorimation. d) T is transcribed as U
chremosomes it was irnpliated
-
ot DXA er prvtein Answer:(b)

so early on it was a challenge
dS
to contain protein
Chroresvnes are also Anon
information Who, in which year showed firm enzymological proof that DNA alone functions
demonstrate that DNA was indeed the molecule that contained the genetic .
5.
DNA Onily four ditterent subunits make up DNA- Chromosomes contain less DNA than [MODEL QUESTION]
as the template for the synthesis of new DNA strands?
protein by weight Watson and Crick in 1953
a)
in
Preten Z0 different subunits greater potential variety of combinations - Chromosomes Avery, MacCarty and Macleod in 1944
b)
contain more preiein than DNA by weight ana Stahl in 1958
c) Meselson
Classical experimental data confirmed DNA as the genetic materiai.
d) Hershey'and Chase in 1952

(M
Answer: (C)
[MODEL QUESTION]
6. Replication of DNA ends are carried out by polymerase.
Both ) none
1. Who were the first to suggest that one strand of DNA might
act as a template for a) True b) False **
the synthesis of its complementary

strand?. [MODEL QUESTION Answer: (b).
ot
a) Meselson and Stahl

c) Walter Flemming b) Watson and crick basic mechanism of gene expression is
d) Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins T. Which of the following regarding the [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer: (b)
correct?.
lB
a) DNA>tRNA-> protein protein

b) RNA ->¢DNA-> mRNA->
2.Semiconservative nature of
replication of eukaryotic
demonstrated by chromosome was ) RNA-> DNA-
mRNA -> protein
a) Walter Flemming on root
tip cells of Viciafaba MODEL QUESTIONJ d) DNA-> protein
b) J. Herbert Taylor,
ia
Philip Wood and Answer: (6)

Viciafaba Walter Hughes on root tip ce
c) Walter Flemming on root tip not take part in gene expression?
d) J. Herbert Taylor, cells of Phaseolus 8. Which of the following does [MODEL QUESTION]
vulgaris
er
Philip Wood
and Walter. Hughes on b) Transcription
of
Phaseolus vulgaris cells
Answer: (b) root P a) Replication d) Translation
c) RNA processin9
at
Answer: (a)
be formed at the
same time.
could
Multiple copies of RNA [MODEL QUESTION
M
c) Both d) none
b) False
a) True
Answer: (a)
BIO-101
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polypoptido must bo atta.
tacho
incorporation into MODEL OT UESTIO to Rough strain Sooth stram
prior to their proved this and when? (11-R) Ileat-killed
T0. Amino acids Who (II1-S) Rough-killed & Heat
molecule. sniooth strain
Ed
special adaptor killed sooth stran
in 1955 in 1957
a) Francis H. Crick B. Hoagland
and Maholon
Paul C. 2amecnic in 1953
0 Francis H. Crick
C) James Watson and
d) Linus Pauling in 1950
pe
Answer: h
Cuesttions
Short &Long Answer Type
1. What is the
Answer:
Structure of the DNA?
(MODEL QUESTION
ca
dS
The doutie belical structur of DNA was cracked by Watson-and Crick based on the
ay orystaiography results. DNA is a double helical structure. Each strand DNA
ofa
elin is comprsai of ngeating units of nucleotides. Nucleotide consists of
compenerts: bse or denribose sugar, nitrogenous base (purins or pyrimidines) and
in
phasphate. Mouse lives Mouse dies Mouse lives Nfouse dies

DNA is reaiveiy charged due to the presence of negatively
charged phosphate groups.
(M
This negatively charged phosphate groups

are stabilized by basic proteins known as 3. What is Central Dogma of Molecular Biology? [MODEL QUESTION]
histone.
Answer:
It is an explanation about how the flow of genetic information occurs in à biological
2. Explain how DNA acts
as a Genetic Material.
[MODEL QUESTION] system. This explains how DNA replicates and then gets converted into messenger RNA
Answer:
(mRNA) via transcription: Then this mRNA is translated to fom proteins.,
Grntith perormad an experiment
ot
known as transforming experiment.

of Preumococeus These He used two strains
strains used were
wo different strains were used
ype l-S (smooth), to infect the mice. The two
polysaccharide and that contains outer capsule Proteins
ONATranscripbon RNA ransiabon
lB
type II-R (rough) strain

do not contain capsule. made up o
the bacteria from
the host immune system. The capsule protecis
The Griith experiment
is explained below- Central dogma of molecular biology
Rough strain of Pneumococcus
ia
Smooth strain isinjected in mouse.

of Pneumococcus is The mouse is alive 4. What is DNA Replication? [MODEL QUESTION]
When heat killed injected in mouse:
smooth strain
mouse is alive. of Pneumococcus The mouse dies. Answer:
er
is injected into mouse, the is a process of producing two identical copies of DNA
from a single
In tbe last set DNA Replication
into mouse. The
of experiment, rough
strain ánd heat DNA molecule. It is a process of biological inheritance. DNA is a double helix in which
mouse dies. killed smooth strain wo strands are complementary to each other. hese tivo strands of a helix separate at the
I
This proves that is inj cted

at
there is some transforming molecules. Out of the two strands of DNA

is converting
or transforming substance ime of replication to form two new DNA and
the death of the mouse. the rough present in heat
killed S Tormed, one is identical to one of the strand another strand is conmplementary to the
This transformingstrain into virulent strain stralnt as replication. Before
parent strand. This form of replication is Known semi-conservative
M
Later on. Avery. substance is that is responsio or

McLeod McCaty in S phase of interphase.
genetic material. and Hershey DNA. ne cell enters the mitosis. the DNA is replicatedenzyme
and Chase involved in DNA replication.
confirms that DNAis a DNA polymerase in the most important
y
BIO-102 BIO-103
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(believed to occur normal|
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ormally in most cells),
POPULAR PUBLICATIQNS [MODEL QUESTIONI conditic three special transfers
only under specific conditions
der speciic in case of some (known o
transfers (believed viruses or in a laboratory), and thrce
n never to occur)
Transcription?
5. What is belore
Ed
messenger RNA from
DNA 2neral transfers describe the normal
The gern flow of biological information:
Answer: formation of RNA
sueh as
one of tlhe strand S)e copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information
DNA canbe
t 1sa praess of oceurs. During transeriptio1, DNA can be copied
CNpresston or protein
synthesis .of nRNA
mRNA occurs via RNA mRNA (transcription), and proteins can
fornmation. The synthesis be synthesized using the information in
acts as template tor
mRNA
for a particular DNA
segment which RNA as a template (\ranslation). The special transfers describe: RNA ,being copied
Transeription usually occurs from RNA (RNA replication), DNA-being synthesised
pe
polymerase enzy me.
enpression. Other than the mesScnger KNA, other f using an RNA templae (reverse
required further for gene transer: transcription), ana
RNA. mieno RNA. small
nuclear RNA can also be ribed ir proteins Delng synthesised directly from a DNA template without the
KNA such as ribosomal se of mRNA. The unknown transfers describe: a protein being copied from a protein,
use
the similar manner.
ca
synthesis of RNA using the primary structure of a protein as a template, and DNA
reverse transceription. Tney are abie to convert RNA
RA
Some viruses have a property of syrithesis uSing the primary structure of a protein as a templaté these are not thought to
is known as reverse transcriptase.
-
template into DNA. The enzyme used

causes "AIDS. naturally occur.
For Example: Human immunodeticiency virus that
dS
[MODEL QUESTION General Special Unknown
6. What is Translation?
Answer: DNA DNA RNA DNA Protein DNA
DNA-RNA. RNARNA ProteiriRNA
in
This is the provess of gene expression or protein synthesis that occurs in cytosol.
RNA Protein DNA -Protein |
Protein>Protein ::
Ribsomes are the celi organelles that are involved in protein synthesis. The messenger
.
RNA formed by the process of transcription is decoded by

ribosomes to förm á QUESTION]
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot What is DNA fingerprints? [MODEL
(M
polypeptide made up of amino acids. Messenger. RNA is 9.

composed of polymer of
nucleotides or codon. Each codon consists of 3 nucleotides
that will code for.a single Answer: the differences in
locating
amino acid. There are some important components DNA fingerprinting is a method of identifying the DNA by
that are involved in protein synthesis specifiç: regios of the DNA sequence which
ibosomes. messenger RNA and transfer RNA (IRNA). the arrangement of nucleotides in those DNA profiling..
Transfer RNA is involved in physically .
are repeated several times. The technique is calld DNA typing or

linking mRNA and the amino differences. in. the 'repetitive DNA
proteins. acid sequence of ,DNA fingerprinting involyes identifying
ot
Sequences. DNA
7. What is Biological
sequence information? The repetitive DNA is called satellite identity of viçtims from.
Answer: [MODEL QUESTION very useful in establishing the
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satellite DNA is
Variation in
The biopolymers roots, tears or saliva and in solving paternitý disputes.
each moromer is
that comprise DNA, RNA and
(poly).peptides are lineär blood stains, semen stains, hair
connected to at most two polymers (1.
monomers effectively other monomers).
encodes information. The The sequence or Applications of DNA fingerprinting:
cemral dogma ideally transfers of information criminals or potential suspcts and relieving people
are faithful, deterministic described Dy lt helps in identification of
ia
sequence is, used transfers, wherein

as a template for one biopoiy wrongly accused of crimes.
sequence that is entirely the construction
of, blood relationships in the
members of the same family.
dependent on the ornginal another biopolymer w lt is used to infer
biopolymer's sequence. real parents of a given offspring.
t is used to determine to the
er
8. How differenttypes actual parents in case of a lost child.

of sequential information is used to determine the victims or of.
Answer: transfers? It sex ot badly damaged bodies of accident
The MODEL QUES lt is used to determine the
dogma
at
of sequene intormation a framework

for archaeological specimens.
between information-carrying understanding transfer
or general case. in the
iiving organisms. biopolymers,
There are 3 major classes in the most C mmon
M
and protein. There are of Such biopolymers: DNA

5*3= conceivable and RNA (both
nucleic aacids). BIO-105
between these. The
dogma classes these direct transfers of information
into 3 groups that can ccur
of 3: three general tra sfers
y
BIO-104
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ANALYSISS
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MACROMOLECULAR BIOLOCY
3.
a-helical model of protein was discovered
a) Pauling and Correy
by [MODELQUESTION]
b) Watson
c) Morgan
Ed
d) BerzeluS
Answer: (a)
at a Glance 4. Aleurone
grains are
Chapter [MODEL QUESTION]
a) Enzymes b) Carbohydrates
pe
usea by G. J. Mulder f. c) Protein ) Fat
Proteins by Berzelius in 1838 and Was Answer: (c)
The word prvein was coinai
IS40. 16% nitrogen sn
protein. Average proteins contain
of protoplasm is made up of 5. High content of lysine is present
ca
in
( o and sulphur 0.3- 0.370. Iron. phosphorous. us. copper, [MODEL QUESTION]
carbon. oy gen 20-24°s. hydngen a) Wheat b) Apple c) Maize d) Banana
calcium, and iodine are also present in small quantiuy. Answer: (a)
) Sructure of proteins: It is due to ditferent
rearrangement of ino
anmino acids. When
When carboxyl
c
dS
or another amino acid the bond?.
group of one aminw acid kindad with amino group (- NH:)
calied peptide bond. A Feptide may be dipeptide. tripeptide and polypeptide. The simplest rotein 6. Which of the following is polymerized to form proteins [MODEL QUESTIONI
a) Protein b) Carbohydrates
is Insulin. Acconding to Sanger ( 1953) insulin consists of 51 amino acids. A protein can have up
four level of centoamation.
up to c) Amino acid d) Muramic acid
Answer: (C)
in
Primary structure: The primary structure is the covalent connections of a protein. It refers to
linear sequence. number and nature of amino acids bonded together witn peptide
bonds only. e.g.
ribonuclease. insuiin. haemoglobin. etc. 7. Basic structure of protein was given by [MODEL QUESTION]
(i) Secondary structure: The folding of a linear
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot a) Stanley b) Nicholson

(M
polypeptide chain into specitic coiled structure c) Watson d) Singer

(a - helix) is calied
seondar structure and if it is with intermólecular hydrogen bonds
structure is known as B- pleated sheet. - helical the Answer: (a)
a structure is found in protein df fur,
hair claus. and feathers. 5 pleated
structure is found in silk fibres.
keratin of
(un) Tertiary structure: 8. Weightof protein is. [MODEL QUESTION]
The arrangement and interconnection
bends is called tertian
structure of proteins. It is stabilized
of proteins into specific loops and a) 12000 b) 6000 C)12000 d) 600 3000
hydraphobic bond and
disulphide bonds. It is found by hydrogen bond,
ionic bond, Answer: (a)
in myoglobin
ot
(v) Quaternar structure:

it is shown by protein (globular proteins).
protein consists of identical containing more than
units. It is known as one peptide chain. The 9. Which of the following is the simplest amino acid [MODEL QUESTION]
deiydregenase. If homologous quaternary b) Asparagine
the units are dissimilar, it is structure e.g. lacue a) Tyrosine
hemaglobin which called as heterogeneous
d) Alanine
lB
censists oftwo a - chains quaternary structure s c) Glycine

and two'-chains.
Answer: (¢) "
Multiple Choice Type

1.Proteins consist
Questions Short&Long Answer Type guestions
of
ia
a) carbon, hydrogen,
b) Carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur [MODEL QUESTION] 1. What is Protein? [MODEL QUESTION]
c) Carbon, manganese, oxygen, nitrogen Answer:
he word. protein was coinèd by, Berzelius in 1838 and, was used by G. Mulder first
d) Carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen J.
er
iodine, oxygen
Answer: (b) and inorganicC time 1840.
phosphate
15% of protoplasm is made up of protein.
2. Which
of the following Average proteins contain 16% nitrogen, sU-53% carbon, oxygen 20-24%, hydrogen 7%
at
a) chromoproteins is conjugated and sulphur 0.3 0.5%. Iron, phosphorous, copper, calcium, and iodine are also present
c) Glycoprotein protein
EMODEL QUESTION)
b) Phosphoproteinn in small quantity.
Answer: (d)
M
d) All of
the abovee [MODEL QUSTIQN
Describe the Structure of Proteins.
BIO-107
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BIOLOGY
cardONYT group (-COOll) shape
Answer: amo acids. \ ncn On the basis of
t Is due to
different rearrangement of
anino gnup (- NIE)
ot anoner anmino acid
acid the
bond ibroIs
teolytic enzyme
protein/Scleroprotein: Insoluble
in water.
one anin acid bondad with Iripepide änd polypen
eptide is proteo is spirally coiled Animal protein resistant
Ed
be dipeptide, thread like structure
called peptide boni. peptide mty
Acconting to Sanger (1993)
Insulin onsists
consists of sThe
ot Sl amino annective tissue), actun and myoSin,
conne form fibres. e.g. collagen (n
keratin in hairs, claws, feathers,
SInplest protein is Insulin. Gi Globular protemIS: Soluble in water. Polypeptides etc.
four level of contormation. coiled about themselves to f
aCids. A prvtein can have up te
structure is the covalent
connections of a oval or spherical molecules e.g albumin insulin
hormones like ACTH, oxytosin, etc.
(Primury structure: The primaryand nature of amino acids bonded together withnpeptide
pe
eters to linear sequerne, number haemoglobiR, erc. On the basis of constituents
bonds only. eg. ribonuclease, insulin, ) Simple proteims:The proteins which are made up of amino acids only. e.g. albumins,
globulins, prolamins, glutelins, histones, etc.
HN Anma acn Peptide bond
ca
(i) Conjugated proleins: 'These are complex proteins çombined with characterstic non-F
amino acid substance called as prosthetic group. These are of following types:
COO (a) Nucleoproteins: Combination of protein and nucleic acids, found in
chromosomes and ribosomes. e.g.'deoxyribonucleoproteins, ribonucleoproteins,
dS
etc.
PRILARY STRUCTURE (b) Mucoproteins: These are combined with large amount (more than 4%) of
carbohydrates e.g. mucin.
(i) Secondary. structure: The folding of a linear polypeptide chain
into specific coiled 3%) e.g.
in
structure (u helix) is called sæcondary structure and it S with intermolecular hydrogen (c) Glycoproteins: In this, carbohydrate content is less (about 2
if immunoglobulins or antibiotics.
-
bonds the structure is known as B-pleated sheet. a -helical structure, are compounds of protein and coloured pigments. e.g
is found in protein of (d) Chromoproteins: These
fur. keratin of hair claws, and feathers. 8-pleated structure is
(M
found in
silk fibres. haemoglobin, cytochrome, etc.
e.g. cholesterol
SECONDARY STRUCTURE (e) Lipoproteins: These are water soluble proteins and contain lipids.
Alpha-Helix and serum lipoproteins.
Beta-Sheet (1) Metaloprotein: These are metal binding proteins,
AB-globin known as
copper e,g. chlorophyll.
transferring is capable of combining with iron, zinc and
phosphate e.g. casein (milk) and
(g) Phosphoprotein: They composed of protein and
ot
vitellin (eg8)
are hydrolysed by acids, alkalies or enzymes, the
(ii) Derived proteins: When proleins
them are called derived proteins. On the basis of
degredation products obtained from proteoses, secondary
lB
(iii) Tertiary structure: are classified as primary

loops and bends is called
The arangement and interconnection progressive cleavage, derived proteins
tertiary structure of proteins. of proteins into sp proteoses, peptones, polypeptides, amino
acids, etc.
ionic bond, hydrophobic It is stabilized by hydrogen
bond and disulphide bo
proteins). bonds. It is found in myoglobin
(glo0 On the basis of nature of molecules acids.. e.g. blood
(v) Quaternary structure: It as anion and include acidic amino
() Acidic proteins: They exist
ia
is shown by
The protein consists protein containing more
of identical units. It is known
e.g. lactic dehydrogenase. than one peptru re groups. e.g. lysine,
as homologous quaternary as cations and rich in basic amino acids
quaternary structure If the units are s (i) Basic proteins: They exist
e.g. hemoglobin which dissimilar, it is called as hetero eneous
er
consists of two arginineetc.

a -chains and two D hains. [MODEL QUESTIONJ
3. What are the by hierarchy of Proteins?
different classes of What do you understand
4.
Answer: Proteins?
[MODEL QUESTIONJ
at
Classification of Proteins Answer: this hierarchy are

that:
he, implications of is neld together by
characteristic, interactions and
Proteins are classified on level of the hierarchy
the basis of their
shape, constitution
each
M
and function. fortes

BIO-109
BIO-108
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are conpOSCu or lle SPuLlr dluralentities What are the Function
in the hierareny 5.
uc
BIOLOGY
higher levels of structure levels
of Prote
elements) of the lower Answer:
(also called that this four-level
hierarchy. of protein structure [MODEL
towever, subsequent work has revealeddimensional structure of. proteins can (i) Proteins occur.as food reserves QUESTION]
can now as glutelin, globulin
three (i) Proteins are coagulated in solutions,
Ed
1Sa bit too simple and the be
hierarchy, which includes: milk.
Conveniently deseribed by a six level structural such as.Zn, Ca, Hg°" etc. Casein alkaline to
the isoelectric pH by
pH 4.6, cyt. positive ions
lysozyme l1.0 etc.
-
primary structure C-9.8,resum globulin 5.4,

Gi) Proteins are the most pepsin 2./,
secondary structure diverse molecule
(iv) Proteins work as on the earth.
supersecondary structure horinone as insulin
() Antibiotics as gramicidin, tyrocidin and glucagon.
pe
domain structure and penicillin are
tertiary structure (vi) They are structural component peptides.
of cell.
quaternary structure. (vii) They are biological buffers.
ca
(viii) Monellin is the sweetest substance
Quaierrar obtained from African
Two or more polypeptides ASsoCiations of than sucrose). berry (2000 time sweeter
STucture each polypeptide a subunir tertiary struclure (ix) Proteins helps in defence, movement
activity of muscles, visual pigments receptor
dS
More compact strcures molecules, etc.
(x) Natural silk is a polyamide and artificial silk is
a polysaccharide. Nitrogen is the basic
Tertiary Multidomain (mosaic) Associations of constituent."
Structure or single domain domain structure
in
6. What do you understand by Motif? [MODEL QUESTION]

Dorain Structure
folds or Madules
All alpha, all beta, Units of tertiary Answer:.
alp.a+p structure A motif can be either a structural or a sequence motif:

(M
A structural motif is the arrangement of atoms in 3-D space to produce a

Super secondary Associates of
a-a. P-a-p, greek key particular structural pattern eg. alpha helix, beta sheet.
STuctire Secondary.
helix-loop-helix
structure A sequence motif is a particular pattern in the sequence of amino.acids or
Secordary nucleotides.
Structure a-helix P-sheet -tums loop Units of
A structural or sequence motif may or may not have a particular function associated with
ot
secondary
Primary Structure it.
-P-R-K-F-F-V-G-G-N-W-K-M-N-G-D-K-K-
Struciure
:LinearaminoSequence 7.Describe the structure ad functions of primary Proteins. [MODEL QUESTION]
lB
of acids
The definitions of Answer:
primary, secondary, tertiary, structure which refers to the .
the definítions of the other and quaternary structure
are ás above a The primary structure of a protein is the level of protein
levels are in such a position that the
Supersecondary structure is of structure are: specific sequence of amino acids. When two amino acids
otlher, they can be combined by
association of secondary the next level, up from šecondary structure carboxyl groups of each amino acid are adjacent to each
structures. and involves, tne which results in the: formation of a peptide bond.
Domaiis are' larger associations Also known as structural motifs. dehydration reaction
ia
undergoing a
are linked by peptide bonds that begin with the N-
supersecondary elements, of two or more secondary
structures, two. or mo Amino acids in a polypeptide (protein) C-teriminal with a free carboxyl group. The
structures. They can
or mixtures of two
or terminal with a free amino group and ends at
also be kown as "folds, moré secondary and superseconu rotate freely due to a partial double bond character.
peptide bond is planar and cannot
er
in Protein Tertiary Structure and 'modules. about peptide bond, there are two free
rotations on (N-
and contain between 35 domains are independently As we will see la While there is a restricted rotation
are called torsion angles, or more specifically
folding the phi and
acids. Note that some units of tertiary stru
and 200, ure (C-C) bond, which
slightly different definitions amino C) bond and limited due to steric
other authors may, pre rotation or these two bonds are also
psi angles. The freedoms ot
at
in Protein Tertiary of the terms above and to make polypeptides with a defined amino acid
we will look
Strücture. at some definitions a hindrance. Genes carry the information amino acids in length, and some genes
Sequence. An average polypeptide is about u It's important to know the
are a few tnousand amino acids long.
M
encode polypeptides that

BIO-111
BIO-110
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mojíts
strueture cncodes tat
uc
the puuy
tore
prvein brause structaun Ad function
are
HTC Corre
Correlale of strand can Occur as parallel, anti-
BIOLOGY
y Strurturr ofthein their bivlogical tiuxT; configuration runs in tie same
parallel, or a mixture.
npvrane
functivnal orientation. Pleated Amino acid residues, in : para rallel
alobular proleiis sheets. makes up
Ed
all levels ot biological organizaxta ad also are:dominant in.some fibrous the core of many
Protelns. The large aromalics proteins such as
. functions of secondary (MODEL QUESTION
such,as: tryptophan, tyrosirne a spiders web.
Describe the structure and rnino acids like ISoleucine, and phenylalanine,
and beta-branchea
conformations.This orienation is valine, and threonine. prefer
energetically less favorable to adopt -strana
Answer:
pnlyprptide, together wilh the laVS of
chemist vertical hydrogen bonds. rytophan, because of its slanted, non
ne amino acid saquene of and I tyrosine, and phenylalanine
pe
a
into a mor compact structure. Amino acii car
acids the other amino acids are hydrophilics. are hydrophobics while
paysics. cause a poiypepiie tw fold are llexible and can c
This is the reason proteins
otate arourad bords within a avein.
or certain regions can have a repeat. 3. 8-turns: Poly peptid chains can change direction
inte a variety of shapes Folding can be imegular epeating by making reverse turns and
ca
Loop regions that connect tWO anti-parallel p-strands loops.
folding patern. The coils ad folds that result from the hyarogen bonds between the are known as. reverse turms or j
repeaing sègmients or the poiypeptide backbone are calld secondary structures turns. These loop regions have irregular lengths
and shapes and are usually found.on the
Although tke individual hy erogen bonds are weak. Ihey are able to Support a specifie surface of the protein. The turn is stabilized by hydrogen
bond between the backbone of
carbonyl oxygen and amine hydrogen. The CO
dS
shupe for that part of the pruein due to the fact that they are repeated many times over a group of the residue, in many reverse
long part of the chain ", Secondary structures of a protein are proposed by turns, which is bonded to the NH group of residue i
Pauling and +3. The interaction stabilizes abrupt
Corey. Its strueturs àr iennd by amino acids that 'are located ithin short distances of changes in direction of the polypeptide chain. Unlike the alpha-helices and B-stands,
each ther. Serause of tie planar nature of the peptide:bonds, only loops do not have regular, periodic structures. However, they are usuallyrigid and
certain types of
in
Secondar StTuture exist. The three important secondary tructures defined. Since they loops lie on the surface of the proteins, they are able participate. well
are a-helix, B-sheets, t in
ard -tums. Alse. te beta sheets can be paralel, interactions between proteins and other molecules. Ramachandran plot is a; plot thát
antiparallel, or mixed: Antiparallel.beta
sheets are moe stable because the hydrogen shows the available torsion angles of where proteins can be found. However, in the plot,
bonds are at a ninety degree
(M
helix is a ceied stucture stabilized angles. The a-

by intrachain hydrogen bonds,. if there. are many dots, that locate all over the place, it means that there exists a loup.
Characteristics ofthe
I. a-heli: In an a-helix.
Secondar Structures: 9. Describe the structure and functions of Tertiary& Quaternary Proteins.
the poly peptide backbone [MODEL QUESTION]
that is stabilizei by forms a repeating
hydrogen bonds between a helical structure Answer:
These hydrugen bonds carbonyl oxygen. and an
amine hydrogen.
ot
occur at regular intervals Tertiary: As the secondary structure becomes established due to the primary structure, a
amind acid and cause of one. hydrogen
bond every fourth
helical stnucture is
the polypeptide backbone
to form a helix. The polypeptide folds and refolds upon itself to assume a complex three-dimensional shape
hydrogen bonds are
a right-handed helix
with its hydrogen
bonds
most common called the protein tertiary structure. Tertiary strueture is the overall shap of a
formed betweencarbonyl.oxygen parallel to its axis. The
lB
amino acid rasidues and polypeptide. Tertiary structure resuits fróm the interactions between the side chains. (R
away. Each amino acid amine hydrogen groups of tour
Each rurm of the kelix advances the helix, groups) of the -various amino acids. This three dimensional structure is due to
is composed of 3.6 along its axis, by 1.S A. intramolecular, interactions between the. side groups along the polypeptide ,chain. Its
5.4 A. There is an amino acids; therefore
orientated outside
average of ten amino the pitch of the helix is domain typically contains 300 -400 amino acids, and it adopts a stable tertiary structiure
of the helíx. Different acid residues per helix with its when it is isolated from their parent protein. As a polypeptide folds into its functional
torming x-helix. amino acids side chalns
ia
however proline have

amino group. Amino is a helix breaker different propensities T shape, amino acids that have hydrophobic side chains tend to end up clustered at the core
acids that because proline
methionire, alanine, prefer to does not have a free of the protein so that they are out of contact with water. Covalent bonds called disulfide
leucine, glutamate adopt helical conformations bridges can also aíffect the shape of a protein. Disulfide Bridges form where two amino
er
and lysine (malek). in.proteins inCIu

2. B-sheet: B-sheets acids containing sulfhydry! groups on their side chains are brought close together by how
are stabilized by hydrogen protein is folding. For some proteins, such as ribonuclease, the tertiary structure is the
et, regios
of the polypeptide bonding between the
final structure of a functional protein.. Other. proteins are composed of two or more
at
backbone come peptide strands. In

oge *ed d
by hydrogen
bonds.
he amine hydrogen The hydrogen bonds are
to lie parallel
to cach other anu
a polypeptides and adopt a quaternary structure.
means tnái the of amino acid formed between the carbo.
a-helix, and tnen:drogën bods are inter-stand. in adjacent strands in Quternary: While all proteins contain primary. secondary and tertiary structures,
M
distance berween f-shect regions a polypeptide. which quaternary structures are reserved for proreins Composed of two or. more polypeptide
adjacent amino are more extended
Chains. Proteins that have quaternary structures Contain more than one polypeptide and
acids is 3.5 A.
BIO-112 Hydrogen bonding"\ BIO-113
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intermoleeular
uc
caCh oter Va
assenble Wiln strticture thaÍ is the
then the" overall
strueture and Sul BIOLOGY
a tertiary structure of a
protein is polyieptiles a 11. What is Protein
denaturation? What
}t The quterary subuits. The mdividu.n sey;iratcly,Subunite e are the Conditions
Ed
1s. these polypeptide follcd be for that?
e addition ofwhich means diterent pv»lypptules proleis consIst of more t Answera [MODEL QUESTION]
situnits, When One Protein denaturation: is the loss
Prcn or they may
be
ditlerent.
stricture id are also kn" own
protcins cxperience either the of native conformations of tertiary structure. Denaturing
ucncal iypeptidesthey an said tw have quaternary strur destruction of disruption
chain, ot mny prls. Qnernary structure. Denaturalion of internal tertiary or
pepde
multimerie proveins, meaning
proteins consstunng
come together t0 either:S
create Ait
however, does not break secondary
the peptide bond between adjacent
pe
thhn ow pntein amino acids, thus not affecting
as u hen more ot a quaternary str
structure the primary structure
Cin auso detined HectorViadiu. FHaemoglobin is an exiample however, will interfere thenormal of the protein. Denaturation
rimer. tetramer, etc. subunits. alpha-helix and beta sheets in
subunits and two eta ultimately distort its 3D shape. a protein which
that is cemposad of two alpa Denaturation causes the disruption of hydrogen
ca
bonding between close proximity amino
the structure the Proteins. acids, thus interfering a protein's secondary"
10. State the factors which influence (MODEL QUESTION and tertiary structure. In tertiary structure
there are four types of bonding interactions
between "side chains" including: hydrogen
bonding, ionic bridges, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic
dS
Answer: intermolecular interactions.
Several tactors detennine the way that polypeptides adopt
their secondary, tertiary and other words, there are several different conditions to denature
are the defining features the conformation of a
quaternary structures. The amino acid sequences of polypeptides protein.
that distinguish the structure of one protein from another. As polypeptides are
synthesized in a cell. they fold into secondary and tertiary structures, which assemble into
in
Conditions that denature proteins:

quaternary structures for mest proteins. As mentioned, the laws of chemistry and physics, 1. Extreme pH (pH <4 or pH >
9): alters H-bonding
together with amino acid sequence. goverm this process. Five factors are critical 2. Heat (temp>70oC): thermal effect, disrupts weak forces non-covalent
of bonds
(M
for protein folding and stability: 3. Detergents or organic solvents: disrupts hydrophobic interaction
1.Hydrogen bonds: Hydrogen bonds are formmed between a hydrogen bond donor and 4. Chaotropic agents (high conentrations): e.g., urea and guanidinium chloride
hydrogen bond acceptor. For amino acids. hydrogen bonding would
occur-between,the
backbone of the amine group and the oxygen of the carbonyl 12. What is DEAD box proteins?.
group. [MODEL QUESTION
2. Ionic bonds: Electrostatic
interactions occur between two oppositely Answer:
molecules. lonic interactions are weaker in charged
water than in vacuum, this is due to a DEAD box proteins consist of RNA helicases, they are involved in RNA metabolism
ot
ditferent dielectric constant faced in water between processes, and they are conserved in nine domains found in bacteria and viruses, to
opposing-charges within the proteins
structure. humans, They are 350 amino acids in length. DEAD box proteins are involved in pre-
3. Hydrophobic
effect: The hydrophobic interaction originates mRNA processing, splicesosome formation, and rearranging of ribonucleoprotein (RNP)
lB
polar molecules to minimize from the tendency of non

their interactions with water. complexes. DEAD box proteins are required in the pre-mRNA splicing and the in vivo
interact w ith water. these When non-polar molecuies
molecules tend to cluster splicing process. During the pre-mRNA processing, the DEAD box proteins unwind to
micelle. together in the center to Torm
4. Van der waals
provide energy to rearrange the five snRNPs (UI, U2, U4, U5, and U6) required in pre-
forces: Van der waals forces exist mRNA splicing. In the in vivo splicing. three DEAD box proteins, Sab2, Prp28, and
close range. Of the three van der waals between non-polar molecui
at
ia
interactions, interactions Prp5, are needed. Prp5 helps rearrange the conformation of U2, which allows the U2
dipoles is the strongest,
dipole-induced dipole between peria sequence bind to the branch point sequence. Prp28 helps the recognition of the 5' splicing
dipole and the London interactions are
dispersion forces'are the weaker than perma nent location,
between individual weakest. While van der waals forces
er
atoms are weak, the sum The first DEAD box protéin, the ElF4A translation initiation factor, are dependent on
interactions between
many atoms in of van der waals forces resultinE from RNA ATPase, activity. This protein helps unwind the secondary structure, which stops the
sirength of van der waals large macromolecules The
interactions can be
maimal at the van der waals contact varies with the distance between substanad is
scanning.
at
5. Disulfide bridges: distance. the atomS

oxidation. These are
A disulfide bond can 13. Why all enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes?
also the strongest be form bétween two cysteines through [MODEL QUESTION
covalent bonds within re
M
a protein's tertiary Su uct
BIO-114 BIO-115
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POPULARPUBLICATIONS
specific doorway designated for
it. Letters
as subsets. through the package door, and enter through the letter door; packages
enzymes belong Speed post mail comes enter
Answer: molecules to which through the Speed post
Ed
larger set of function door
s is the
diverse in shape size
and 17. What is Passive and Active Cellular
Explunatio macromolecules that are witho Transport?
are biological reactions m a ving ccll Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
Proteins that facilitate biological catalysts. There are two main kinds of cellular transport:
Enzymes are molecules passive transport and active transport.
i.e. these are so, make thoem
undergoing too much change changes and reversibly When passive transport occurs, molecules are
moving from a concentrated area to a less
to undergo shape
pe
The ability of proteins concentrated area. This doesn't require any energy;
enzymes among other things. the pressure in the concentrated area
most suited to function as are less suited for such a will naturally push molecules to the
area of lower pressure. The opposite
macromlecules like sugars and fats reason of this
Other bivlogical enzymes too. And tor the same- process, active transport, moves molecules from
molecules serve as a less concéntrated area to a. more
ca
function. Somme RNA concentrated area. "This requires an input of energy in
the form of ATP, adenosine
too. triphosphate.
[MODEL QUESTION] Let's go back to the post office. Imagine there
14. How do proteins act as enzymes? are 100 postal workers inside the post
dS
office and 20 workers outside. That'd be 100 molecules inside the cell
Answer: and 20 outside.
When workers from inside leave and go outside of the post office. they
Cells rely on thousands of different enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions. Enzymes are moving from
are proteins. and they make a biochemical reaction more likely to.proceed by lowering
an area with more workers (a higher concentration) to an area with less workers
(lower
the actis ation energy of the reaction. thereby making these reaçtions proceed thousands concentration). There's a lot morè rooim outside, so leaving the 'crowded post. office
in
or even millions of times faster than they would without a catalyst. Enzymes are highly requires very little energy. This is exactly how passive transport works.
specitic to their substrates. Ther bind these substrates at complementary areas on their On the other hand, if some of the workers on the outside decide to go into the post office,
they would be moving from an area with less workers (lower concentration) to an area
surfaces. providing a snug fit that many scientists compare to a lock and key. Enzymes
(M
Work by binding one or more substrates, bringing with more workers (higher concentration). They would need to exert energy to cram
them together so that a reaction can
take place. and releasing them once the reaction is complte. In themselves back into the crowded building. That's why active. transport requires energy
particular, when substrate
binding occurs. enzymes undergo a conformational shift from the cell.
that orients or strains the
substrates so that they are more reactive.
18. What is receptor proteins? [MODEL QUESTION]
ot
15. What is Transporter proteins? Answer:

Answer: [MODEL QUESTION] Receptor proteins are located within the cell surface membrane, nucleus membrane or
Transporter proteins constitute a other cellular organelle membrane. They can bind to corresponding ligands to initiate
significant fraction of membrane-bound
lB
are typically expressed in proteins. "They cellular signaling pathways. For cell surface receptors, Such as receptor tyrosine kinases,
all organs involved in the uptake,
of drugs. including the gastrointestinal distribution, and elimination interleukin receptors and receptors of growth factors, they are usually subdivided into
kidneys. The sequence tract, the blood-brain
of many transporters is known. barrier, the liver, and tne three domains, extracellular domain, transmembrane domain and, intracellular domain.
Receptor proteins form the largest family of biological targets.
16. Why the Transport
Proteins
are called as The Doors Examples of receptor proteins/receptors include: a. Guanine nucleotide
ia
to the Cell? binding protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) (metabotropic).

Answer: [MODEL QUESTIONJ]
Our cells are constantly
shipping and receiving 19. What is the function of receptors in our body? [MODEL QUESTION]
er
how a post office handles different types

Each cell has a plasma
various letters and packages. of molecules, similar Answer:"
and out of the cell. Eachmembrane, or a filter, that helps regulate Receptors are present in our all parts of the body for exanmple in skin, eye, nose tonigue
plasma membrane has materials movin etc. They' detect the signals. and then send them to brain in the form of electrical
at
within it, which are different transport

ued to
certain molecule to enter or help with this process. Each transport proteins einbeu signals. Receptors canbecome dystunctional temporarily or sometimes permanently
exít the cell. protcin only allow depending upon the level of exposure to a certain stimulus.
Think of these transport
M
proteins' as specialized
parcel each letter, doors of the 20. Describe proteins as structural unit. [MODEL QUESTION]
each package, and so on post office. Each type
may only enter
-
the post officc throug" a

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organic molecules
amio acids,
which are all groun
group, a carboxyl up, a METABOLISM
Answer:
ofproteius sre atvm inkei to an amino
uilding blocks(central)
e carha side chan. information
Ed
nSIst ofatom, an alpha covnnet calleda that starns win
the in
gen ad a variadleof te daending pncess compose structural and
motor elemente Chapter at a Glance *
ane tie end prairts oell, proteins reaction tha

eins workhorses of te
euuar DNA. As serve as the catalssts for virtually
every biochemical
a startlinelu
cell, and tkey functions derives Trom The laws of thermodynamics are important unifying
principles of biology. These principles
In the
This inernible array of govern the chemical processes (metabolism) in
things. all biological organisms. The First Law of
pe
curs in living specities a hugely diverse
set of
structures.
structure. Not Thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation
unique protein
contains the code for a sequences,
Simple coie that of energy, states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed. It may change from
fact. each gene in cellular DNA
acid but they also are one form to another, but the energy in a closed
In
2ssemblad with different amino three-dimensional.structures system remains constant.
only are these proteins variety of The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that
bonis and folded into a
ca
sequence of when energy is transferred, there will be less
held together by ditferent depends directly on the linear amino acid 2nergy available at the end of the transfer process than
contormation, at the beginning. Due to entropy, which is
The folded shape. or he measure of disorder in a closed system, ail of the available energy
will not be useful to the
the protein organism. Entropy increases as energy is transferred.
dS
n addition to the laws of thermodynamics, the
cell theory, gene theory, evolution, and
omeostasis form the basic principles that are the foundation for the study of life.

in
1. Catalysts: [MODEL QUESTION]

a) increase the activation energy
(M
b) are used up in reactions

c) provide an alternative reaction pathway
d) slow down chemical reactions
Answer: (c)
2.Which of the following is not a feature of collision theory? [MODEL QUESTION]

ot
a) the rate of chemical reactions increases with inereasing temperatures

b) the reaction is faster in dilute solute solutions than in concentrated
c)at high temperatures molecules have more energy than at low temperatures
lB
d) the more molecules present, the faster the reaction

Answer: (b)
3. Examples of anabolic reactions include: [MODEL QUESTION]

ia
a) the breakdown of lipids b) the breakdown of carbohydrates

) hydrolysis reactions d) the build up of proteins
Answer: (d)
er
4. The conversion of glucose to carbon dioxide and water is an example of

[MODEL QUESTION]
at
) a catabolic reaction b) a condensation reaction

c) an esterification reaction d) an anabolic reaction
Answer: (a)
M
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POPULAR
BIOLOGY
surroundings
exergonic reactionfrom the being broken d) all of the above
5. In an absorbed strength as bondsbroken
aenergyis formed are the same bonds being Answer: (d)
Ed
being stronger than
D bonds being formed are
CDonds surroundings 13. During. catabolism, only about 40%
the
energy is released to of the energy available from. oxidizing
d) glucose is used to synthesize ATP. Remaining
Answer: (d) MODEL QUESTION a) is lost as heat 60% MODEL QUESTION]
broKen b) is used to reduce NADP
pe
reaction: bonds being
6. In an endergonic are stronger than c) remains in the products of metabolism
being formed
a bonds
energy is absorbed from the
surroundingS
as bonds-being
broken d) is stored as fát
b) strength
are the same Answer: (a)
bonds being fomedto the surroundings
d) energy is released
Answer: (b)
equation is ADP + water then right hand side of that
14. Why
catabolism?
ca
does the glycolytic pathway continue in the direction of glucose
[MODEL QUESTION]
dS
7. If left hand side of chemical [MODEL QUESTION] a) There are essentially three irreversible reactions that
act as the driving force
chemical equation is equal to for the pathway
a) AMP+ P+ energyY
b) APM+ Mi+ energgy b) High levels of ATP keep the pathway going in a
c) BMP+ B;+ energy
d) TDA + T+ energy forward direction
c) The enzymes of glycolysis only function in one directipn
in
Answer: (a) d) Glycolysis occurs in either direction

Answer: (a)
8. Majorsource of energy to perform cellular functions such as exocytosis,
endocytosis, movement and transmission of nerve impulses, is
(M
as .
[MODEL QUESTION]
15. The released energy obtained by oxidation of.glucose is stored
a) ATP b) BTPd) c) PTA APT [MODEL QUESTION]
a) a concentration gradient across a membrane
Answer: (a) b) ADP
".
c) ATP d) NAD
9. Biologist who discovered ATP is Answer: (c)
[MODEL QUESTION]
a) Daniel Olive
ot
b) Daniel Koshland
c) Karl Lohmann 5. kinase is an enzyme
that [MODEL QUESTION
d) Emil August
Answer: (C) a) removes phosphate groups of substrates
buses ATR to add phosphate
a group to the substrate
lB
10. Nobel Prize winner biologist c) uses NADH to change the oxídation state of the substrate
who. proposed ATP as major d) removes water from a double bond
molecule in cells is energy-transt
a) Fritz Lipmann [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: (6)
c) Daniel Koshland
b) Emil August
Answer: (a) d) Karl Lohmann 17. Kreb's has been awarded Nobel Prize in 1953 for explaining
ia
[MODEL QUESTION]
11 Nobel Prize winner Fritz Lipmann a) Energy forming process in the cell b) ATP metabolism
molecule in cells in who proposed ATP c) Respiration chain d) Oxidation of cytoplasm
as major energy-tran fer
er
a) 1949 b)1935 [MODEL QUESTION

Answer: (a)
Answer:(C) c) 1941
d) 1929 18. The product formed by maleic dehydrogenase is [MODEL QUESTION]
at
12. Glycolytic pathway a) Maleic acid b) Fumaric acid

regalation involvees
a) allosteric stimulation c) Oxaloacetic acid d) Succinic acld
b) allosteric inhibition by ADP [MODEL QUESTIONJ Answer: (c).
by ATP
M
c) feedback, or product,
inhibition by ATP
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pyruvic acid is [MODEL QUESTION for cxample, perlorm a number
carboxylaso, of important
presence of TPP and In photosynthesi, the energy processes. These processes,
alcohol and CO
Ed
1n b) Ethyl is supplied by the sun. require energy
plant leaves and converted to Light energy is absorbed
a) Acetaldehyde
and CCo%
d)None of the above chemical energy, by cells in
of glucose, which is used to form complex The chemical energy stored
c) Citric acid and CO2
The enerEy stored in glucose carbohydrates necessary is in the form
can also be released to build plant mass.
Answer: (a) process allows plant and animal through cellular respiration.
MODEL QUESTION organisms to access the energy This
lipids, and other macromolecules
Indirect oxidation pathway
stored in carbohydrates,
pe
20. TCA cycle is a b) through the production
of ATP. This energy.is needed
a) Direct oxidation pathway d) None of the above
to perform cell functions such as
DNA replication, mitosis,
c) Both [a] and [b] endocytosis, exocytosis, and apoptosis. miosis, cell móvement,
Answer: (b)
ca
[MODEL QUESTION] 2. State the importance second law of Thermodynamics
21. Hydrogen of malate is accepted by d) CoQ
in Biological Systems.
a) FAD ) FMN c) NAD IMODEL QUESTION
Answer:
dS
Answer: (C) As with other biological processes, the transfer energy
of is not I00 percent efficient. In
(MODEL QUESTION] photosynthesis, for example, not all of the light energy ís
22. Which of the coenzyme is used in acetylation reaction absorbed by the plant. Some
c) FMN d) None of the above energy is retlected and some is lost as heat. The loss
a) CoA FAD of energy to the surroundingg
environment results in an increase of disorder. or. entropy. Unlike plants
Answer: (a) and other
in
photosynthetic organisms, animals cannot generate energy directly from .the

sunlight
They must consume plants or other animal organisms
23. Ferredoxin is a [MODEL QUESTION] for energy. . .
a) Protein b) Fat c) Phenol d) None of the abov The higher up an organism is on the food chain, the less available energy it receives from

(M
Answer: (a) its food sources. Much of this energy is lost duting metabolic processes performed by the
producers and primary consumers that are eaten. Therefore, much less energy is available
for organisms at higher trophic levels. (Trophic levels are groups that help ecologists
24. Which intermediate compound is involved in the synthesis of amino acids
[MODEL QUESTION understand the specific role of all living things in the ecosystem.) The lower the available
a) Malic acid b) Citric acid energy, the less number of organisms can be supported. This is why there are more
c) a-ketogluteric acid d) Isocitric acid producers than consumers in an ecosystem.
ot
Answer: (c) Living systems require constant energy input to maintain their highly ordered state. Cells,
for example, are highly ordered and have low entropy. In the process of majntaining this
25. In ATP molecule energy is stored in order, some energy is lost to the surroundings or, transformed. So while cells are ordered,
[MODEL QUESTION
lB
a) Chemical bonds b) Hydrogen bonds the processes performed to maintain that order result in an increase in entropy in the
c) Carbon bonds
d) Pyrophosphate bonds cell's/organism's.surrOundings. The transier of energy causes entropy in the universe to
Answer: (d) increase.
26. The process by which the energy of glucose is [MODEL QUESTION]
3. What is exothermic and endothermic reaction?
released under aerou
ia
respiration was discovered by Answer:

a) Hopkins b) Lister [MODEL QUESTIONI. heat, causing the. temperature of the immediate
Answer: (c)
C) Kreb's
d) Pasteur
"
An exothermic process' releases

surroundings to rise. An endothermic process-absorbs heat and cools, the surroundings.
er
Many chemical reactions release energy in the fom of heat, light, or sound. These
Short & Long Answer Type aré exothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions may occur spöntaneously and result in
Questions | higher randomness or entropy (AS' > 0) of the system. They are denoted by a negative
at
1. State the importance of first Law of Thermodynamics

in Biological Systems.N heat flow (heat is lost to the surroundings) and decrease in enthalpy (AH <0). In the lab,
[MODEL QUESTION reactions produce heat or may even be explosive.
Answer: exothermic
M
All biological organisms require energy

to survive. In
universe, this energy is not consumed out transformed a closed svstem, such as
from one form to another. BIO-123
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energ n orucr. to
reactions that
must adsord
cannot oceur
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spontaneously Work
Answer
BIOLOGY
are other ehemical Endothermic reactions endotherinic reactions bsorb An exergonic-reaction is always acompanied
here reactions. When
Ed
re endothermie reactions to occur. Endotherm
hermic reaction are That means, delta G Is always negative.
by a decrease in free energy
of the syste
in order to get these during the reaction. Most
delta H (change in enhalpy) is also negative. of such reactions
must be done measurd are exothermic; that
temperature dnop is an increase in enthalpy (+A
+AH). is,
cerg. a reaction) and
flow (into the Changes in free energy (G ), enthalpy (
characterized by positive heat = H) and entropy (S) are related by the equation:
[MODEL QUESTION] delta G delta H -T. delta S.
endergonic reaction? So, even if delta H is positive (endothermic).
pe
4. What is exergonic
and delta G can be negative, provided delta S
This dene is also positive with a large value for T (temperature). In
Answer: either taken in or released. other words, decrease in free
takes place energy is energy is still possible even if there is absorption heat.
When a chemical eaction bonds.being formed. of So, an endothermic reaction can
relative strengths of bonds being broken and also be an exergonic reaction under certain conditions.
ca
on the I ne
bonds being formed
rmed
In an exergonic reaction,
energy is released to the surroundings.
are stronger than the bonds being broken.
8. State the Relationship between free Energy and Equilibrium
energy is absorbed from the Surroundings. The bonds beino
Constant.
In an endergonic reaction. [MODEL QUESTION]
dS
Answer:
formed are weaker than the bonds being broken.
The free energy change of the reaction in any state, AG (when equilibrium has not been
5. What is metabolism and metabolites?
[MODEL QUESTION attained) is. related to the standard free energy change of_the reaction, AG" (which is
Answer: equal to the difference in free energies of formation of the products and reactants both in
in
Countless chemjeal reactions take place in cells and are responsible for all the actions of their standard states) according to the equation.
organisms. Together. these reactions make up an organism's metabolism. The chemicals AG= AG° + RT InQ
taking part in these reactions are called metabolites.

.
Where is the reaction quotient

(M
In all reactions:
When equilibrium is attained, there is no further free energy change i.e. AG =0 and
chemical bonds in the reacting molecules are broken; this takes in energy
new chemical bonds form to make the products; this gives out energy becomes equal to equilibrium constant. Hence the above equation becomes.
When a chemical reaction takes place energy is either taken in or
on the relative strengths of bonds being broken and
released. This depends AG=-RTIn K(«)
bonds being formed.
Of, AG = -2.303 RT log K(ea)
ot
6. What are the differences between Exothermic reaction and

Exergonic reaction [MODEL QUESTION]
[MODEL QUESTION 9. What is the Spontaneity of Chemical reaction?
Answer: Answer:
lB
I. Exothermic reaction
a. Energy releásed is just called energy
In general, the spontaneity of a process only determines wiether or not .a
process can occur ånd makes no indication as to whether or not the process will occur. In
b: Energy of reactants is
greater than that of products. other words, spontaneity is a necessary, but not suficient. condition for a process to
CEnergy of the reaction system. decreases actually occur. Furthermore, spontaneity makes no implication as to the speed at which as
.e. the surrounding becomes.hotter. relative to that of the surrounang
spontaneous may occur.
ia
2. Exergonic reaction
As an example, the conversion of.a diamond into graphite is a spontaneous process at
EnergY released, has a special name room temperature and pressure. Despite being spontaneous, this process does not occur
energy called Gibbs energy or GIDOSGibbs free Since the energy to break the strong carbon-carbon bonds is larger than the release in free
er
b. Energy reactants energy.

is greater than that ot
C.lt has nothingto the products
do.with how hot or cóld reactants
chemical meaning-t become. Has more 10. How to determine spontaneity of a chemical reaction Using free energy
means that a reaction relates to the spontaneity of the reaction;
at
ays [MODEL QUESTIONI

is feasible, i.e. reaction thus it a
will always happen.
7. Can endothermic reaction also
an exergonic reaction?
M
be
[MODEL QUE
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pressre, Sponlaneity can he
teyvrature nt by:
Answer:
Answer costan nhich is given
that oarus at frer energy.
in enthalpyy (AlN
NH2
prNess in Gibhs ch:anges
negaive (or vice v.
change the
Ed
the signs ot
using the sign vi MG
depenis vn the
chnge Irom
positiNe to versa)
herentropY (.LS). The sign of M uill
I)-
N
d P-0-
Where T
OH
pe
OH OT
toriward direction.
In cases where 3G is spomanaus and may proceed in tne as
egative. the paness is
out may procee
written. non-spontaneous as Writen, I
ca
OsItie. the praves is
Spentanevusly in the reverse direction. place over time. O
equilibrium. with no net change taking ATP Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide, which is
2er. tne prres at
is
four distinct cases by examining the
signs of mainly composed of the
This set ot rules can euad to dètemine
dS
molecule adenosine and three phosphate groups. It is
soluble in water and has a high
the AS and AH. energy content, which is primarily due to the
spontaneous as written. presence of two phosphoanhydride bonds
whenS>0 and AH <0. the process is always connected to the three phosphate groups.
When AS s 0 and AH> 0. the process is never
spontaneous, but the reverse
The triphosphàte tail of ATP is the actual power source which
the cell taps. The available
in
precess ts aiuays spontaneOus. energy is contained in the bonds between the phosphates
and is released when they are
When AS and AH> 0. the process will be spontaneous at high temperatures
>0 broken or split into molecules. This ocurs through
the addition of a water molecule
nor-Spontaneous at loW temperatures
and (hydrolysis). Usually, only ,the outer phosphate group is removed from
(M
When AS<0 and aH< 0. the process will be spontaneous at low temperatures energy; when this occurs, ATP Adenosine triphosphate ATP to yield
-
is converted into ADP
and ron-spontaneous at high temperatures. adenosine diphosphate, it is the form of the nucleotide having only two
For the latter two cases. the temperature at which the spontaneity changes will be
phosphates.
ATP molecules are largely composed of three essential components.
detenined by the reiative magnitudes of AS and AH. The pentose sugar molecule i.e. ribose sugar.
'Nitrogen base- Adenine, attached to the first carbon of this sugar molecule.
11. What is ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate?
ot
TMODEL QUESTION] The three phosphate groups which are attached in'a chain to the 5th carbon of the
Answer: pentose sugar. The phosphoryl groups, starting with the group closest to the
ATP- Adenosine triphosphate is called the. energy currency of the cell. ribose sugar, are-referred. to as the alpha, beta. and gamma phosphates. These
lB
It is the organic compourd composed

of the phosphate groups, adenine, and the sugar phosphates play an important role in the activity of ATP.
ribose. These moecules provide energy for various biochemical
processes in the boay.
Therefore. it is called "Energy Currency of the 13. How is energy produced by the ATP molecules?
Cell". These ATP molecules arc [MODEL QUESTION]
sy nthesized by Mitochondria, therefore Answer:
it is called powerhouse of the cell.
The ATP molecule was discovered in the The three phosphate groups present in this ATP molecule are called high energy bonds as
year 1929 by German chemist Karl Lohman.
ia
Later in the year 1948, Scottish biochemist they ire involved in the liberation of a huge amount of energy when they
synthesized the ATP molecule.
Alexander Todd was' the first person are broken. This
moleeule provides energy for various life processes without which life cannot exist.
ATP- the energy-carrying molecules are found .. It is used by various enzymes and structural
er
in the cells of all living things. Thes proteins in cellular proçesses like
organic molecuies tunction by capturing biosynthetic reactions, cell divisions. etc. This "energy currency of the cell" is produced
food molecules and are Jater released the chemical energy obtained
from the aig during cellular respiration where a digested simple molecule of food is utilized.
for different cellular processes.
at
Once atter the energy is produced by theATP molecules. tlhey are stored in its bonds
12. Describe thestructure of Structure which are later utilized by.the cells by breaking the bonds whenever required
of ATP molecule. [MODEL QUESTION]
M
14. What are the Functions of ATP? [MODEL QUESTION]
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transporlation of dilferen
din
tiunetioNs. inctuting ND2
Answer: various cellular
tunctions ot ATP
include supplying tio energy Adenosine
e ATP is used for
membranes. Other and various
Ed
triphosphate
molecules across cell circulation, C Adenosine
for the, blood
tor the muscle vontrastion, fhonm energy production includes: triphosphate HLaN
requred
movements. A signitieant role
ot ATP apart the cell requiree to
types of macromolcules that
Synthesizing the multi-thousands of control chemical, reactions and to send
as a switch to +HPO +H.
exist. ATP molecule is also used
pe
'.mesSIges.
in Metabolism? MODEL QUESTIONI HO :
OR
15. What is the Importance of ATP Molecule ATR 10 DH
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Answer: .
ADP
1. These ATP molecules can be recycled after every reactjon. ..'
the energy
ATP molecule provides energy tor both the exergonic arid endergonic
processes. The conversion of ATP to'ADP yields about 7.3 kcal/mol of energy: This is
ATP serves as an extracellular signalling molecule and cts as a neurotransmitter SOurce. in a variety of biological processes occurring in both plants and animals
dS
(i) Store small
in toth centrai and peripheral nervous systems. Justification for. the term energy currency' for ATP can be given as
its. wastage. (i1) Can make
4. It is the only energy. ivhich can be directly used for, different metabolic process. packets of energy.as sõon as it is available. thu, minimising
is produced. (iii)
Other forras of chemical energy need to be converted into ATP before they can energy ayailable to a.distant location in.cell away from where;the site it
large amount :of energy
in
e used. Cán carry out: heayy. work/activity by, continuously upplying

5 t plays an important role in the Mctabolism+ A life-sustaining chemical through its accumulation at one place.
reactions including cellular division, fermentation,
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot photosynthesis, [MODEL QUESTION]
(M
18. Do
photophosphorylation, aerdbic. respiration, protein synthesis, exocytoSI5, plants breathe?
endocytosis and motility. : Answer:
to occur and they also give out CO2. Hence, plants have
.Plants:.require O2.for respiration
16. Why ATP is ensure the. availability of O2. Plants. unlike animals, have no
called energy currency.of the cell?
[MODEL QUESTION] systems in place that
stomata and lenticels. for this
Answer: . specialisd organs for gaseous exchange but they: have respiratory. organs.
All'activities inside a living cell need energy purpose. There are several reasons why plants can get along without
ot
which is aväilable in little

immediate source. nce, ATP.is, described as, the form of ATP as plant part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs. There is very
"The Energy Currency of tne First each gases not present great
When energy in form of ATP used,
is the ATP is converted transport of from one plant part to another. Second. plants do. animals
to ADP and again when n Roots, stems and, leaves respire at rates far lower than
lB
energy is available by further breakdown

of glucose, the ADP is reconverted demands for gas exchange. gases exchanged and, each leaf is
so it goes on. One mole of to AI*and Only' during photosynthesis are. large volumes ot
Thus. ATP provides energy
on
glucose complete oxidation yields
38 molëcules of
do. -care of} its owh needs during these. periods. When cells
whenever,WDerever
and howeverit Al well: adapted to take a problem in these cells since O2 is releasedis
photosynthesise, availability of O2 is not
.
is.needed.
17. Explain the term "energy Third, the distance that gases must ditfuse even in large. bulky plants
currency? within the cell.
ia
plant. This.
in plants.and animals? Which substance rrency
acts as energy cuONi not great. Each living cell in a plant is located. quite close to the surface of thé
Answer: MODEL QUESTION leaves'. you may ask, "but what about thick, woody stems and roots?' In stems:
The term energy currency
is true for
layers inside and beneath the bark. They also have
the living' cells are organised in thin
er
reiers to tnat molecule are dead and provide only mèchanical.

2ctivities, whenever sequired.
AlF IS
which provides.energy:
10r openings called lenticels. The cells in the nterior
preseit the form of high energy emed as energy currency because s a part of their surface in contact with air.
Support. Thus. most cells of a plant have at leastof parenchyma
bonds of ATR the are cells in leaves. stems and
GTP. CT? LTRetc. other energy yiclding molecules This is, also facilitated by.the loose packing
at
roots: which provide an interconnected network ot air spaces. The complete combustion
and H20 as end products. yields.energy mast of whiçh
is
of glucose, which produces c02
M
BIven out as hea.
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+oll.0+Energy Hexokinase
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Step 1:
6CO, to utilise it to
synthesise
CHO. +60,usetul to the cell, t should be able a
l
cell uses
usesis
is to catabolige
to be strategy that the plant
this energy is rquires. The goes óut IC-OI1
lf energy IC-O
Ed
molecules thx the cell thau nvtall the [iberated The
ke
sueh a way ènabling Some
enabling
glucose molerule in several smail steps steps
t hexokinase
step but im
to onidise glucose nat in one released can be coupled to ATP
H OH du Mg
Is
Just large eneugh such that the
the
enerE
story of respiration. During the process ofs OH O OH
essentially. energy are released as OH

this is done is. dioXIde. water and
pe
0xygen is utilised,
and carbon
some cells inve Where
oxygen may or Glucose
Glucose-6- phosphate.
oNygen But
comoustion reaction requires (and organisms) where O2 is not r availabe phosphate group
think of such situations
be availabie. Can you Iirst cells on this planet liv
lived in
believe that the
ca
There are suficient reasons ta knou
among present-aay. Iiving organisms, we
atmespher that lacked oxygen. Even are faculha -P-U
Some OT tnese organisms
severai that are adapted to anaerobic conditions.
is obligate. In
anaerobes. while in others the requirement for anaerobic condition
dS
The first step in glycolysis is the conversion of D-glucose into glucose-6-phosphate. The
case. all-iving organisms retain the enzymatic machinery to partially: oxidise gluu enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is hexokinase.
without the help of Oxygen. This, breakdown of glucose to. pyruvic acid. is cale
glycolysis.. Details:
Here, the glucose ring is phosphorylated. Phosphorylation is the process of adding a
in
phosphate group to a molecule derived from ATP. As a result, at this point in glycolysis,
.
19. What is glycolysis? Describe the different stages of glycolysis.

*
[MODELQUESTION molecule of ATP has been consumed.

Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot The reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyine that catalyzes the
(M
Answer:
phosphorylation of many six-membered glucose-like ring structures. Atomic magnesium
The term glycolysis has originated from the Greek words, glycos for sugar, and iysis e
is also involved to help shield the negative charges from the phosphate groups on
spliting. The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustay Embden, Otto Meyerhot, an
Parnas. and is often referred to as
, (Mg)
the ATP molecule. The result of this plhosphorylation is a molecule called
glucose-6-
the EMP påthway. In anaerobic organisms, the
only process in respirarion. Glycolysis occurs. in the cytoplasm l phosphate (G6P). thusly called because the 6 carbon of the glucose acquires
of the cell and is l phosphate group.
ot
in all living organisms. In this process, glucose

undergoes partial oxidation
molecules of pyruvic acid. In plants,
this glucose is derived
t0 is te Step 2: Phosphoglucoselsomerase
end product of photosynthesis, from sucrose, W ich
or from storage carbohydrates.
Sucrose. 1s.CO verted i
lB
glucose and fructose by

the enzyme, invertase, and reao
these two monosaccna HCO
enter the gycolytic pathway.
Glucose and fructose
phosphorylated
o- H HC-OH
glucose-6- phosphate are to H
O
enzyme hexokinase. This pnorl
by the activity of the
fom of glucose then isomerises
metabolism to produce fructose-6- ees OH /oH Phosphoglucose isomeras
OH
ia
of glucose and fructose are: same.

under the control of
phosphate. SuDscreaci . 132
OH
4T
different enzymes, takes
In glycolysis,
a
chain oracose.
place to produce pyruvate
OH
luc Glucose-6 Fructose-6

er
iro phosphate phosphale
6-phosphate (G6P) into

The seconid reactionof glycolysis IS the rearrangement of glucose
piospnare isomerase (Phosphoglucoselsomerase).
at
fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by Blucose

Details glucose-6-phosphate to
invoives tne conversion of
The second step of glycolysis
M
With the help of the enzyme

fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). Ihis reacOn occurS
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enzyme
suggests
ests, this BIOLOGY
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phosphoglucoseisomerase (Pl). As the reacti
reaction. Step 4: Aldólase
involves an isomerization carbon-oxygen bond to transfn.
rearrangement of the
The reaction involves the
ring. To rearrangement takes place wlhe
Ed
membered ring into a five-membered PO-CH
HCOP
in such a way that the first carbon bencomesnoa
membered ring opens and then closes
HOH
external to the ring. OH
Fructose-1,6 /
bisphosphate H
pe
OH
Step 3: Phosphofructokinase
.
Aldolase
A
Glyceraldehyde-3.
OH -CH HC-O Dihydroxyacetone
ca phosphate (DHAP). phosphate (GAP)
H
OH Mg ot OH H A
dS
HC-0
OH H
+AD+ H C:0 HCOH
Fructose-6 H
HO-CH HG-OR
phosphate
Fructose-l,0-
in
bisphosphate .
H
Phosphofructokinase, with magnesium

fructose .6-bisphosphate. as a cofactor, changes fructose 6-phosphaie
l Iriosphosphate

(M
ISomerase (TIM)
Details:
In the third step of glycolysis,
bisphosphate (FBP). Similar fructose-6-phosphate
is converted to fructose e enzyme Aldolase splits fructose.1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of
(DHAP) and
molecule of ATP provides
to the reaction that occurs
in step 1 of glycolysIS, a seco ch other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetonephosphate
the phosphate group that yceraldehýde 3-phosphate (GAP).
The enzyme that catalyzes is added on to the
this reaction is phosphofructokinase F6P moieeu
ot
magnesium atom is step l etails: cleavage. of FBP to yield two

involved to help shield (PFK). AS I ** This step utilizes the enzyme.aldolase, which catalyzes the
negative charges. is called lyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP)
carbon molecules. One of these moleçulesphosphate (DHAP).
nd the other is called dihydroxyacetone
lB
Step 5: Triosephosphateisomerase Glyceraldehyde-3-

Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP)
phosphate (GAP)
ia
-O CO
HCOH
er
HO-CH HO
H.
at
Triosphosphate
ISomerase(TIM)
nter converts the molecules

M
triosephosphateisomerase dpdy
The enzyme gyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHA Useand in next step of Glycolysis.
removed/
lyceraldehyde phosphate is
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BIOLOCY
Details: in the glycolytic ;ut.first
that continues iriosephosphat of molecule of AlP. Since we
GAP is the only molecule acted on by' the enzyine (hecausé there were two actually have two
molecules of 1,3bisphoglycerate
molecules produced are further can continue in glycol
lysis. 3-carbon products from
DHAP G:AP so it
A Synthesize two molecules of ATP stage I
DtHAP into of glycolysis). we actually
Ed
). which reorganizes the 3-carbon molccules, ave not
but have
yet fu cancelled the'first two molecules
at this step. With this
synthesis of ATP, we have
in the glycolytic pathway.
we have two of ATP that we used, leaving
Ont molecules up 1o this stage of glycolysis. us with a net of 0 ATP
Converted glucose into pyruvate.
Again, we see tnat an atom, of magnesium is
Dehydrogenase involved to shield the negative charges
Step 6: Glyceraldchyde--phosphate the phosphate groups of the ATP molecule. on
pe
Gheeraldehyue 1,3-bisphoglycerate
phsphate (iAP) Step 8: PhosphoglycerateMutase
3phosphoglycerate
ca
2 phosphoglycerate
HC-OH +NAD+ HC-O CFO

dS
GAPDII HC-O TIGOl
H HGOB phsophoglycerate
iICO
H
+NADH +1 mulase
C-OH
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) dehydrogenates
and adds The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P. from
in
inoryganic phosphate to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, 3- phosphoglycerate from the

producing 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate 3rd carbon to the 2nd carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate.
Details:
In this step. two main Details:
events take place: 1) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized
(M
coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide by th This step involves a Simple rearrangement of the position of the phosphate group on the
(NAD); 2) the molecule is phosphorylated phosphoglycerate molecule, making it 2 phosphoglycerate. The molecule responsible for
by the addition of a free phosphate
group. The enzyme that catalyzes catalyzing this reaction is called phosphoglyceratemutase (PGM). A mutase is an enzyme
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase this reaction is
(GAPDH). that catalyzes the transfer of.a fünctional group from one position on a molecule too
The enzyme GAPDH contains
appropriate structures and holds another.
conformation such that it allows
the NAD molecule to pull
the molecule in a
converting the NAD to NADH. a hydrogen off the GAP, .The reaction mechanism proceeds by first adding an additional phosplhate group to the 2
ot
The phosphate group position of the 3 phosphoglycerate. The enzyme then removes the phosphate from the 3'
releases it from the enzyme then attacks the GAP molecule and
to yield 1,3bisphoglycerate, position leaving just the 2" phosphate, and thus yielding 2 phsophoglycerate, In this way,
NADH, and a hydrogen atom.
Step 7: Phosphoglycerate the enzyme is also restored to its original, phosphorylated state.
lB
Kinase
1.3-bisphoglycerate
3
Step 9: Enolase
phosphoglycerate
o 2-Phosphogiycerate Phosphoenolpyruvate *
ia
HG--OH PGK
ADP
H OD MgHC-Ol +ATP
0
u-O Enclose
er
H
C-OP COP + HO
Phosphoglycerate kinase IIC-OU TIC.
(water)
ADP to torm ATP transfers a phosphate

and 3-phosphog)ycerate. group from 1,3-bisphosphogiyca
at
Details: H
In this step. :The enzyme enolae removes a, molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to
1.3bisphoglycerate form
phosphoglycerate is converted phosphoenolpyruvicaçid (PEP).
M
kinase (PUK). This to 3-phosphoglycerate enzyme Details:

from the starting reaction involves by arou
material. he phosphate This step involves the conversion or phosphogiycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
is transferred the loss of a phospi vjeld The. reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme enolase. Enolase works by renmoving a water
to a molecule of
BIO-134 AD ua BIO-135.
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POPULAR PUBLICATINS
specilicny, O the cn7
1zyme
uc
The cova POci
phosphoglycer.ate. or ne cycie. are a series
the 2 STeps too
COnpicatcd oto cover here. he eight steps of redox, dehydration, hydration, and
Tup. or.iby ovcur through a serics
oI ecarboxylation reactIons nat produce two carbon dioxide molecules.
one GTP/ATP. and
for tie vaction ed
to forms of NADH and FADH2. This is considered an
oS reduc aerobic pathway because the
Ed
JADH and FADH2 produced must transfer their electrons
NA to the next pathway in the
Step 10: Pyruvate Kinase Pyruvate cVstem, which will use oxygen. tt this transfer does not occur,
the oxidation steps of the
F'nesphvenlps ruv ate itric acid cycle also do not occur. Note that the citric acid cycle produces very little A
directly and does not directly consume oxygen.
C-
pe
CE0 ,+ADP . CoA
COO
ADI *
piruvate kinas CH-CS CH
ca
HCL
CO0
HO=CCOO
Acetyi CoA
dS
The enzyme pyTuvate kinase transfers aP from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to AD
COO COo
ienn pyruvit acid and ATP Result in tep 10. COO C0
SH-C.
HO-CIl NADHH1 c| u-
HC-coO
Details:
.
in
Oxaloacetate Citrate
The iinai stepof glyeolysis converts phosphoenolpyruvate ino þyruvat with the helpof NAD HO-CH
e enzye pYTU ate kiase. As the enzyme's name suggests, this reaction involves the ,
COO COO

trans?er er a phosphate group. The phosphate group attached to, the 2' carborn of the PEP
(M
Isocitrate
S
NAD
trans teed to a molecule of ADP, yielding ATP. Again, since there are two molecules Malate
of PEP. rere we actually generate 2 ATP molecules. NADHH
Steps i an<3 =-2ATP COO CO:
Steps 7 and i0 = 4 ATP
-
Net visible" ATP produced= 2. . CO0

a-Kefoglutarate,
ot
Lmimediateiy upon finishing glycolysis, the Fumarate NAD

cell must continu .respiration in ether an SH-CoA
aerobic or anaerobic direction; this choice is
made bäsed on the circumstances of e
particuiar celt. A cell that can perförm aerobic respirátion
FADH:
C NADHH .
CH2
lB
CO
and which finds itself in tne
presence of oxygen will continue on
It a cell able to perioFm aerobic
to the aerobic citric acid cycle. in
the mitochond
9FAD ccin:
7
Succinyl CoA
COO
respiration is in a situation QH P
no O COO
under extreme exertion), it will move where there is,
.
(such as muscles G GDP
respiratiorn called homolactic into a type ot .anae obIe SH-CoA
CH:
fermentation. Some cells
yeast
ia
out aerobK respiration such as are unable'to

and will automatically move
called atcoholic fermentation. a
into type of anaerobic resp* CH:
.CH
er
20. What is Citric Acid

Answer:
Cycle?.
[MODEL QUESTION coo
Tricarboxy iic Atid Cycle or
at
Like the conversion o

Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle, 41. Define Citric Acid Cycle. Explain all the steps of Citric Acid Cycle.
pynuvate to acetyl CoA, [MODEL QUESTION
matnx ot the mitocnondria. the citric acid.cycle
Aimost all of the enzymes tákes pla ble
Answer:
M
With the singie of the citríc

exception or ne enzyme sucçinate acid cycle arcAed 'Ihe cycle:.ln the citric acid cycle. the acetyl group from acètyl CoA is attached
the inner membrane of dehydrogenase, whichisis enbedded i The acid eyc
citric acid
molecule. Through a
closed loop: the last partthe mitochondrion. Unlike emois
cycle 15 tour-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a siX-carbon citrate
0 to a tour-carbo
ot thne paunway e glycolysis,
gycolysis,
regenerates the compound
the citric acid
citric acia te
s BIO-137
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Carbon dhoNide BIOLOGY
Nmolecules re reduced
tvWO
oxidizal, releasing
uc
steps. citrate is three NADt (clependinu
o
NADII
9What are the Products of the Citric Acid Cycle?
eries of the prcess, or (ilP
SrOup fed into the sycle. In
ndured to
F:ADI:, nd one Al Because he final pro. e
roduct Answer:
A
[MODEL QUESTION
OnetAd molarule is substr.ate-level phosplhory lation). continuQusty in the presence ofth arbon
cal atoms come into the citric acid cycle from
Ed
pe) Is produrnd
iby
reaetnt, tlhe eycle runs
nr Car out of the six carbons ot one glucose molecule. Twoeach acetyl group, representig
carbon dioxide molecules are
is also the tirst
Cric cdi cyele ased on each turn of the cycle; however, these do
not necessarily contain the most
suflicient eactants. recently-added carbon atoms. The two acetyl carbon
atoms will eventually be released on
Steps in the Citrie Acid Cycle step. combining
thg-(Wo-carbon acetv
is a condensation later turns of the cycle, thus, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule are
Step : The tirst step oxaloacetate molecle to form a siv0p eventually incorporated into carbon dioxide. Each turm of the cycle forms three NADH
pe
four-carbon
(trom acetyl CoA) with a sulfhydryl.group (-SH) and diffuses 0 molecules and one FADH2 molecule. These carriers will connect with the last portion of
molecule of citrate. CoA is bound.to a
l inaith another acetyl group. This step s ireveIe Decause it i aerobic respiration to produceATP molecules. One GTP or ATP is also made in each
nighty esergonic The rate of this reáction is controlled by negave feedback and
tyele. Several of the inemediate compounds in the citrie acid cyele can be used in
amount of ATP available. If ATP
levels.increase; the rate of this reaction' decrease
ATP is in short supply. tke rate increases.
Step2: Citrate luses one water molecule and gains another
ses.
as Ciurate is.converted into ca

synthesizing non-essential amino acids; therefore, the cycle is amphibolic (both catabolic
and anabolic).
Breakdown of Pyruvate
dS
After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted into acety! CoA in order to enter the citric acid
ISOmer. iSOLUrate.
a. cycle.
Steps and 4: In step three. isocitrate is oxidized, producing a five-carbon moleule.
ketogiutarate. together with a molecule of CO; and two clectronis, which reduce NAD+1 [MODEL QUESTION]
hua 23. Define Photosynthesis.
NADH. his step is also regulated by negative feedback from ATP and NADH and
in
FOsitive efect of ADP. Steps three and four are both oxidaion and dearboxylation steps,
Answer:
Photosynthesis is' a process used by plants in which energy from sunlight is used to
which release electrons that reduce NAD to NADH ánd, release carboxyl groups tha
convert carbon dioxide and water into molecules needed for growth. These molecules
(M
form CO: molecules. a-Ketoglutarate is the product of step

ud
the product of step four. CoA binds the. succinyl grup to form succinyl CoA. The
usuceny group 1s include sugars, enzymes and chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed by the green chemical
enzyme hat catalyzes step four is regulated by feedback inhibition of ATP, succinyl chlorophyll."
COA, and NADH. All animals and human beings are dependent on plants for food and thee plants
is
Step 5: A phosphatë group is substituted for. coenzyme A, synthesize the food via physio- chemical process called Photosynthesis. This process
and a high- ènergy bond 1s important because:
fomed. This energy is used in substrate-level phosphorylation
ot
(during the convérsion o source of food.

the succinyl group to succinate) to form either
guaniné triphosphate (GTP) or ATP. There t.is the primary atmosphere.
are two forms of the enzyme, called isoenzymes, :It results in the release of Oxygen in
for this step, depending upon the type o
animal tissue in which they are found. One [MODEL QUESTION]
lB
amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal

form is found in tissues that .use, larg 24. Where Photosynthesis does takes place?
muscle. This form produces ATP.
form of the enzyme is found in tissues The seco Answer: in chloroplast,
such as liver. This form produces GTP.
that have a high number of
anabolic. pathwayo Photosynthesis includes series of chemical reactions which are carried out
In these series of reaction, water
its use is more restricted. In particular,
GTP is energetically.equiválent to:
ATP; hoWEy i.e. The specialized structures found on cells of plants.
in this reaction energy from sunlight is
profin synthesis primarily uses GTP. and carbon dioxide áre converted into glucose and
ia
Step 6: Step six is a dehydration process requires input of energy.

hydrogen atoms are transferred to
process that converts
succinate into fumarate Two. used. Because, it is an endothermic reaction, the entire
as it includes loss of
Photosyinthesis is also classified as oxidation reduction reaction
-
FAD,
electrons of these atoms is insufticient producing FADH2. The energy containc dioxide.
D
electrons by water and gain of electrons by carbon
er
Unlike NADH. this carrier remains to reduce NAD' but adequate to reau FAD in Mesophyll Cells and the carbon dioxide
attached to the enzyme rons to The process of photosynthesis takes place
the electron transport chain and transfers the ele stomata, i.e. the small holes present on the
directly. This process
is made possible by the localiza o required by the process enters the process via
the enzym: catalyzing this process is transported via roots through
stepinside outer layer of leaves. The water required for the
at
Step 7: Water is added to,fumarate the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

during step seven, last the vascular tissues.
in image below) consisting of the
step in the citric acid
cycie regenerates oxaloacetateand malate is produceu other he chloroplast contains membranous system (shown
light energy
molecule of NADH is produced. by oxidizing malate stroma lamellae, grana and the fluid stroma. The membrane system traps the
M
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PUBLICATIONSS eagram slhovws th deeton
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POPULAR
N:ADPH.
Folowing
and Answer:
synthesizing ATP In Calvin Cycle, Carbon atoms irom CO2are fixed
in and are used to form three - Carbon
nd helps of'a sortion of chloroptast: Sugar. This process IS dependent on ATP and NADPH formed from light reactions.
Ed
Puter menmbrane
croraph light reaction is .carried out in thylakoid membrane while the Calvin Cycle
The
Inner membrane takes place in
stroma. The Calvin cycle can be described in three stages:
- Stromal lamela
Carboxylation- It is the fixation of CO% in stable organic intermediate. It is an
- important stage in Calvin Cycle where CO is utilized for carboxylation
pe
Grana.
of RuBP in the presence of enzyme RuBP carboxylase. It results, in the formation
of 2 molecules of 3-PGA. RuBP carboxylase also helps in oxygenation activity
Stroma and is therefore also referred as RuBP carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO).
ca
Ribosomes Reduction This stage includes series of reactions that result in the formation of
-
glucose. This step utilizes 2 molecules of ATP (for phosphorylation) and two
Starch granue molecules of NADPH (for reduction per COmolecule). The fixation of 6
dS
molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of cycle result in the removal of molecule of 1
-Lipid droplet glucose from pathway.

Regeneration- This stage includes. regeneration of CO2 acceptor molecule and
Photosynthetic Reactions? [MODELQUESTION
in
I
25. What are the Types of requires ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.
Answer: Following diagram represents the entire Calvin cycl, as discussed above in detail. The
Photesynthetic Reactions are of two types, i.e. cycle starts with carboxylation, followed by reduction and then, finally regeneration. The
(M
Light Dependent Reaction In these reactions, the energy from sunlight s

-
last stage includes regeneration of CO2 acceptor. molecule and requires 1 ATP for
absorbed by chlorophyll and transformed into chemical.energy. in the form phosphorylation to form RuBP:
of ATP and NADPH (electron carrier moleculè).
3CO%
Light Independent Reaction This reaction is also referred as Calvin Cyele. Ia
Carbon fixation
this reaction. the energized electron from light dependent reactions provides RuBisco
ot
energy to tom carbohydrates from CO% molecules. 3RuBP
26. Define Biosynthetic Phase.

IMODEL QUESTION) 3 ATP)
o00 '6 3-PGA
lB
Answer:
Biosyrithetic Phase is the process by
which carbon dioxide ADP)
and the process is termed as carbon is reduced to carbohydra
fixation; it makes use of the
produced in the light phase. This
process occurs in the
ATP and NA
help of series of enzyme-catalysed reactions. stroma of chloroplasts wiu the Regeneration
6AD
ia
27. How ATP and NADPH

6NADPH L Reduction
are used in Biosynthetic 6 NADP*}
Answer: Phase?[MODEL QUES N G3P are recycled
er
We are aware of the fact

that CO2 1s combined wer
very eager to find out with H;0to produce
how this reaction proceeded sugar. Scie t the GOes to make.glucose
use of radioisotope and just after
I4Cled to Second Worla
at
Carbon Organic Acid. Melvin the discovery that the first CO2
fixation produ
was 2What are the reactions involved in Calvin Cycle?. [MODEL QUESTION]
compiete biosynthetiC patnwayCalvin contributed in answering the Answer:
1s named as
Calvin Cycle. this and thercdud Reactions in Calvin Cycle
M
was PGA. i.e. 3-Phosphoglyeric Acid. The identifica

first wth reference to the above diagram, the reactions are divided in three different stages:
P
28. Describe the Calvin Cycle. Carbon' Fixation'"- A CO: molecule combines with 5 C acceptor molecule ànd
RuBP. This step makes 6 Carbon compound that, splits. into 2 molecules of 3
IMODELQUESTioN
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neaction is catalyzed by RuBp. rboxylase
uc
3PG:A. The Atmospheric CO;
Carbon compound and
o
Mesophyl
ONYgenase NADPH are convert cd
to 3 PGA cell Plasina
second stage. ATP and membrane
Reduction - At the and G3P lyceraldelhyde-j
a three carbon Sugar
Ed
molevules into molarules of
Cell wal
phosphate). make glucose whi.
3GP molecules go to HCO0 Phosphoenol
Regeneration - At the tinal stage. regene
regenerate RuBP acceptor. The process of
PYTuvate
eneration
may be exycled to
complex network of reactions.
pe
quires ATP along with
For exiting cycle. thee COmolecules enter the
cycle for exiting 3GP molecule .
Fixation
hi Kegeneration
provides three new atoms of tixed carbon. Entering .of 3CO2molecules, resule sults
molecules of RuBP acceptor. C4 acid C3 acid
ca
regeneration of
Plasmo-
30. Describe The Ca Pathway. [MODELQUESTION desma
Answer:
dS
Bundle
Plants that camy out Ce pathways comprise of specitic enzyme that are located in two shea
ditferent cell types. i.e. Mesophyll Cells and Bundle Sheath Cells. This pathway is the
-
method that is used by plants to convert atmospheric

carbon dioxide in chemical Transport Transport
in
compound containing four carbons. This pathway is

used by the plants in subtropical
areas such as Sugar Cane, Maize, Millet, Papyrus Fixation by
and Sorghum. These plants are special
and have several type of leaf anatomy, i.e. Calvin cycl
they can tolerate higher temperature and aso
co
(M
show response to high light intensity. ..

This pathway is cyclic in' nature. The
primary CO2 acceptor
PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate) and is. 3-Carbon Molecule Decarboxylation
is present in mesophyll cells.
carboxy lase is the enzyme
that is responsible for this PEPcase or r
the mesophyll cells do fixation. It is important to note
not have RuBisCO enzyme
cells. and C acid OAA is formea
ot
After this. 4- carbon compounds

cells which are then
like aspartic. acid
or malic acid are formed mes phyl 31. Define Photorespiration. [MODEL QUESTION)
transported to bundle
sheath cells, where C4 in Answer:
releaseCarbon Dioxide (CO:)
lB
and three carbon

acids arebrokensdown lo Photorespiratión is a biochemical process in plants in iwhich, especially under conditijons
transported back molecules. water stress, oxygen inhibits the Calvin cycle. the carbon fixation portion
to mesophyll cells where
the cycle. The CO2 released it gets converted
These 3 Carbon m0Eefine of of
These bundle sheath enters in bundle
sheath
in PEP, thereby C wa photosynthesis.
cells have surplus cells and thereby the Calv Photorespiration. results in light dependent uptake of Or and, release CO: and is of
(RibuloseBiphosphate isCO
- of associated' with metabolism and synthesis .of small molecule named glycolate. This
ia
diagram explais
Carboxylase Oxygenase) and an enzyme callea RuBi
the entire Ca pathway is deficient PEPcase. Followne
aeficient in PEPcase simultaneously takes place in green plants along with phofosynthesis. Its end
Processdecreases
as discussed
above: result the net amount of CO: and both photosynthesis and. photorespiration
er
Vorks opposjte to each other.
32. What happens in the energy payoff phase of glycolysis?, [MODEL QUESTION]
at
Answer:
additiona stéps and results in the.
The energy payoff phase of glycolysis consists ot ivepyruvate
tormation of.four ATP. two NADH H and two mólecules. Substrate level
M
phosphorylation is the process by whicn Al iS produced trom the transfer of a

phosphate group from a substrate molecuje in a metabolic pathway..
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Photoynthesis? BIOLOGY
of
influencing factors 34.What are the.Energy-yielding and energy-consuming reactions?
What are the
S.
Answer [MODEL QUESTION]
hese factors are both
Ed
Photusyntdesis photosynlnesis,. I
Answer:.
Factors affectiig
fiartors that attit
ths ale o The work of biological growth depends on the. transfer
here are several tactvrs: tactors are no limitin
of energy from catabolic
(yielding) to anabolic. (consumhg) reactions, Classically, the two reactions
ntertnal ad eteriai and other ng
cardn dianide. light temperature. The mos have .been
depicted to be connected by ATP, in the sense that the energy'released by, for example,
.Teaper:urr W'heninsrases
-
with the rise n

pretsy nthesis rate results, in inactiva the glycolytic breakdown of sugars is conserved in,the form of ATP, which then provides
High temperature
pe
ange of temperature is &C-3*C. enzy mnatically controlled dark reactions. the enérgy. necessary for the biosynthesis of cell material.; It is now clear that most
enzyms and thereby starts limiting fäctor 'and its organisms, including anaerobes, can conserve.energy, in the form of a transmembrane
Conventration- lt is themajor., electrochemical gradrent'of protons, or protonmotive force. However, the protonmotive
Carcon Dionide :0.04%. Increase in
atnmosphre. i.e. 0.03
ca
conentrativn is ver low in force drives few biosynthetic processes directly, 'and the trànsfer of energý from the
increás in fixation rate of CO. Added to this. the
concentration to 0.05*3 causes protónmotiye force. to ATP via a membrane-bound reversible: ATPase is a vital link
concentration of carbon dioxide. "The
C: and Ca piatts diferentty respond to the between catabolic.änd anabolic reactions.
by showing-increased rate
dS
fact that C: piants raspond to higher CO; concentration
of pketosyatasis leading to higher: productivity. has beenused forsome 35. What are energy yields? [MODEL QUESTION]
greerkouse craps ike bel pepper and tomatoes.Such plants are allowed Answer: energy.
to
grow in C0: 2nriched environment that leads ta higher yields. net

The energy yield refers to. the amount of energy that.is gained from harvesting
in
3. Light -The ighi varies as per quality, diration and intensity and has significant an source; This yield is the.: total amount of energy gaiñed from harvesting the
umpact en te rate oi photosynthesis. For instance, there is a linear relationship. Source after deducting the amount of energy that was spent.to harvest it.

(M
berween iacident ight and CO fixation at low-light irntensities. Added to this,

36. is the What relationship between free energy and metabolism?
e
increase in. incident light beyond point causes breakdown
of IMODEL chlorophyll and QUESTION]
decrease in photosynthesis: Answer:
Oxygen O:gen inhibits photesynthesis in Ci plants but Ca plants show lite Free energy is energy that is availablë to do' cellular work
effect. This is so because Caplants carry'out photorespiration and high oxygen
Entropy (S), and free energy (G) are relatd inversely. G=H-TS, where G=free
stimutates it The rate of photosynthesis increases. energy, H = enthalpý of the system, T is the absolute temperature expressed in degrees
ot
with, the, reduction

concentretion of oxygen.
Kelvin, and S js entropy. Free energy. decreases during an exergonie reaction.
Water lt is an essentia raw material
for the assimilation of carbon. Le2 than
one percent of absorbed water is utilized 7 What is metabolic energy? [MODEL QUESTION]
lB
water content in soil decreases the

in photosynthesis.
The decrea 37.
ate of photošynthesis as well. T
nisal Answer: from nutrients. Metabolism

because it results in dehydration
of protoplasm and also results Energy metabolism is.the process of generating energy (ATP)
çan function in the presence or
closure. Added to this, ít impairs
enzymatic efficiency, in state
lo omprises a series of interconnected, pathways that
inhibits respiration, etc. "ac eiiciency, affects its colloidal coo converts one glucose molecule into 30-32 ATP
abserice of oxygen. Aerobic metabolism
ia
6. Mineral
elemenS-These are also essential molecules.
includes Cu. Ci. Mg. Fe, P fo. the growth of plants and ofit
and these are closely
related with the proSS
type of energy are high net energy yield? [MODEL QUESTIONI
er
photosynthesis. S8. What

7. Air.poliutants Answer:
Metallicand gaseous polutants energy available from a resource after the
pollutants include SO2,
oxidants, ozoneand reduce photosyntne. Net energy is the amount of high-quality usable
.
is subtraced.
energy neded to make it available
at
8. Chemical compounds- hydrogen fluorides. amoünt of

quantity but even the
Although, chemical.compounds
arc present
es [MODEL QUESTION]
the rate of photosyi"es, How energy is extracted from glucose?.
smali quantity depresses On
contrary, increase in thè presence
M
Thus, there are several factors of chemical

compound results in dy f cel5 la
that affect the rate clude
inclu
content ofchlorophyi. proxopiasmiç of photosynthesis.
factor, accumulation Other faclo
of carbohydrates,
et. BIO-145
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converted nto energy
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energy in loOd is
Answer: eellular
respiratin, the
respiration. glucose. and au are charge. In addition to direct
BIOLOGY
nrough the processthe of During cellular
by body's cells. energy is trans ferred to ATp *S€n AMP-activated protein regulation
of several enzymes by adenyl
at can be used waten and the kinase known as nucleotides, an
Ed
Converted into carbon
dionide and key enzymes when the energy charge AMP-K phosphorylates and thereby regulates
decreases. This
during the energy yielding. Dha.
pase pathways while swilching on catabolic results in switching
of anabolic
ofenergy are released of
[MODELQUESTIONI pathways when AMP
40. What forms Life depends on an adequate energy charge. ATP increases.
glycolysis? to maintain an adequate energy If synthesis is momentarily insufticient
r
.
charge, AMP can be converted
Answer: pyruvate. molecules: Glycolysis, to hypOxanthine and ribose-5P, followed by two different pathways
pe
2 NADH. and 2 by irreversible oxidation
Glyeolysis produces 2 ATP. energy in the form of ATP
NA acid. This helps to buffer the of hypoxanthine to uric
glucose, produces adenylate energy
aerobie catabolie breakdown of to produce more energy. {ATP+ADP+AMP} concentration. charge by decreasing the total
and py ruvate. which itself enters
the citric acid cycle
41. What do you understand by energy charge

in biological system?
[MODEL QUESTION]
ca
dS
Answer: .
energy staus of biological cells.
Ihe eneryY charge is an index used to measure the
ATP or ig-ATP is the principal molecule for storing and transferring energý in the cell:
it is used for biosynthetic pathways, maintenance of trans-membrane gradients,
in
movement. cell division. etc. More than 90% of the ATP is pfoduced by phosphorylation
of ADP by. the ATP synthase. ATP can also be produced by "substrate level
phosphorylation" reactions (ADP phosphorylation by (1, 3)-bisphosphoglycerate,
(M
phosphoenolpyruvate, phosphocreatine), by. the succinate-CoA igas and

phosphoenolpyruvatecarboxylkinase. and by adenylate kinase, an enzyme, that maintains
the three adenine nucleotides in equilibrium (ATP + AMP
2ADP).
The energY charge is related to ATP, ADP and AMP concentrations. was
It first detineu
by Atkinson and Walton who found
that it was necessary to
take into account u
ot
concentration of all three nucleotides, rather than just

ATP and ADP, to account 1or ie
energy status in metabolism. Since the adenylate
kinase maintains two ADP Imolecu
equilibrium with one ATP (2ADP
lB
ATP+AMP ), Atkinson defined the adenyia

energy charge as:
ATP)+[4DP]
Energy Charge =
[ATP]+{AMP]+[ADP|{ATP}
ia
The energy charge of most cells varies

between 0.7 and 0.95-oscillations
quite frequent. Daniel Atkinson showed in this raua6
that when the energy charge
er
to 1.0. the citrate lyase and phosphoribosyl increases enzymee

controlling anabolic (ATP-demánding) pyrophosphate
pathways synthetase,' two the
phosphofructokinase are activated, whilenirolling
and pyruvate dehydrogenase,
at
amphiboiic pathways (supplying he two enzymes

ATP as coiale
are inhibited. He concluded that control ofwell importarit biosynthetic
as
energy charge within rather narrow these pathways
has evolved to ma
interin he
M
limits in other
-
words, that
ik
the pi of a cell, must be bueredat energy chargnabolic
all times. We now know that the
and catabolic pathways are Haeed
controled, directly and most if not
indirectly, by tne
an energ
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Answer: (d)
3.. An outbreak of sepsis

caused by Staphylococcus
Ed
newborn nursery. You are aureus has occurred in
Chapter at a Glance. of the normal flora, what iscalled upon to investigate. According to your the
being unicellular (single the most likely source of knowledge
those the organism?
study ot mierewrganisnis MCrOb{OlORY Cncompasses numero erous a) Nose
Microbiology is the (lacking vells). b) Colon [MODEL QUESTION]
wlony). or aceliular c) Hand
E.ulticellular (vell vinelogy. parasitologs. my vlogy ang bactertology Answer: (d) d) Throat
pe
ubdisciplines including membrane-bound cell organelles and
possess
Eukaryotic mierrgamsms or wnicn are mcroorganisms-are 4. Each of the following
wheneas prkary otic onganisms-al organisms is an important
neiude fungt and protists. membrane-bound organelles and except: cause of urinary tract infections
conventivnally classtied acking
traditionally relied on Culture, staining, and a) Klebsiellapneumoniae [MODEL QUESTIONI
ca
incfude Bateria and Arhaea. AMienvdbiologists b) Escherichia coli
common environments can c) Bacteriodesfragilis
micruscop. However. less than
1
of the mienoorganisms present in d) Proteus mirabilis
e cuitured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely molecular biology tools
on Answer: (d)
TRNA gene seqyuence used for
such as DNA sequenc basad idenification. tor example 16s
dS
bacteria identitication. 5. A 30 year old woman has non-bloody diarrhea
of the following organisms is for the past 14
Viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very
least likely to cause this illness? hours. Which one
simple microorganisms or ver complex molecules. Prions, neyer considered as microorganisms,
have been investigatei by virelogists, however, as the clinical effects -traced to them were a) Streptococcus pyogens [MODEL QUESTION].
in
b) Clostridium difficile
originally presumed due to chronic viral infections, and virologists took
search-discovering c) Shigelladysenteriae d) Salmonella enteritidis
"infectious preteins Answer: (d)
The existence of micreorganisms was predicted many centuries

(M
before they were first observed,

tor example by the Jars in [ndía and by Marcus 6. Each of
Terentius Varro in ancient Rome. The first the following agents is a recognized cause of
recorded microscope observation was of the fruiting bodies diarrhea except
of moulds, by Robert Hooke in 1666,
but the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher
was Ilikely the first to see microbes, a) Clostridium perfringens [MODEL QUESTION]
observing in milk and putrid material in 1658. which he mentioned b) Vibrio cholera
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is c) Enterococcus faecalis
microbiology as he observed and considered a father of d) Escherichia coli
simple microscopes of his own
experimented with microscopic
organisms in 1676, using Answer: (d)
ot
design. Scientfic microbiology developed

through the work of Louis Pasteur in the.19th century
and in medical microbiology Robért 7. Each of. the following statements
Koch. about the classification
correct except of streptococci is
Multiple [MODEL QUSTION
lB
Choice Type Questions. a) Pneumococci (Streptococcus

pneumoniae) are
: serotyped on the. basis of their alpha-hemolytic and can be
1. The identification of bacteria polysaccharide capsule
by.serologic tests is based b) Enterococci are group D streptococci
specific antigens. Which of on the presence o and can be classified by their ability
the following bacterial grow 6.5% sodium chloride to.
contain useful antigens? components is least likely c) Viridans streptococci are identified by
Lancefield grouping, which is
ia
a) Capsule on the based

c) Flagella
[MODELQUESTIONI
b) Cell wal
Ccarbohydrate in the cell wall
Answer: (d) d) Ribosomes d) Although pneumococci and the
viridans streptococci are alpha-hemolytic,
er
they can be differentiated by the bile

2. Each of the following solubility test and their susceptibility
statements to optochin
concerning the Gram Answer: (d)
stain is correct excep
at
a) Escherichia coli stains

b) Streptococcus pyogens
pink because it has a [MODEL QUESTIONJ 8. Which of the, following bacteria has
ayer stains blue becausethin peptidoglycan layer the lowest,50% infective
dose (ID50)?
it has a thick peptidoglyca
M
c) Mycoplasma pneumoniae :
a) Campylobacter jejuni, [MODEL QUESTION]
is not visible in
the Gram's b) Salmonella typhi
not have a cell wall C) Vibrio cholera "
d) Shigellasonnei
7
d) Mycobacterium stain because it do

tuberculosis stains blue
because it has
a thick lipid layer BIO-149
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Answer:
Answer: (d) Some living organisms are
by serologic means?
unicellular which means that
This means that, this single, they only consist of one celi.
disease is best diagnosed
Ed
9. Which of the following [MODEL QUESTION cell will be able to
living organism. Euglena has chloroplasts show all the characteristics
b) Gonorrhea
.
features include flagellum (for movement), which is typical of a plant. Typical

of a.
a) Pulmonary tuberculosis lack of cell wall.
animal
d) Q Fever
c) Actinomycosis
Answer: (d 6. Which single celled organism has Pseudopodia?
MODEL QUESTIONJ
pe
[MODEL QUESTIONJ
Ånswer::
10. The cogulase test is used to differentiate An amoeba, sometimes written as "ameba",
is a term generally used to describe
a) staphylococcus epidermidis from Neisseria meningitides celled eukaryotic organism that has no definate a single
shape and, that move by means
Staphyiococcus aureus from Staphylococcus epidermidis of pseudopodia. Pseudopodia or pseudopods are temporary
"
ca
c) Streptococcus pyogens from Staphylococcus aureus the word literally means "false feet" projections of the cell and
d) Streptococcus pyogens from Enterococcus faecalis
Answer: (d) 7. What are the similarities and differences
between unicellular and multi cellular
dS
organism?
& Long Answer Type Questions [MODEL QUESTION
Short Answer:
Similarities:
1. What is in a single celled organism? [MODEL QUESTION] One important distinction here
is whether we're. talking about
in
Answer; organisms without a complex cell structure, and/or eukaryotes, prokaryotes,i.e.

A unicellular organism. also known as a single-celled organism,,is an organism thar nuclei and other structures. This would significantly affect organisms that have
consists of only one cell, unlike a multicellular organism the comparison.
that consists of more than one However, generally speaking, we can say that unicellular and multicellulár organisms
(M
cell :are alike in that they exhibit all the functions

of life, such as a metabölism and
reproduction, they contain DNA and RNA, they cani
exhibit a
and they are essential to almost every ecosystem that we currentlywid
2. What was the first single celled organism? range of lifestyles,
[MODEL QUESTIONJ know of.
Answer:
The first living thing on Earth, single-celled
a cell nucleus or cell membrane known as
micro-organisms or microbes
1ac5 Diferences:
ot
prokaryotes, seem to have Unicellular organisms can reproduce faster and in greater
Earth almost four bilion yeàrs ago, just first appeareu numbers. are
of the Earth itself.
a few huindred million years
after the formauo
also capable of actually sharing DNA, between living individuals, whichSome ofthem
is impossible for
more complex life withoit technological intervention.
lB
3. What are 3 examples of unicellular

Multicellularrorg are almos lways larger.
organisms? [MODEL QUESTIONJ Unicellular organišms are more commonly found. in extreme environments;
Answer: the
Examples of unicellular organisms:
archaea, the third domain of life; counts among its members a number of "extremophiles"
Bacteria (E.coli, Nitrospirae,Sireptobacilliu. Single-celled organisms that thrive in environiments or exireme heat, cidity, salinity,
etc.
ia
(photosynthetic algae), BrewerS 'itlomycetes, etc) Diatoms

Yeast, Amoeba, .°. Multicellular organisms typically experience severe stress or.death if a certain
Slime molds, etc. A unícellular organism 15 l'ai.ecium, Euglena, Phytoplan on,
one where a number of cells die or are separated trom tne group; unicellular organisms have no
has a complete set of its species DNA. single cell is the individual ana
er
. comparable problem.
Multicellular organisms require more 1ood ana iiving space and typically occupy a
4. What is the largest single celled organism? higher link in the food web.
Answer: Biologists used the wOrid's [MODEL QUESTION
at
largest single-celled organism,

called Caulerpa taxifolia, to study the nature
a
Multicellular organisms may be better equipped to survive harmful DNA mutation
of structure and form an aquatic due to redundancy in other clls, but thney, are aisO at risk ot cancer and. other
related
cell that can grow toa length of six to twelve inches. in plants,
plants. It is asin uses tliat have no comparison in the unicenular organism.
M
5. What are characteristics of unicellular organisms7

MODEL QUESTION BIO-151
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[MODEL QUESTION
BIOLOGY
species concopt. Running a Fever
8.What is the bacterial concept posits tUan a Dactcrial
specics i Fluid Drainage*
Ed
Answer: bacterial species organinms that show a
einerging phylo-phenetic Continual or Increased Pain
nc genomically coherent cluster of
indivIdUal
cmracleristics, and isS Redness and Swelling.
**
*
a monophyletic and similarity with respect to many imdependent

high deyree of overall Hot Incision' Site.
phenutypie prpeny
diagnosable by a discriminative
.
[MODEL QUESTION 14. Describe the sSification
pe
classification of Microorganisms?. Give their :identification
9. What is strain?
'
Teatures.
Answer:
. *
[MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:, *is
agenetic variant or. subtype of
amicroorganiSm, that. Is to say..
A strain form of Microorganisins or microbes are microscopic.
a "tu strain" Is a certan biological
ca
bacterium or fungus. For example: organisms that .exist as unicellular,
a virus or multicellular, or cell clusters. Microorganims are widespread
or "tdu" virus. Properly speaking Bacteria, Archaea and viruses do not in.nature.and are beneficial.
the intluenza to lifë, but isome can.cause .serious harm. They can be divided
eukaryote-type sexual reproduction. Baçteria do into ix major types
have species. because they do not have bacteria, archaea,.fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
exchange DNA, but they may exchange it between different kind of bacteria, illustrating
dS
.
their considerable ditference from eukaryotes. Strains are herefore an. absolutely. Bacteria .
'.
essential art of bacterial identitication. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. The cells are described as prokáryotic
because they
lack a nucleus. They exist in four major shapes: bacillus (rad shape), cöccus
IMODEL QUESTION) (spherical
in
10. What is type strain?. shape), spirilla. (spiral shape), and vibrio (curved "shape). Most baçteria have: a
Answer:
peptidoglycan cell wall; they divide by binary: fission; and they may possess flagella.for
Type strain is the strain, which was used when the species was described for the first
motility. The difference in their cell wall structure is a major feature used
(M
time and which was selected by the author as the type strain. A strain designation in classifying
including superscript T(e.g. B78') šhows the the strain is a type strain. . these organisms.
According to the way:their cell. wall structure stains, bacteria çan be classified as either
11. What do you mean by strain of bacteria? Gram-positive or Gram-negative when using the Gram staining. Bacteria can be further
Answer: *
In microbiology or virology, a strain is å genetic variañt or
. [MODEL QUESTION]
.
,divided based on their 'response. to gaseous oxygen into the following groups: aerobic.
(living in the presence .of oxygen), anaerobic (living without oxygen), and facultative
subtype of a micro-organism
ot
(eg, virus or bacterium or fungus). For example;. Escherichia anaerobes (can liv in both environments).
studied bacterium and encompasss coli a wel
i According to the way they obtain energy, bacteria are classified as heterotrophs or
àn enormous population of bacteria that exhibIt a. autolrophs. Autotrophs make their own food by using the energy of sunlight or chemical
very high degree of both genetic and phenotypic
diversity.
lB
reactions. in which case they are called chemoautotrophs. Heterotrophs obtairi their
12. How many energy by consuning other organisms. Bacteria that use decaying life forms a a source
E coli strains are there? [MODEL QUESTIONJ
Answer: of energy are càlled'saprophytes.
Microbiologics offers over 45 different
strains of E. coli including O157:H7, 0104:1
and the Big 6 Shiga toxin-producing strains. Archaea.
ia
format for your lab.

Visit our website to find the right
strain a Archaea or Archaebacteria differ from tirue bacteria in their cell wall. structure and lack
peptidoglycans. They are prokaryotic cells with avidity to extremè environiental
conditions. Based on their habitat, al Archaeans can be divided, into. the following
er
13. What are the four types of infection?

[MODEL QUESTION] groups: methanogens (methaneproducing organisms). halophites (archaeans that ive in
Answer: Salty environiments), thermophiles (archaeans that live at extremely hot temperatures),
Types of infection include bacteria, fungal; viral,
protozoan, parasitic, and prion diSe and psychrophiles (cold-temperature Archaeans). Archaeans, use different energý sources
at
What are the five signs of an infection!. ike hydrogen gas, carbon dioXIde, and sulphur, Some of them .use sunlight to make
if you notice any of the following signs, see.your. energy, ,but not the same way plants do.hey absorb, sunlight using their. membirane
doctor as soon as possibie lor
infected wound treatment. pigment, bacteriorhodopsin. This reacts with lignt, leading to the formation of the energy
M
Feelings of Malaise. Malaise, is a common non-specific

sign of a localized systent molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). .
.
infection.
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microscopy: optical, clectron, and
nucleus). Mos scanning probe microscopy,
cells (Wn a lruc field of X-ray microscopy. along with the emerging
Fungi ane eukaryolic nutriente
(mushnaom, molds, and
yeasts)
chitn. Ihey obtain ts by
Fungi is composed of
their cell wall (decomposers); hrough symbio 16. What is Optical microscopy?
Ed
are multicellular and environiment
fungi from their (parasileel Answer: [MODEL QUESTION]
absorbing organic
material relationships with a host
(symbionts). or hamful Optical or light microscopy involves
relationships with plants absorD 1material,Th
filamentous tubes called hyphae-that help from the sample through a single lens
passing visible light transmitted through
or reflected
They formi characteristic by releasrng spores. or multiple lenses to allow a magnified view
myrelium. Fungi reproduce sample. The resulting. image can be of the
collection ot hyphàe is called detected directly by the eye, imaged
pe
a photographic plate, or captured digitally. on
The single lens with its attachments,
system of lenses and imaging equipment, or the
Protozoa
eukaryotes. They have a nucleus, Complex organelles along with the appropriate lighting equipment,
Protoza are unicellular aerobic structures. They sample stage, and Support, makes up the basic
absorption or ingestion through specialized light microscope. The most recent
and obtain nourishment by
ca
development is the digital microscope, which uses
grvup organisms in the vWorld
in terms df numbers, biomass, and a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit
make up the largest of of interest. The image is shown on a computer screen,
diversity. Their cell walls are made up of cellulose.
Protozoa have.been traditionally so eye-pieces are unnecessary.
divided based on their mode of locomotion: flagellates produce their
own food and use
17. What is Electron microscopy?
dS
their whip-like structure to propel forward, ciliates have tiny hair .that beat to produce [MODEL QUESTION]
Answer:
movement. amoeboids have false feet or pseudopodia used for feeding and locomotion, Until the invention of sub-diffraction microscopy,
the wavelength of the light limited the
and sporozoans are non-motile. They also have different means of nutrition, which resolution of traditional microscopy to around
groups them as autotrophs or heterotrophs.
0.2 micrometers. In order to gain higher
in
resolution, the use of an electron beam with a far smaller

wavelength is used in electron
**.
microscopes.
Algae Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is quite similar
to the compound light
Agae, also called cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, are unicellülar
or multicellular
(M
microscope, by sending an electron beam through a very

eukaryotes that obtain nourishment by photosynthesis. They live in water, damp O1l, ana thin slice of the specimen.
The resolution limit in 2005 was around 0.05
rocks and produce oxygen and carbohydrates used by other organisms: nanometer and has not increased
cyanobacteria are the orngins of green land plants. It is, believed that appreciably since that time..
Scanning electron mieroscopy (SEM) visualizes details on
the surfaces of specimens
and gives a very nice 3D view. t gives results much like
Viruses those of the stereo light
microscope. The best resolution for SEM in 2011 was 0.4 nanometer.
ot
Viruses are non-cellular entities that consist.of

a nucleic acid.core (DNA Or RNA) Electron microscopes equipped for X-ray spectroscopy
surounded by a protein coat. Although viruses can provide qualitative and
are classified as microorganisms, they a quantitative elemental analysis. This type of. electron
not considered living organisms.
Viuss cannot reproduce outside host cell and canno microscope, also known as
analytical electron microscope, can be a very
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metabolize on their own. Viruses a powerful characterization tool for

often infest þrokaryotic and eukaryotic.cells caus investigation nanomaterials.
diseases. of
Multicellular Animal Parasites

A group of eukaryotic organisms
. 18. What is Scanning probe microscopy?
Answer:
[MODEL QUESTION]
ia
collectively. refered
consisting of the flatworms
to as the; helminths. Athough they. àrë
definition, since they are
hich
and.roundworms, whic
not microorganisms
This is a sub-diffraction technique. Examples
the atomic force microscope (AFM), the
of scanning probe microscopes are
scanning tunneling microscope, the photonic
large enough to be easily seen force microscope and the recurrence tracking
er
part of their ife cycle an with the naked.eye, they

microscopic form. Since the physical contact of a solid probe tip to scan the microscope. All such methods use the
.
importance, they are oftent parasitic helminths are of
ci
surtace of an object, which is supposed
discussed along with be almost flat. to
the other groups
of microbes.
at
15. What is Microscopy?

19. What are the different types of Optical
Answer: MODEL QUESTION Microscope? [MODEL QUESTIONJ
Microscopy is, the technical
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field of using microscopes

objects that cannot be seen to view objects and arca of
with the naked eye
the resolution range of the (objects that are not,
normal eye) There are three
well-known brancnco BIO-155
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light nicroscope, is. a type Answer:

Answer: n^terred to as the imaoP
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microscope, ofen ot lenses to magnify
The optical system
visible light and a
ofmicroscope that uses
Eyepiece
small subjects. Nosepiece
optical microscopes:
There are tuo hasie types of
1. Siunple mieroscopRS
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2. Compound microscopes. Objectives
MODEL QUESTION] Body
20. Describe simple microscope?
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Answer: lens for magnification, such' as a
A Simple microscope is one which uses a single
a compound microscope uses several lenses
to enhance
magnitying glass while Specimen stage &
Light
the magnitication of an object. aperture djaphragm
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A simple microscope uses a lens to enlarge
an object through, angular
magnificanon alone. giving the viewer an erect enlarged virtual image.
The use of.a single convex lens or groups of. lenses is found in simple
magnificaron devices such as the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces for
in
telescopes and microscopes. 23. What is Microbial ecology? [MODEL QUESTIONJ

A simpie microscope is actually a convex lens of small focal length, which is Answer:
usad for seeing the magnified images of small objects. Microbial ecology (or environmental microbiology) is the ecology of microorganisms:
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their relationship with one another and with their environment. It concerns the three
21. Give the principle of simple microscope. [MODEL QUESTION] major domains of life-Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria-as well as viruses.
Answer: Microorganisms, by their omnipresence, impact the entire biosphere. Microbial life pays
A Simple micrescope works on the principle that when a tiny object is placed within its a primary role in regulating biogeochemical systems in virtualy all of our planet's
focus, a vrtual, erect and magnified image of the object is formed environments, including some of the most extreme, from frozen environments and acidic
at the least distance or
distinct vision from the eye held close to the lens. lakes, to hydrothermal vents at the bottom of deepest oceans, and some of the most
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familiar, such as the human small intestine. As a consequence of the quantitative

Magnification of Simple Microscope magnitude of microbial life (calculated as 5.0x100 cells; eight orders of magnitude
The magnifying power of a simple microscope is greater than the number of stars in the observable, universe) microbes, by virtue of
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= 1 given by:
M D/F their biomass alone, constitute a significant carbon sink. Aside from carbon fixation,
Where, D =least distance of distinct vision microorganisms" key collective metabolic processes (including nitrogen fixation, methane
F= focal length of the convex lens metabolism, and sulfur metabolism) control global biogeochemical cycling. The
The focal length of the convex lens should mmensity of microorganisms production is such that, even in the total absence of
be small because smaller the ro al
ia
length of the lens, greater will be ts eukaryotic life, these processes would likely continue unchanged.
magnifying power.
The maximum magnification
of a simple microscope is about 10, which ns
that the object will appear 10
times larger Dy using the mf 24. What is Symbiosis? [MODEL QUESTION]
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maximum magnifcation. simple microscope Answer:

Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in symbiotic relationships
22. Drawa simple microscope. (either positive or negative) with other microorganisms or larger organisms. Although
[MODEL QUESTION
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physically sImal, symbiotic relationships amongst microbes are significant

in eukaryotic processes and their evolution. The types of symbiotic relationship that
mierobes participate include mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and ámensalism, and
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these relationships affect the ecosystem in many ways.
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microbiial species and bo.
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Mutualism ervlogy is a
relationship between
to benetlit. One
siuch ea Answer:
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uruaiisnm in mierobialhumans that allow tor both sides

spevies and eross-fecding, which IS clearly shown Microbes eXist in all arças,
including homes, offices,
microbial known as snea
as one microbial in-2016, the journal Microbiome commercial centers, and
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be sntrophy,. also initially thougt of published hospitals.
Oul Although bryantii, Th microbial ecology of the built environment. a collection of various works studying the
n. triwr: diznsiii.
spevies an S -
orgausnm and JklnCICTerim
needs in orderi
The S
A 2006 study øf pathogenic baçteria in
nis sy sten is
detui!ly two which the bacterium
needs in order to grow hospitals found that their ability
basteriun with the H:. 1or the production of by the type; wilh some surviving for only to survive varied.
organisnn pides the used by the S organism a few days while others survived
The reaxtion The lifespan of microbes for months.
and prduce methane. unfavored) hovvever, vhen coupled to he in the home varies similarly. Generally
therm»i nanmically bacteria and viruses
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H: Is endergonic (and sv OI methane, the overal require a wet environment with a humidity over
kryntii in its production of 10 percent. E. coli can survive
reactivn used by Meirièaterium are a mutualistic relationshin few. hours to a day. Bacteria which form spores for a
in can survive longer, with StaphylococCus
Thus the two organisms aureus surviving potentially for
reaction brones exergonic. environment, deadly ror either species weeks or, in the case of Bacillus anthracis, years.
grow and thrive in an :In the home, pets. can be carriers
which allows them to
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symbiotic organism. of bacteria; for example, reptiles are commonly carriers
alone. Lichen is an example of a
of salmonella.
S aureus is particularly common, and asymptomatically colonizes
about 30% of the
AmensalSm human population, attempts to decolonize carriers have met with limited success
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is a type of symbiotic relationship and
Amensalism (also commonly known as antagonism) generally involve mupirocin nasally and chlorhexidine washing, potentially. along with
unaffected. One example
where one speries oranism is harmed while the other remains vancomycin and cotrimoxazole to address intestinal and urinary tract infections.
is between the microbial
of such a relationship that takes place in microbial ecology
in an
species LucTOU:illus casei and Pseudomonas tactrolens. When co-existing 27. What is Antimicrobials? [MODEL QUESTION
in
production
environment Ps:uiamonas taetrolens shows inhibited growth and decreased .Answer:
of lactobionic acid (its main product) most likely due to the byproducts created Somemetals, particularly copper and ' silver, have. antimicrobial properties.
by Lactocacilus casei during its production of lactic acid. However, Lactobacillus Using
Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot antimicrobial copper-alloý touch surfaces is a technique which has.begun to be
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casei shows no difference in its behavior, and such this relationship can be defined as USed in the 21* century to prevent transmission of bacteria. Silver ñanoparticles have also
amensaliSIn. begun to be, incorporated into building surfaces and fabrics, although concerns have been
raised about the potential 'side-effects of the tiny particles on human health.
25. What is Microbial resource management? [MODEL QUESTION)
.
Answer: 28. What is Sterilization? [MODEL QUESTION]

Answer:
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Biotechnology may be used alongside microbial ecology to address a number ol

environmental ard economic challenges. For example, molecular techniques such Sterilization refers to any process that eliminates, removes, kills, or deactivates all forms
as community fingerprinting can be used to track changes in microbial communities over of life (in particular referring to microorganisms such
fungi, bacteria, viruses, spores, unicellular eukaryotic.organisms such as Plasmodium,
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time or assess their biodiversity. Managing the carbon cycle to sequester carbo
dioxide and prevent excess methanogenesis is important in mitigating global warning etc.) and other biological agents like prions present in a specific surface, object or fluid,
and the praspects of bioenergy are being expanded by the development
of microbia u for example food or biological culture media. Sterilization can be achieved through
cells. Microbial resource management advocates a more progressive yarious means,", including heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure,. and filtration.
attit Sterilizationm is dístinci from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization, in that those
towards disease. whereby biological control agents are favoured over attemp.
ia
eradication. Fluxes in microbial communities has to be better characterized methods reduces, rather than eliminate all foms of life and biological agents present.
potential to be realised. In addition, there are also clinical
for this i After sterilization, an object is referred to as being sterile or aseptic.
implications, as ma
er
microbial symbioses are a valuable source of existing and

novel antimicrobial ageni 29. What is growth medium? [MODEL QUESTION]
thus offer another line of inquiry in the evolutionary arms
race of antibiotic resisia Answer:
pressing concerm for researchers. A or
growth. medium culture medium is a solid, liquid or semi-solid designed to
at
26. How microbes interact with human beings?

[MODEL QUESTION
support, the growth of micrOorganisms or cells or small plants like
the moss Physcomitrella patens. Different types of media are used for growing different
.
types of cells.
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used for,cell culture; wlhich us
uSCspecifie
media are those
growth which
to major types ofplants or animals, and microbiological culture,
he types fo
cel dkrived from fiungi. The most common growth
such as bacteria or o
Swing microvrgnisms, brths and agar plates; specialized media are sometime
microorganisms are utrient organisims, termed fastidis
fasti
for mienwnganism and cell culure growth. Soie
required environments due nutris
spcialized due. to. Complex
complex nutritiona
organisms rquire intracellular parasites and rea
equiremenms. Vinuses, fir enample, are obligate
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growth medium containine living cells.
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30. What are the types of growth medium7
Answer:
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The main types.are
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.Cultural media
" Minimal media
Selective media
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Differential media
Transpoa nmedia
Endicatormedia
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31. What is the composition of growth media? MODEL QUESTION
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Answer:
-The most common growth mmedia for miçroorganisms are nutrient
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mutrient medium) or LB mèdium (lysogeñy, broth). Liquid media are often, mixed wih
agar and poured via a šterile medja,dispenser. into Petri
dishes tà solidify These aga
plates provide a solid medium:on which may
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can be seen as complex

Telegram Link:- https://t.me/Free_Study_Materials_bot to changes in

skills of bio-engineers: tlexibility, durabilitY, and endurance

substitute. Today. greater is

field and low-energy radio waves.

Oedure of preparing a biological DIological material, especially a pproau protein

processes must be environment friendlv that all chemica Answer: (6)

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Answer: doing. SCience iS esis of organisim,

biosystems engineering. Biosystems engineering -emphasizes the application of.

the other hand, biomedical it would be 576 megapixels.

Answer: [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: eye is

onwards, it's woras, Our eyes know

and then emulating is an absolule ana signals recorded need to

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construction, travel, etc. For centuries man relies

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(1) Lit Role in medicine disease better. A

Lift and Drag are considered aerodynamics biological knowledge.

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and slows down, and endangered

There have beenimany.changes [IMODEL QUESTION them from survival. For

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of ther fel and hurt themselves, have

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and its cure. doing the work call themselves

like that in other fields of

view is that sex is an that promoted increased

Another basic unresolved riences. Because engineers experiments

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dn nto a series of stejs, Detne the problem

hew/future Test solution

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Resuks alugn Resulis align partially Communicate

rems engineering. Bio systems engineering emphasizes the application of

involving biological systems.

Follov engineers can contribute:

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ucrarhy to be able to bivmatical

Ta beiter understand the answer to this question. let's first

have a quick comparison of

in our eye. it's done

and predietions. The bioogical concepts and principles

transport and movement of macromolecules Cilliary

5. Sensors and Detectors Optica

includc Biofilms: systems analogy.

at ihe molecular diversity and self-nonself recogni

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setting. the more sensitive This means that the

it might not). When it comes to our own cyes.

day. eyes are around get more an mo LOvd at resonving

everything else to compensate- where

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25. Write the difference between

by the sexual mode. Some acellular

Multiple Choice Type Questions

Evolutionary classification is caled- b) Natural system

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