Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs

Review of boiling heat transfer enhancement on micro/nanostructured

surfaces
Dong Eok Kim a, Dong In Yu b, Dong Wook Jerng c, Moo Hwan Kim d, Ho Seon Ahn e,⇑
a
Department of Precision Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Sangju, Republic of Korea
b
Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering, POSTECH, Pohang, Republic of Korea
c
School of Energy Systems Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
d
Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
e
Division of Mechanical System Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the recent decades, the rapid growth of surface modification and fabrication technologies has facili-
Received 1 January 2015 tated the achievement of boiling heat transfer enhancement on micro/nanostructured surfaces. In this
Received in revised form 28 March 2015 paper, several researches on the micro/nanostructured surfaces that have been designed to enhance boil-
Accepted 29 March 2015
ing heat transfer are introduced and closely reviewed. Firstly, theoretical and experimental researches on
Available online 6 April 2015
nucleate boiling heat transfer (NBHT) and critical heat flux (CHF) are introduced in the outline. The
fabrication techniques for achieving these engineered surfaces, which are technically classified into
Keywords:
machining, coating, chemical process, and micro/nanoelectromechanical systems, are described in detail
Nucleate boiling heat transfer
Critical heat flux
in the paper. Explanations and analysis of the results of boiling heat transfer enhancement tests are pre-
Enhancement sented in view of NBHT and CHF. Finally, the special features of the existing surfaces capable of enhancing
Microstructures boiling heat transfer are summarized, and the need for future research is also presented.
Nanostructures Ó 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and significantly influencing thermal and economic efficiency and

Boiling heat transfer is an effective mechanism that can remove
a large amount of thermal energy from a surface owing to the high
heat transfer coefficient of water (O[h]  103–105 W/m2 K), thus
maintaining relatively lower surface temperature. The boiling heat
transfer phenomenon has been applied to several engineering and
industrial fields requiring the removal of high heat flux, such as
power plants, electronic chip cooling, and marine ship power
generation. The features of boiling heat transfer can be readily
understood using the well-known boiling curve (Fig. 1), primally
presented by researchers such as Nukiyama [1], Jacob and Linke
[2], and Drew and Mueller [3]. In the boiling state, the most effec-
tive heat transfer region of a surface is the nucleate boiling heat
transfer (NBHT) region, where bubble generation, and its growth
on and detachment from a heating surface repeatedly occur, result-
ing in lower surface temperature. Beyond this NBHT region, the
critical heat flux (CHF) phenomenon suddenly causes a significant
decrease in the heat transfer coefficient and a drastic rise in surface
temperature (called burn-out) occurs. As the NBHT and CHF phe-
nomena are the key mechanisms dominating boiling heat transfer
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hsahn@inu.ac.kr (H.S. Ahn).
safety, several trials and related studies to enhance them have
been conducted to date. In the recent decades, rapid growth in sur-
face modification and fabrication technologies has facilitated the
enhancement of NBHT and CHF through the fabrication of
micro/nanostructures (with sizes between hundreds of nanome-
ters and several micrometers) on a heating surface. Related studies
include those on heating surface modification methods, which are
classified as follows:
 Surface mechanical machining technique.
 Surface coating technique (homogeneous/heterogeneous coat-
ing of special materials).
 Chemical process (oxidation, chemical etching, and so on).
 Micro/nano electro mechanical system (MEMS/NEMS) tech-
nique (photolithography technique, reactive ion etching (RIE)/
deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) for developing micro/nanopor-
ous surfaces).
The research outcomes for boiling heat transfer enhancement
constitute results from theoretical and experimental investigations
of boiling heat transfer, studied since the 1930s. And recently, sev-
eral review articles on the enhancement of boiling heat transfer on
the micro/nano-structured surfaces had been reported [4–7]. In

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2015.03.023
0894-1777/Ó 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
174 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Nomenclature

A area Greek symbols

Csf surface constant a thermal diffusivity
cp specific heat capacity l dynamic viscosity
Db bubble departure diameter h static contact angle
fb bubble departure frequency q density
g gravitational acceleration r surface tension
hfg latent heat
k thermal conductivity Subscripts
Na active nucleation site density f fluid
P pressure g gas
Pr Prandtl number l liquid
q00 heat flux NB nucleate boiling
Rc critical cavity radius sat saturated
T temperature v vapor
tw bubble waiting time w wall

this paper, the theoretical and experimental researches on NBHT
and CHF are first introduced as an outline, based on which the
results of boiling heat transfer enhancement using micro/nanos-
tructured surfaces are analyzed. Furthermore, the researches on
NBHT and CHF enhancement utilizing surface modification tech-
niques are thoroughly reviewed based on the technical classifica-
tion presented above, and the analysis of the research outcomes
is presented. For these objectives, the surface modification tech-
niques used on the micro/nanostructured surfaces are introduced
along with the fabrication methods. Next, the NBHT and CHF char-
acteristics of the surfaces are explained and analyzed. In conclu-
sion, the boiling heat transfer characteristics of
micro/nanostructured surfaces are comprehensively described
and the need for future research is presented.
1.1. Nucleate boiling heat transfer (NBHT)
In the NBHT region, a large amount of heat is transferred from
the heating surface to the cooling fluid owing to vigorous bubble
behavior. The most classical models and correlations for predicting
the NBHT coefficient (NBHTC) explain the relationship between
heat flux and wall superheat on the heating surface, as seen in
Eqs. (1)–(3).

Fig. 1. Pool boiling curve.

 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
 1=2  1=r  1=r
q00NB rl 1 cpl ½T w  T sat ðPl Þ
¼ Prs=r ½8
ll hfg gðql  qv Þ C sf l
h lv
0:79 0:45 0:49
! sented by Kutateladza [22] and Zuber [23] in their hydrodynamic
kl q
cpl l
q00NB ¼ 0:00122 ½T w  T sat ðPl Þ1:24 DP0:75
sat ½9
0:5 0:29 0:24 0:24
r l
l l q
hfg v
q00NB ¼ fC½T w  T sat ðPl Þg1=0:327 ½10
Even if the detailed parameters differ across researches, the nucle-
ate boiling heat flux q00NB may be expressed as follows:
q00NB ¼ f ðfluid property; surface characteristicsÞ  ½T w  T sat ðPl Þa
In the heat flux partitioning model [11], which is a comparatively
more recent boiling heat transfer model, boiling heat flux is
expressed as the sum of three heat flux components based on
Bowring’s scheme [12] that separately considers the various boiling
heat transfer mechanisms, as follows:
1. Evaporation heat flux to generate and grow the bubbles (q00e ).
2. Quenching heat flux generated by the reformation of the ther-
mal boundary layer surrounding the bubble after departure
(q00q ).
3. Convective heat flux transferred to the liquid phase outside the
zone of influence of the bubbles (q00c ).
q00NB ¼ q00e þ q00q þ q00c
The three heat flux terms in Eq. (4) can be theoretically evaluated
using a function of the bubble departure diameter (Db), active
nucleation site density (Na), bubble departure frequency (fb), bubble
waiting time (tw) and so on.
With respect to surface characteristics, several studies have
revealed the significant influence of surface roughness on NBHT.
Jakob [13] first reported that a change in surface roughness can
considerably affect the shape of the boiling curve. Ever since, the
theory that boiling bubbles are emanated from the cavities, which
can entrap the air or vapor within them, was presented, and stud-
ies were conducted to experimentally and theoretically validate
this theory [14–18]. Thus, the basis for the belief that surface
roughness changes the number of active nucleation sites and cavi-
ties and significantly affects NBHT was established. Based on this
knowledge, further studies to enhance NBHT by controlling the
surface roughness have been conducted from the 1950s to the
recent days.
Researches on liquid microlayer behavior [19] and changes in
active nucleation site density [20] helped to supplement the lack-
ing portions in the existing NBHT theories. Comprehensively, NBHT
characteristics are regarded as functions of fluid properties with
temperature and pressure conditions, and surface natures. Recent
studies have indicated that parameters such as active nucleation
site density, bubble departure diameter and frequency, and cavity
size are closely related to surface characteristics such as roughness
and wettability. Therefore, for accurately predicting NBHT and
realizing a further optimized NBHT-enhanced surface design, a
comprehensive understanding of the effects of surface characteris-
tics on boiling heat transfer is necessary.
1.2. Critical heat flux (CHF)
In brief, CHF is the value to present the upper limit of NBHT, and
its accurate prediction and enhancement are essential for the
design of a boiling system with high efficiency and safety features.
Particularly, after You et al. [21] first presented outstanding CHF
enhancement results with nanofluids, various CHF enhancement
surfaces have been developed and attempts to theoretically
175
explain CHF enhancement mechanisms were made through several
ð1Þ researches.
The theoretical explanation for CHF phenomena was first pre-
theory based on Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. The theory regarded
ð2Þ
that CHF occurs when the surface–fluid interface is broken as a
result of the velocity difference between the ascending vapor col-
umn and the liquid descending due to gravity. Recently, Liter and
ð3Þ
Kaviany [24] reported, based on the hydrodynamic theory, that a
heater surface coated with a modulated porous layer can control
the wavelength of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability and thereby,
enhance the CHF value. Park et al. [25] and Park and Bang [26]
experimentally observed that wire heaters coated with various
nanoparticles have different Rayleigh–Taylor wavelengths, and
correlated the results with the CHF values. From the results of pre-
vious experiments on the visualization of boiling, Haramura and
Katto [27] presented a theoretical CHF model hypothesizing the
existence of a mushroom bubble generated by the merging of sin-
gle bubbles and the macrolayer on a heating surface near the CHF
region. According to this model, in the rigorous boiling state, a
macrolayer composed of vapor stems and liquid columns is formed
on the heating surface and its size depends on Rayleigh–Taylor
instability, and CHF is triggered when the liquid within the macro-
layer is completely evaporated before mushroom bubble depar-
ture, which in turn, occurs because the mushroom bubble
interface suppresses the liquid supply to the heating surface.
ð4Þ However, the models based on hydrodynamic instability theory
in the recent decades have intrinsic limitations in predicting the
CHF values on heater surfaces designed through surface modi-
fications, particularly with regard to liquid wetting. Several studies
have been conducted to investigate the effect of surface wettability
on CHF [28–32]. Kandlikar [30] reported that CHF phenomena
occur when a vapor bubble irreversibly spreads on a surface due
to the vapor recoil force, and theoretically predicted the CHF value.
By comparing the predictions and existing experimental data, he
validated the theoretical model. Nikolayev et al. [33,34] presented
a vapor recoil mechanism for CHF. Chu et al. [35] presented a
correlation to reflect the effect of the increase in triple contact line
length owing to micropillars on CHF, for predicting the CHF on
microstructured surfaces comprising pillars of tens of micrometers
size, by modifying Kandlikar’s correlation. They validated this
model using experimental data. Fig. 2 shows the schematic dia-
grams of the models postulated by Kutateladze and Zuber,
Haramura and Katto, and Kandlikar, and their respective CHF
correlations.
Additionally, to reasonably explain CHF phenomena on
micro/nanostructured surfaces, a modified macrolayer dry-out
model [36], the effect of thermal conduction on a heater surface
[25], and capillary wicking [37] have been presented as key mecha-
nisms. However, these are qualitative ideas and a generalized the-
ory has not yet been established.
Although CHF phenomena are extremely complicated and occur
in a severe boiling state, it may be possible to partially explain
their physical nature based on the above researches. Therefore,
for the accurate prediction of the CHF value and realizing a further
optimized design of a CHF enhancement surface, a comprehensive
understanding of previously established researches is required.
2. Fabrication and preparation of micro/nanostructured
surfaces for boiling heat transfer enhancement
For the purpose of this study, boiling heat transfer enhancement
surfaces are classified into the following based on their fabrication/
preparation techniques: mechanically machined; special material-
coated; chemical-processed; and MEMS/NEMS surfaces. In this
176 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 2. Schematic CHF model diagrams and correlations: (a) Kutateladze and Zuber [24], (b) Haramura and Katto [27] and (c) Kandlikar [30].
section, the introductions and descriptions of these surfaces are
presented, along with their fabrication methods.
2.1. Surfaces fabricated using machining techniques (including
polishing and sand blasting)
Mechanical machining techniques have been developed and
utilized since the mid-19th century, which are fabrication methods
applicable for not only metal but wood, polymer, ceramic, and
composite materials. After the 1950s, the development of analog
and digital computing technology, along with CNC machines using
CAD/CAM, facilitated completely automatic precision machining of
very complex geometries. Moreover, using recently developed
technologies such as laser machining, electric discharge machining
(EDM), and 3D printing, microstructured surfaces with tens of
micrometers to a few millimeters size can be fabricated.
Polishing process using various grades of emery papers and sand
blasting techniques is also a traditionally used method for surface
roughness control.
The machining surfaces subjected to boiling heat transfer
enhancement were fabricated mainly by means of altering the
bubble nucleation behavior (by producing randomly distributed
roughness on the surfaces) and the vapor–liquid interfacial behav-
ior (by producing peculiar structures on surfaces such as the
microgrooved structure).
Benjamin and Balakrishnan [38] prepared surfaces with various
roughness (Ra) values by polishing stainless steel and aluminum
surfaces with different grades of emery papers, and conducted
boiling experiments with water, CCl4, acetone, and n-hexane.
They reported that boiling heat transfer is enhanced by the change
in nucleation sites owing to the surface roughness. In this study, Ra
was recorded in the range 0.2–1.17 mm, where Ra represents the
arithmetic average or centerline average roughness.
Chien and Webb [39–41] presented a new boiling heat transfer
enhancement surface fabricated by soldering a thin copper foil (of
0.05 mm thickness) with 0.18–0.23 mm diameter holes on a test
tube surface with previously machined fins of hundreds of
micrometers size (Fig. 3). They conjectured that the formation of
new liquid menisci at the corners created by the fins and the cop-
per foil surface modifies (a) the evaporation behavior in a single
bubble and (b) the influence of the interactions between the holes
and fin structures on the bubble departure diameter, frequency,
and nucleation site density, thereby enhancing the boiling heat
transfer. They experimentally and theoretically validated the
NBHT enhancement effects through pool boiling experiments with
R-11, R-123, R-134a, R22, and methanol fluids.
Kang [42] conducted water boiling heat transfer experiments
using a smooth stainless steel surface with root mean square
(RMS) roughness of 15.1 nm and rough surface of 60.9 nm,
achieved by unidirectionally polishing the surface using different
sand papers. He too reported the effects of surface roughness on
NBHT.
Guglielmini et al. [43] attempted NBHT enhancement by
arranging various square-pin–fin arrays on copper surfaces. In
their work, three configurations of square-pin–fins with 3–6 mm
height and 0.4–1.0 mm width were located 3–6 mm apart, and
pool boiling experiments with FC-72 were conducted. The test sur-
faces were fabricated by vertically cutting a copper bar after form-
ing fin structures on it using EDM.
Kotthoff et al. [44] fabricated a surface by rolling cavities (of
hundreds of micrometers of width and height, and tens of
micrometers of depth) on a copper tube surface (referred to as
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 3. Surface geometry (a) and bubble growth on surface hole (b) in study by Chien and Webb [39].
‘‘rolled on the tubes’’ by Fa. Wieland, Ulm, Germany), and con-
ducted pool boiling experiments with R134a and 2-Propanol.
They classified the existing NBHT enhancement surfaces into (a)
structured fin surfaces with reentrant grooves and (b) tunnels
and porous surfaces having sintered porous metallic matrix. The
researchers reported the change in the growing, departing, and
sliding behavior of the bubbles and that of the active nucleation
site density as the reasons for NBHT enhancement on the various
surfaces.
Chi et al. [45] fabricated cross-connected finned microgroove
structures by making ‘V’ grooves in copper strips and perpendicu-
lar ‘V’ grooves on the opposite sides intersecting the first set of
grooves, for the purpose of forming a pore-groove geometry on
the copper surface. Their work is significant because NBHT
enhancement surfaces with tens  hundreds of pores and cavities
could be then fabricated using existing machining techniques
alone.
Chen et al. [46] prepared copper surfaces with rectangular
groove geometry of hundreds of micrometers size using the preci-
sion milling technique controlled by a CNC machine. They con-
ducted water pool boiling experiments and correlated the results
of boiling heat transfer with the capillary effect on grooved surface
structures, by analyzing the effect of modified surfaces on NBHT
characteristics.
Jones et al. [47] fabricated surfaces with different roughness
values (Ra = 0.038–10.000 lm) using polishing and EDM tech-
niques. They conducted boiling visualization experiments with
water and FC-77, and analyzed the NBHT characteristics. Das
et al. [48] fabricated various types of tunnel structures (with hun-
dreds of micrometers width) on copper surfaces using the wire
EDM technique, and conducted water pool boiling experiments.
They hypothesized that tunnel structures can act as reentrant cavi-
ties. Fig. 4 shows the enhanced surfaces and detailed shapes.
Hosseini et al. [49] achieved roughened surfaces with Ra of
0.901–1.285 lm on copper, brass, and aluminum surfaces by pol-
ishing them with various sand papers, and conducted pool boiling
experiments with R113.
Watanabe et al. [50] presented microstructured boiling heat
transfer enhancement surfaces fabricated using the nanoimprint-
ing technique on Al surfaces using Ni molds of a few micrometers
size. Kandlikar [51] fabricated a boiling heat transfer enhancement
surface using simple indenting on a copper surface. He conducted
pool boiling experiments and validated the heat transfer perfor-
mance of the surface. As seen in Fig. 5, he reported that nucleation
on surface structures occurs at the sharp corners of the fin base,
177
and that vapor and liquid pathways are separately formed, enhanc-
ing the boiling heat transfer.
Chen [52] conducted pool boiling experiments with R123 on a
conventional evaporator copper tube made by Woverine Tube,
Inc. He fabricated a helical ridge and formed pocket-like
microstructures on the inner and outer walls of the tube, respec-
tively, and conducted boiling tests by means of transporting heat
from the hot water flow inside the tube to the R123 refrigerant
outside the tube. He reported that favorable bubble incipience
and advantageous bubble departure characteristics on the
enhanced surface contribute to the overall NBHT enhancement.
Table 1 summarizes the features of the micro/nanostructured
surfaces fabricated using the various machining techniques
described in this section.
2.2. Surfaces fabricated using several coating techniques
(homogeneous/heterogeneous coating of special materials)
Over the past decades, researches on surfaces coated with vari-
ous materials were actively conducted with the aim of enhancing
boiling heat transfer. Surface modification can be easily achieved
using coating techniques without any deformation of the surface,
and several coating techniques are available for various materials
such as metal oxides, nanoparticles, SiO2, TiO2, carbon nanotubes
(CNTs), and graphene oxide. Several coating methods such as vapor
deposition, atomic layer deposition (ALD), sputtering, nanofluid
boiling, spin coating, immersing into solution, and calcination are
also available.
Approximately 10 years ago, You et al. [21] reported significant
CHF enhancement during a pool boiling experiment with Al2O3–
water solution (nanofluid) of low concentration (<0.01 vol.%).
Subsequently, a plethora of researches on the use of nanoparticle
(10–100 nm particle size)-coated surfaces for boiling heat transfer
enhancement were conducted. In the early stages of nanofluid boil-
ing heat transfer research, studies were concerned with the
changes in thermofluidic properties (mainly thermal conductivity)
of liquids containing suspended solid nanoparticles and their effect
on boiling heat transfer and CHF enhancement [53,54]. However,
Vassalo et al. [55] observed a coating layer of silica particles at
the end of the boiling test wire heater in their research on silica–
water nanofluid boiling. Kim et al. [56] observed significant CHF
enhancement during a pure-water boiling test with nanoparticle-
coated wire heaters (Fig. 6). Later, the focus of research was shifted
to the surface coating effect. During nanofluid boiling, the effect of
the nanoparticle coating on a heating surface can be regarded as a
178 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 4. Various tunnel geometries (a) and pictorial views of test surfaces (b) [49].
Fig. 5. Enhanced surface design using evaporation momentum force for controlling
bubble trajectory and creating separate liquid and vapor pathways [51].
type of fouling [56,57]. Several researches have been hitherto con-
ducted on modified surfaces utilizing nanofluid boiling
[21,36,37,55–72]. Recently, Forrest et al. [73] coated thin film silica
nanoparticles on nickel and stainless steel surfaces by immersing
them into nanoparticle-dispersed solutions and subjecting them
to calcination. In this process, the metal substrates were repeatedly
immersed into silica nanoparticle-dispersed solutions and rinsed
with pure water, and the substrates were calcined in a high-tem-
perature environment (500 °C) to produce bilayered thin film
layers on the surfaces.
Table 2 summarizes the features of nanoparticle-coated sur-
faces utilized for boiling heat transfer enhancement.
Yang and Takizawa [74] conducted pool boiling tests with Freon
113 on a commercial graphite fiber-reinforced copper (Gr–Cu) hea-
ter surface, and validated boiling heat transfer enhancement. The
diameters of the graphite fibers were 0.008–0.01 mm. The
researchers explained that boiling heat transfer can be enhanced
by the outstanding thermal conductivity (1200 W/m K) of the
fibers. Liang and Yang [75] conducted pool boiling tests with pen-
tane on porous surfaces composed of graphite–aluminum (Gr–Al)
and graphite–copper (Gr–Cu) composites. EI-Genk and Parker
[76] conducted pool boiling tests with HFE-7100 dielectric liquid
on a commercially available graphite block surface bonded on a
heating element, heated using a nichrome wire heater.
Furthermore, in another study [77], these researchers attached a
porous graphite surface to a copper surface and conducted pool
boiling tests with FC-72. Vemuri and Kim [78] attached an alu-
minum oxide nanoporous surface with 50–250 nm pore diameter
to a heating surface using high-thermal-conductivity epoxy, and
conducted pool boiling tests with FC-72. They compared and ana-
lyzed the results of boiling heat transfer on the enhanced surface to
that on the plain heating surface.
Tehver et al. [79] coated aluminum, bronze, copper, and corun-
dum particles on an aluminum or copper heating rod using the
plasma-sprayed coating technique, and conducted pool boiling
tests with Freon on porous layer heating surfaces with pore radius
1–10 lm. Hsieh and Weng [80] coated Cu, Mo, Al, and Zn on heater
rod surfaces using plasma and flame spraying techniques, and pre-
pared porous layered heating surfaces with 1–5 lm average pore
diameter for conducting boiling tests with R134a and R407c. The
flame spraying technique was also utilized in the pool boiling
research conducted on porous metallic coating surfaces by
Cieslinski [81]. Chang and You [82] coated differently sized dia-
mond particles (2–70 lm) on copper block surfaces using the
DOA (D: diamond particles, O: Omegabond 101 epoxy, A: alcohol)
coating technique, and conducted pool boiling tests with FC-72. In
another study [83], they fabricated microporous surfaces by dip-
ping copper block surfaces into coating solutions made of different
ingredients (aluminum, copper, diamond, and silver particles) and
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196 179

Table 1
Summary of features of micro/nanostructured surfaces fabricated using various machining techniques.

Refs. Original materials Type of surface Fabrication techniques O [size of surface structures] (e.g., Fluids for boiling tests
roughness)
[38] Stainless steel, Randomly roughened Polishing with emery papers Ra = 0.2–1.17 mm Water, CCl4, acetone, n-hexane
aluminum
[39– Copper Uniform pores on fin Mechanical machining and 100 lm R-11, R-123, R-134a, R22,
41] structures soldering methanol
[42] Stainless steel Randomly roughened Polishing with sand papers 10 nm Water
[43] Copper Square-pin–fin array Mechanical machining and 100 lm–1 mm FC-72
EDM
[44] Copper Uniform cavities Rolling 10–100 lm R134a, 2-Propanol
[45] Copper Pore-grooved Mechanical machining 10–100 lm –
[46] Copper Rectangular grooved Mechanical machining 100 lm Water
[47] Aluminum Randomly roughened Polishing and EDM Ra = 0.038–10 lm Water, FC-77
[48] Copper Tunnel structure Wire EDM 100 lm Water
[49] Copper, brass, Randomly roughened Polishing with sand papers Ra = 0.901–1.285 mm R113
aluminum
[50] Aluminum Uniform cavities Nanoimprinting with Ni mold 1–10 lm –
[51] Copper Fins and sharp corners Simple indenting 100 lm Water
[52] Copper Pocket-like Commercially produced 10–100 lm R123
microstructures

baking them. In a similar way, Kim et al. [84] fabricated DOM (D:
Diamond particles, O: Omegabond 101 epoxy, M: Methyl-ethyl-
keytone carrier) microporous-coating platinum wire heaters and
conducted pool boiling tests with FC-72.
Liter and Kaviany [24] and Hwang and Kaviany [85] fabricated
porous-layer surfaces by coating spherical copper particles of
200 lm diameter on a copper surface (Fig. 7a). For fabrication, they
utilized the dry-phase diffusion sintering technique in a tube fur-
nace with reducing atmosphere of nitrogen and hydrogen, and
conducted pool boiling tests with pentane. Li et al. [86] developed
modulated porous structures on copper heating bars by sintering
copper particles of 250 and 400 lm diameters (Fig. 7b) in a process
that involved inducing high inductive heat flux into a graphite
mold in an argon atmosphere for preventing the oxidation of cop-
per. The developed surfaces were used for conducting boiling tests
with water.
For conducting water pool boiling tests, Takata et al. [32] coated
titanium oxide (TiO2) layers of approximately 250 nm and 1 lm
thicknesses on a copper plate, and prepared photo-induced
super-hydrophilic surfaces by UV irradiation. They utilized the dip-
ping and sputtering process for surface modification. In the dipping
process, a mirror-finished copper plate was dipped in a TiO2 sus-
pension containing 20 wt.% of SiO2 and then baked in a constant-
temperature furnace at 150 °C. In the sputtering process, the RF
magnetron sputtering technique in a dilute argon/oxygen mixture
environment was applied to a titania plate sputtering target. In
another study by the same researchers [87], a super water-repel-
lant surface was fabricated utilizing electrolytic nickel plating by
the suspension of PTFE fine particles, and pool boiling visualization
experiments with water were conducted.
Ahn et al. [88,89] fabricated surfaces coated with vertically
aligned multiwalled CNTs (MWCNTs) on silicon wafers by chemi-
cal vapor deposition (CVD), and heated the surfaces using a copper
block heating element. Thereafter, they conducted pool boiling
tests with PF-5060 and compared and analyzed the boiling results
from the MWCNT-layered surfaces with two different heights and
the plain surface. Li et al. [90] deposited Cu nanorods with 50 nm
spacing and 450 nm height on a Cu substrate using a copper elec-
tron-beam evaporator. They could align the nanorods at an oblique
angle by tilting the Cu substrate during the deposition process. The
nanostructured surfaces were used for conducting pool boiling
tests with water. For application to the vapor chamber heat
spreading device, Weibel et al. [91] fabricated a CNT-coated surface
with copper porous microstructures. In their surface fabrication
process, a microwick structure was formed by sintering copper
particles of 100 lm average diameter, on which CNTs were coated
using microwave plasma-enhanced CVD (MPCVD). The copper
layer was subsequently deposited on the surface using physical
vapor deposition (PVD) (Fig. 8a). This surface was applied to capil-
lary-fed water boiling experiments. Similarly, Mchale et al. [92]
conducted pool boiling tests with HFE-7300 on sintered copper
surfaces with and without CNT coating layers. Dai et al. [93] fabri-
cated hierarchical structures with micro/nanoscale pores on a cop-
per surface by coating functionalized MWCNTs (FMWCNTs) with
controllable hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity on a two-layer cop-
per mesh with micropores using an ultrasonic coater (Fig. 8b).
Oxygen plasma and Nafion were used for functionalizing the sur-
faces, and boiling tests with water were conducted on them.
Li et al. [94] fabricated nanostructured porous surfaces on cop-
per surfaces using the electrolyte deposition technique. The
researchers reported that bubble generation and transportation
easily occurred in the porous surface structures (Fig. 9a) formed
by the hydrogen gas bubbles generated during the electrolyte
deposition process and hence, their effects contributed to the boil-
ing heat transfer enhancements recorded during their pool boiling
tests with R134a. With the test surfaces fabricated using the same
technique as that used by Li et al. [94], Furberg and Palm [95] con-
ducted pool boiling experiments with R134a and FC-72. Ali and EI-
Genk [96] conducted the same tests with PF-5060 on copper
microporous structured surfaces using the electrolyte deposition
technique (composition of electrolyte: CuSO4 + H2SO4). In this
research, the coating thicknesses of the surface porous layers were
80 and 197 lm.
Hendricks et al. [97] measured the nucleate boiling heat trans-
fer coefficients and CHF through water boiling tests conducted on
nanostructured surfaces fabricated on aluminum and copper sur-
faces using the microreactor-assisted nanomaterial deposition
(MAND) technique. In this research, the coating material used
was ZnO and the average surface roughness and pore size were
80–6000 nm and 50–100 nm, respectively.
Betz et al. [98] fabricated hydrophilic and hydrophobic network
surfaces (Fig. 10a) by selectively coating Teflon on oxidized silicon
wafer surfaces using the photolithography technique, and con-
ducted water pool boiling tests. In another study by the same
researchers [99], Teflon superhydrophobic patterns with fractal
and regular array shapes were coated on nanostructured, black sili-
con superhydrophillic surfaces (Fig. 10b), and the water boiling
heat transfer on them was observed.
180 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Table 2
Summary of features of nanoparticle-coated surfaces utilized for boiling heat transfer
enhancement.

Refs. Bare surfaces Nanoparticle Preparation Base

materials techniques fluid for
boiling
tests
[58,59] Cylindrical Al2O3 Nanofluid Water
cartridge heater boiling
[21] Flat square Al2O3 Nanofluid Water
heater and Pt boiling
wire
[55] NiCr wire SiO2 Nanofluid Water
boiling
[57] Flat rectangular Al2O3 Nanofluid Water
heater boiling
[37,56,61,65] NiCr wire Al2O3, TiO2 Nanofluid Water
boiling
[36,60] Flat plate heater Al2O3, ZrO2, Nanofluid Water
and wire made SiO2 boiling
of 316 stainless
steel
[63] Flat square Al2O3 Quenching into Water
heater made of nanofluid
304 stainless
steel
[62] Flat copper ZrO2 Nanofluid Water
plate boiling
[64] Cylindrical TiO2 Nanofluid R141b
cartridge heater boiling
[66] Flat copper disk Al2O3, TiO2 Nanofluid Water
boiling
[67] 316L stainless ZnO Nanofluid Water
steel disk boiling
[73] Nickel wire Poly allymine Immersing into Water
hydrochloride nanofluid
(PAH)/SiO2 solution and
calcination
[68,71] Smooth and Al2O3 Nanofluid Water
rough boiling
rectangular
brass surfaces
[69] Stainless steel ZnO Electrophoretic Water
disk deposition (EPD)
[70] Cylindrical ZnO Nanofluid Ethylene
copper surface boiling glycol
[72] Flat copper Al2O3 Nanofluid Water
plate boiling

surfaces. After the tests, three-dimensional (3D) self-assembled

form-like grapheme (SFG) networks (Fig. 9b) were observed on
the heating surface.
Fig. 6. Nanoparticle-coated wire heaters generated by pool boiling CHF experi- Table 3 summarizes the features of the boiling heat transfer
ments with 0.01% nanofluids [56]: (a) TiO2 nanoparticle-coated NiCr wire with
enhancement surfaces fabricated using surface coating techniques.
0.2 mm dia. (350), (b) Al2O3 nanoparticle-coated NiCr wire with 0.2 mm dia.
(350), and (c) TiO2 nanoparticle-coated Ti wire with 0.25 mm dia. (250).
2.3. Surfaces fabricated using chemical processes (oxidation, wet
etching, etc.)

Feng et al. [100] conducted water boiling tests on an aluminum
oxide-coated platinum wire fabricated using the atomic layer
deposition (ALD) technique. The average roughnesses of the Pt
and Pt/Al2O3 surfaces were 357 and 378 nm, respectively. The
small roughnesses values were attributed to the intact mainte-
nance of the roughness of the bare surface, in turn, because of
the excellent surface uniformity imparted by the ALD technique.
Phan et al. [101] fabricated surfaces of various wettability by coat-
ing SiOx, Pt, Fe2O3, SiOC, and Teflon particles on stainless steel sur-
faces using plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) and metal–organic
CVD (MOCVD) techniques, and conducted pool boiling tests with
water.
Recently, Ahn et al. [102,103] conducted pool boiling tests with
reduced graphene oxide (RGO)–water colloid on SiO2 heating
It is well known that oxidation of metals, silicon, polymers, and
so on enhances the liquid wettability of surfaces. With the
advancement of chemical etching techniques, photochemical etch-
ing techniques have already been utilized in heat transfer applica-
tions (e.g., printed circuit heat exchanger). During the last decade,
efforts have been made towards boiling heat transfer enhancement
using chemical processes. In this section, the surfaces fabricated
using chemical processes are introduced.
Ramaswamy et al. [104] fabricated a surface with rectangular
channel arrays comprising 200 lm pore structures of trapezoidal
shape by etching both the sides of a silicon wafer using a 40%
KOH solution, and conducted pool boiling tests with FC-72.
Chen et al. [46] fabricated microgrooved copper surfaces using
the photolithography technique and conducted water pool boiling
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196 181

Fig. 7. Microporous layered surfaces: (a) Top view and perspective view [24] and (b) surfaces developed by Li et al. [86].

Fig. 8. SEM images of CNT-coated surfaces: (a) [91] and (b) [93].

tests. In their research, the sizes of surface microstructures were
200–500 lm.
Chen et al. [105] presented surfaces with Si nanowires to an
enhanced boiling heat transfer surface. The nanowires were syn-
thesized using the wafer scale aqueous electroless etching (EE)
technique and the detailed method involved immersing the Si
wafer into an aqueous solution of AgNO3 and HF acid. Water
boiling experiments were conducted on the nanostructured sur-
faces. Similarly, Lu et al. [106] fabricated nanowire-arrayed sur-
faces by immersing Si wafers into a 0.2 M HF solution containing
AgNO3.
Lee et al. [107] fabricated a nanoporous structured surface on an
aluminum alloy (6061) rod test surface (Fig. 11a) using electropol-
ishing and anodizing techniques, and conducted water pool boiling
182 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Fig. 9. (a) SEM image of Cu sample surface showing dendtric growth of Cu into macroporous structures after electrolyte deposition [94] and (b) modified surface with 3D SFG
networks [102].

Fig. 10. (a) Hydrophilic (black) and hydrophobic (gray) network surfaces [98] and (b) nanostructured black silicon (left-top), fractal array (left-bottom), regular array (right-
top), and completed surface (fractal) submerged in water [99].

tests. For anodizing, the aluminum test rod and platinum were
attached to the anode and cathode, respectively, and 0.3 M oxalic
acid solution was used as the electrolyte. Zhang et al. [108] utilized
the same methods as Lee et al. [107] to prepare three-dimension-
ally interconnected alumina sponge-like nanoporous surfaces
(Fig. 11b). Ahn et al. [109–112] fabricated micro/nanoscale struc-
tured surfaces (Fig. 11c) on a zircaloy-4 surface (which is used as
nuclear fuel rod cladding material) by mechanical polishing and
anodic oxidation (anodization) using 0.5 wt.% HF acid solution as
electrolyte, and conducted water pool boiling tests. Joung and
Buie [113] formed nano/microstructured surfaces of various
wettabilities on Ti surfaces using anodization and electrophoretic
deposition techniques.
Yao et al. [114] prepared nanostructured surfaces (Fig. 12a)
comprising Cu nanowires (CuNWs) on Ag–Si, Au–glass, and Cu sub-
strates by electrochemical deposition in CuSO4 aqueous electrolyte
using an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membrane, and conducted
water pool boiling tests. In another study [115], researchers syn-
thesized Si nanowires (SiNWs) on a Si wafer (Fig. 12b) using the
metal particle-assisted electroless chemical etching method in an
aqueous solution of AgNO3 and HF. In this research, the heights
of CuNWs and SiNWs were 2, 5, 10, and 20 lm; and 20 and
35 lm, respectively. Similarly, Im et al. [116] fabricated copper
nanowire-arrayed surfaces (Fig. 12c) on a Si substrate deposited
with Ti, Cu, and Au thin films, and conducted pool boiling tests
with PF-5060. The lengths of the nanowires used were 1, 2, 4,
and 8 lm. The fabrication process resulted in different types of
cavity structures such as nanowire spacing, surface cavities, and
deep cavities.
Table 4 summarizes the features of the boiling heat transfer
enhancement surfaces fabricated using chemical processes.
2.4. Surfaces fabricated using MEMS/NEMS techniques
Developed using the semiconductor fabrication process, over
the last 30 years, MEMS/NEMS technologies have facilitated the
development of considerably small structures with tens of nanome-
ters to hundreds of micrometers size, on Si, polymers, metals, and
ceramics. The MEMS/NEMS techniques basically comprise material
deposition and patterning by photolithography and etching. As
micro/nanostructures can be mass-produced on many kinds of
materials, these techniques are vital in the fields of electronics,
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196 183

Table 3
Summary of features of boiling heat transfer enhancement surfaces fabricated using surface coating techniques.

Refs. Base surface Coating materials Coating techniques Geometry of surfaces Fluids for boiling
materials tests
[74] Copper Graphite fiber-reinforced copper Bonding with epoxy Fiber-reinforced metal composite Freon 113
[75] Aluminum, Graphite fiber-reinforced Bonding with epoxy Fiber-reinforced metal composite Pentane
copper aluminum/copper
[76,77] Copper Graphite Bonding with epoxy Porous layer HFE-7100, FC-72
[78] Aluminum Al2O3 nanoporous surface Bonding with epoxy Porous layer FC-72
[79] Aluminum, Aluminum, bronze, copper, and Plasma-sprayed coating Porous layer Freon
copper corundum particles
[80] – Cu, Mo, Al, and Zn particles Plasma spraying and flame spraying Porous layer R134a, R407c
[82] Copper Diamond particles DOA coating Porous layer FC-72
[83] Copper Aluminum, copper, diamond, Dipping and baking Porous layer FC-72
and silver particles
[84] Platinum Diamond particles DOM coating Porous layer FC-72
[24] Copper Copper particles Dry diffusion sintering Modulated porous layer Pentane
[86] Copper Copper particles Sintering Modulated porous layer Water
[32] Copper TiO2 Dipping and baking, and sputtering Smooth Water
[87] Copper PTFE particles Electrolytic nickel plating with PTFE Smooth Water
fine particles suspension
[88,89] Si wafer CNTs CVD Vertically aligned multiwall PF-5060
[90] Copper Cu nanorods Electron beam evaporator Vertical nanorod array with + oblique Water
angle
[91] Copper Copper particles and CNTs Sintering, MPCVD and PVD Porous microwick structure Water
[93] Copper CNTs, Nafion Ultrasonic coater and oxygen plasma Hierarchical structures with Water
treatment micro/nanoscale pores
[94] Copper Cu particles Electrolyte deposition Nanostructured porous layer R134a
[97] Al, Cu ZnO MAND Nanostructured surface with nanosized Water
pores
[98,99] Si wafer, black Teflon Photolithography Hydrophilic and hydrophobic network, Water
Si wafer fractal and regular arrays
[100] Pt Al2O3 ALD Smooth Water
[101] Stainless steel Pt, Fe2O3, SiOC and Teflon PECVD and MOCVD Smooth and randomly roughened Water
particles
[102,103] SiO2 wafer RGO Boiling in RGO-water colloid 3D form-like networks Water

Fig. 11. SEM images of micro/nanostructured surfaces developed using anodization technique: (a) [107], (b) [108], and (c) [110].
184 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Fig. 12. SEM images of nanowire-arrayed surfaces: (a) [114], (b) [115], and (c) [116].

Table 4
Summary of features of boiling heat transfer enhancement surfaces fabricated using chemical processes.

Refs. Base surface materials Fabrication technique Geometry of surfaces Fluid for
boiling tests
[104] Si wafer Chemical etching Rectangular channel arrays with pore structures in FC-72
trapezoidal shape
[46] Copper Photolithography Microgrooved Water
[105] Si wafer EE Nanowire-arrayed Water
[107] Aluminum alloy (6061) Anodization Nanoporous structure Water
[108] Aluminum alloy (6061) Anodization Three-dimensionally interconnected sponge-like Water
porous structure
[109–112] Zircaloy-4 Anodization Micro/nanoscale structure Water
[114] Ag–Si, Au–glass, and Cu substrates Electrochemical deposition technique using Nanowire-arrayed Water
AAO membrane
[115] Si wafer Metal particle-assisted electroless chemical Nanowire-arrayed Water
etching
[116] Si wafer deposited with Ti Cu and Metal particle-assisted electroless chemical Nanowire-arrayed PF-5060
Au thin films etching

microsensor fabrication, bio applications, and microfluidics. In this
section, the applications of MEMS/NEMS technologies to boiling
heat transfer enhancement are introduced.
Honda et al. [117] fabricated micro-pin–fin-structured surfaces
with square cross-section of 50  50  60 lm by dry-etching a Si
wafer. They prepared surfaces with submicron-scale roughness
and conducted pool boiling tests with FC-72. Wei and Honda
[118] conducted pool boiling experiments with FC-72 on these sur-
faces with different sizes and arrangements (Fig. 13a).
Mitrovic and Hartmann [119,120] formed pin-shaped elements
of 1–25 lm diameter and 10–100 lm height on copper tube sur-
faces, and conducted the pool boiling tests with R141b. In their
fabrication process, micropores were formed on a thin polycarbon-
ate foil by irradiating heavy ions to the foil, and a copper surface
attached to the micropore-structured foil was subjected to an elec-
trolytic process. Finally, copper pin structures were formed on the
copper surface. Particularly, by controlling the duration of coating,
they could achieve spherically shaped tops of the pins. Ustinov
et al. [121] prepared inclined pin-structured surfaces using the
same fabrication method as that of Mitrovic and Hartmann [119]
on a polycarbonate foil with inclined pores, and conducted pool
boiling tests with R134a and FC-3284.
Launay et al. [122] fabricated seven types of microstructured sur-
faces on Si wafers using various MEMS techniques, and conducted
pool boiling tests with PF5060 and water. In their research, smooth
Si, roughened Si (by dry etching), CNT-coated, Si pin–fin-microstruc-
tured, CNT-coated pin–fin-microstructured and two three-dimen-
sionally grooved Si-structured surfaces were presented.
Zhang and Lian [123] fabricated micro-pin–fin-structured sur-
faces on Si wafers by photolithography and wet etching using
KOH solution, and conducted water pool boiling tests. The
designed fin spacings were 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 lm.
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 13. SEM images of silicon chips with micro-pin–fins [118] and micronano hybrid-structured surfaces [124].
Kim et al. [124] formed microscale (M), nanoscale (N) and mul-
tiscaled (NM) geometries on Si wafer (Fig. 13b) and conducted pool
boiling experiments with water. The M surface was fabricated
using wet etching with tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide etchant
after patterning by photolithographic technique. For N surface
fabrication, ZnO nanorods were grown on a Si wafer deposited
with ZnO thin layer by dipping it into zinc nitrate hexahydrate
(Zn(NO3)6H2O, 98%) and ammonium hydroxide (28 wt.% NH3 in
water, 99.99%) solution. The NM surface was fabricated using the
same processes applied in M and N surface fabrications.
Cooke and Kandlikar [125] fabricated various microchannel
structures on Si wafer using DRIE, and conducted water pool boil-
ing tests. The shapes of the microstructured surfaces included vari-
ous microchannel geometries, notch structures at channel
sidewalls, and offset strip fin structures.
Kim et al. [126] formed microstructures on Si wafers using DRIE
and micronano hybrid structured surfaces on Si nanowires by
immersing the microstructured surface into 0.02 M AgNO3 and
5 M HF solution. Similarly, Yao et al. [127,128] fabricated
185
microchannel-structured surfaces on Si nanowires and conducted
water pool boiling tests.
Chu et al. [35] fabricated micropillar-arrayed surfaces of various
sizes on a Si wafer (Fig. 14a) using DRIE, and conducted water pool
boiling tests. Coso et al. [129] prepared a micro-pin–fin-array-
structured Si surface (Fig. 14b) by etching with inductively coupled
SF6 plasma, and conducted water evaporation experiments for
observing the effects of the evaporator wicks generated by the
microstructures. Zou and Maroo [130] fabricated ridge structures
with spacings of a few micrometers and heights of hundreds of
nanometers on Si wafers (Fig. 14c) using the Bosch etching tech-
nique following patterning by deep ultraviolet photolithography,
and conducted water pool boiling tests.
Recently, Dong et al. [131] fabricated micropillar-, microcavity-,
nanowire-, and nanocavity-structured surfaces on Si wafers
(Fig. 15) using dry etching and wet etching with AgNO3 and HF
solution, and conducted pool boiling tests with ethanol.
Table 5 summarizes the features of boiling heat transfer
enhancement surfaces fabricated using MEMS/NEMS techniques.
186 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Fig. 14. SEM images of (a) micropillar- [35], (b) micro-pin–fin- [129], and (c) nanoridge-structured surfaces [130].

Fig. 15. SEM images of micro/nanostructures on silicon chips: (a) micropillars, (b) microcavities, (c) nanowires, and (d) nanocavities [131].

3. Results and discussion of NBHT on modified surfaces
It is well known that bubble behavior, comprising nucleation,
growth, and departure on the heater surface, influences boiling heat
transfer performance in the nucleate boiling regime. Briefly, boiling
heat transfer can be enhanced when the nucleated bubbles are more
and bubble frequency is higher. Thus, the most engineered surface of
NBHT was designed for increasing the active nucleation sites (cavi-
ties) as well as the possibility of gas/vapor entrapment, by changing
the cavity shape and surface wettability. Additionally, a porous
structure on the heater surface can increase vapor escaping from
and the liquid channeled into the heater surface.
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196 187

Table 5
Summary of features of boiling heat transfer enhancement surfaces fabricated using MEMS/NEMS techniques.

Refs. Base surface Fabrication techniques Geometries of surfaces Fluids for boiling
material tests
[117] Si wafer Dry etching Rectangular micro-pin–fin-structured FC-72
[119] Copper Dry etching by irradiating heavy ions and electrolytic Micro-pin–fin-structured R141b
process
[121] Copper Dry etching by irradiating heavy ions and electrolytic Inclined micro-pin–fin-structured R134a and FC-3284
process
[122] Si wafer Dry etching Micro-pin–fin-structured PF-5060
[123] Si wafer Photolithography and wet etching Micro-pin–fin-structured Water
[124] Si wafer Wet etching and nanorod growth by dipping into Micro/nano/multiscaled Water
solution
[125] Si wafer DRIE Microchannels, notches at channel sidewalls and offset Water
strip fins
[126] Si wafer DRIE and immersing into solution Micronano hybrid structured –
[127,128] Si wafer DRIE and immersing into solution Micronano hybrid structured Water
[35] Si wafer DRIE Micropillar-arrayed Water
[129] Si wafer Dry etching with inductively coupled plasma Rectangular micro-pin–fin-structured Water
[130] Si wafer Bosch etching and deep ultraviolet photography Ridge structures with heights of hundreds of nanometers Water
[131] Si wafer Dry etching and wet etching Micropillar-, microcavity-, nanowire-, and nanocavity- Ethanol
structured

It is well known from literatures that active nucleation site den-
sity is a function of surface roughness, wettability, and wall super-
heat [20,132–135]. Heater surface modification for the boiling of
certain fluids is likely to cause a change in the surface roughness
and wettability. Earlier studies have reported enhanced NBHT on
heater surfaces with randomly formed roughnesses, as shown
Fig. 16a–c. The results indicate that NBHT can be enhanced by
increasing the surface roughness, which will act as a cavity for
the active nucleation site. As seen from Fig. 16d [47], the visualiza-
tion results strongly support the conclusion that greater bubble
generation on the heater surface can be achieved with greater
roughness. As previously described, the heat partitioning model
indicated that quenching heat flux, which is the most dominant
factor for boiling heat transfer performance, is strongly influenced
by the number of active nucleation sites [136].
2pkl ðT w  T sat Þ XNa pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
q00q ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðD2b;n ð t w;n f b;n ÞÞ
A pal n¼1
The relation between active nucleation sites and NBHT was well-il-
lustrated in the boiling experiments conducted on a heater surface
with microcavities by Dong et al. [131] and on copper nanorods by
Li et al. [90]. As expected, NBHT was enhanced by increasing the
active nucleation site density.
For enhancing NBHT by changing the shape of the cavity, the
vapor entrapment on the heater surface was increased by the for-
mation of reentrant cavity on the heater surface [39–41,44,46,48].
These studies reported that reentrant cavities caused a significant
increase in NBHT and the formation of cavities is believed to have
influenced the active nucleation site density.
Several studies to understand the influence of surface wettabil-
ity on NBHT have been conducted, although it is not regarded to be
independent of the active nucleation site. Phan et al. [101] reported
that the change in surface wettability through CVD of various
materials influences NBHT, which decreases with increasing
wettability (reduction of the static contact angle). Betz et al.
[98,99] conducted boiling experiments on hydrophobic-philic net-
works of SiO2 and Teflon coating. Although there was little differ-
ence in the nucleate boiling heater used for both the surfaces,
according to the design of networks, the hydrophobic zone pro-
vided higher NBHT than did the plain surface. Forrest et al. [73]
conducted pool boiling experiments on heater surfaces with vari-
ous wettabilities after coating the metal heater of Ni and stainless
steel with PAH/SiO2 thin film. The surface with contact angle of
141°, which was the most hydrophobic, showed a significant
increase in NBHT. Generally, the hydrophilic heater surface offers
the possibility of reduction in gas/vapor entrapment. Thus, an
increase in surface wettability will seem unfavorable to NBHT.
The effect of surface wettability on NBHT could be seen in the
results of nanofluid boiling experiments, which reported a degra-
dation of NBHT through the nanoparticles deposited on the heater
surface. If the nanoparticles do not form the porous structures, and
thinly coated, the surface wettability is likely to increase signifi-
cantly and NBHT could be reduced by the suppression of bubble
nucleation on the heater surface.
Recently, several studies have been conducted on the methods
for increasing NBHT on heater surfaces with porous structures. A
porous surface generally has pores ranging from one to hundreds
of micrometers, correlated with activated cavity size in the boiling
surface. Chang and You [82,83] and Hwang and Kaviany [85]
observed NBHT with respect to the particle size of porous layer.
Chang and You [82] recorded the highest NBHT performance on
ð5Þ
20 lm particles among 2–70 lm samples (Fig. 17a). Hwang and
Kaviany [85] recorded relevantly higher NBHT on 40 lm particles
among 40, 80, and 200 lm particles (Fig. 17b). Liang and Yang
[75] reported that a copper composite porous surface with excel-
lent thermal conductivity showed the highest NBHT among
micro-graphite fiber, aluminum, and copper composite porous sur-
faces (Fig. 17c). Recently, Ahn et al. [102,103] reported that 3D gra-
phene foam with 5–10 lm pores demonstrated a significant
increase in NBHT because of their excellent thermal conductivity
(Fig. 17d).
Kim et al. [124] and Yao et al. [127,128] conducted pool boiling
experiments on silicon wafers with nanostructures on microstruc-
tures. Both showed higher NBHT on micro/nano structures than on
a plain heater surface (Fig. 18a and b). The increase in boiling heat
transfer on micro and nanostructures can be explained by the
changes in the bubble nucleation behavior, enlargement of surface
area, and mechanism of bubble growth. Chu et al. [35] conducted
pool boiling experiments on Si micro posts with different pitches
that provided lower NBHT than did a plain surface (Fig. 18c). The
reason for this result is regarded to be the inability of the uniform
posts with hundreds of micrometers size to contribute to the
increase in activated cavities. In contrast, Zou and Maroo [130]
reported a significant increase in NBHT on Si wafer surfaces with
ridges of height 500–1270 nm and pitch 450–750 nm (Fig. 18d).
Additionally, Dong et al. [131] demonstrated enhanced NBHT in
increasing order for the following: nanowires, nanocavities,
micropillars, and microcavities. These results can be clearly
explained after comprehensive consideration of the active nucleate
188 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 16. Boiling curves for surface roughness change: (a) [38], (b) [42], (c) [47], and (d) photographs of boiling process in water for varying heat flux and surface roughness
values [47].
site, wettability, bubble growth behavior, and so on, during vigor-
ous boiling.
NBHT enhancement through heater surface modification can be
explained with regard to the boiling heat partitioning model,
which was recently adopted, in general. The boiling heat flux in
the heat partitioning model consists of the quench, evaporation,
and convection heat flux components. Among them, it can be
assumed that convection heat flux is assumed to be negligible by
virtue of being extremely small for other components [136]. The
quench heat flux has been previously described in Eq. (5). The
evaporation heat flux is given by Eq. (6).
p X
Na
q00e ¼ qv hfg ðf b;n  D3b;n Þ
6A
n¼1
From Eqs. (5) and (6), the increase in active nucleation site density
(Na), bubble departure diameter (Db), bubble waiting time (tw), and
bubble departure frequency (fb) provides NBHT enhancement. In
the literatures described above, an increase in active nucleation site
density directly influences NBHT enhancement. Related literatures
have reported NBHT enhancement on the heater surface, which
can increase the active nucleate site density through surface rough-
ness modification, artificial cavity fabrication, and change in surface
wettability. Bubble departure frequency and diameter are strongly
related to the evaporation characteristics at the liquid/vapor inter-
face of the generated bubble. The evaporation region of the single
bubble interface can be separated as the intrinsic meniscus region,
which is formed as a result of the macroscopic force balance, and
the liquid microlayer at the narrow regions near liquid/vapor/solid
triple contact line (Fig. 19). As the liquid microlayer is very thin
(with thickness of only a few micrometers), the thermal resistance
between the heater surface and the liquid/vapor interface is very
low and hence, the evaporation mass flux per unit area at the micro-
layer is much higher than that at the intrinsic meniscus. Therefore,
enlargement of the liquid microlayer area and reduction of its thick-
ness through heater surface modification are effective ways to
increase NBHT. An increase in the evaporation mass flow rate at
ð6Þ
the interface is expected to cause an increase in the bubble depar-
ture frequency and thereby enhance NBHT under conditions of
same nucleate site density. NBHT enhancement on a heater surface
with nanowires and micropillars according to previous literatures is
related to the increase in the evaporation mass flow rate in the liq-
uid microlayer. Moreover, artificial cavity fabrication and change in
the surface wettability increases the possibility of trapping the gas
or vapor in the cavity, which can be activated relevantly at a lower
wall temperature, finally, enhancing NBHT.
Phan et al. [101] conducted pool boiling experiments on a metal
heater surface with various wettability values by coating several
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196 189

Fig. 17. NBHT results in porous structured surfaces: (a) [82], (b) [85], (c) [75], and (d) [102].

materials, and systematically illustrated the effect of wettability on At present, the heater surfaces engineered for NBHT enhance-
NBHT. According to them, a reduction in the wettability (increase ment are designed to explore various boiling heat transfer mecha-
in the contact angle) leads to an increase in the bubble departure nisms. Although they have resulted in remarkable NBHT
frequency, and decrease in the liquid microlayer thickness, thus enhancement, the existing physical understanding of bubble
contributing to boiling heat transfer enhancement. Additionally, dynamics is not adequate for explaining the boiling heat transfer
Yang and Kim [132], Wang and Dhir [133], and Hibiki and Ishii enhancement achieved during vigorous boiling. For resolving the
(Eq. (7)) [20] reported that surface wettability directly influences lack of the knowledge on the bubble dynamics, it might be needed
the active nucleation site density by modeling the active nucle- to investigate quantitatively the thin liquid film flow and the evap-
ation site as a function of the contact angle. oration physics near triple contact lines created on the periphery of
( !)    the nucleation sites. The growth and departure behavior of the sin-
h2 k0 gle and coalesced bubbles are significantly affected on the thin film
Na ¼ Na 1  exp  2 exp f ðqþ Þ 1 ;
8l Rc evaporation. Therefore, the considerations for the change of the
thin film evaporation behavior caused by the thin film liquid flow
Na ¼ 4:72  105 sites=m2 ; l ¼ 0:722 rad; k0 ¼ 2:50  106 m;
induced from the disjoining and capillary pressure effects should
2rf1 þ ðqg =qf Þg=Pf be added to the existing bubble dynamics models. The
Rc ¼ ;
expfifg ðT g  T sat Þ=ðRT g T sat Þg  1 micro/nanostructures on a surface can modify the disjoining and
f ðqþ Þ ¼ 0:01064 þ 0:48246qþ  0:22712qþ2 þ 0:05468qþ3 ; capillary pressure near the triple contact line through the change
qþ ¼ logðDq=qg Þ of microscopic parameters, such as the evaporating meniscus
shape and its interfacial area. Also, very precise experiments are
ð7Þ required for measuring the active nucleation site density, bubble
where R is the gas constant based on molecular weight. departure frequency, and diameter on the quantitative heater
190 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

Fig. 18. Pool boiling curves for micro/nanostructured surfaces: (a) [124], (b) [128], (c) [35], and (d) [130].

Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of single bubble on heat surface and arrangement of microlayer and intrinsic meniscus.

modification, and thereby establishing quantitative modeling. A
well-established NBHT model derived from theoretical under-
standing as well as experimental observations is expected to sig-
nificantly contribute to the development of optimal surfaces that
can result in NBHT enhancement.
4. Results and discussion of CHF on modified surfaces
CHF is an important parameter determining the safety of a boil-
ing system. Several surface modification techniques are available
for enhancing CHF, such as nanofluid boiling, porous layer coating,
enhancement of surface wettability, and micro/nanostructured
surface fabrication. As this phenomenon is extremely complicated
and even defining the triggering mechanism for CHF is extremely
difficult, well-established theories and explanations for CHF do
not exist as yet. However, several researchers have developed sur-
faces capable of significantly enhancing CHF and tried to partially
explain its physical nature. In this section, the results of the study
on CHF enhancement surfaces are introduced and explained.
After the study on CHF enhancement on nanofluids was con-
ducted by You et al. [21], several studies have been conducted on
dramatically increasing CHF of nanofluids. As mentioned above,
during the early stages, researchers focused the heat transfer abil-
ity of nanofluids. However Kim et al. [56] first reported that CHF
enhancement on nanofluids was triggered by nanoparticles deposi-
tion on the heater surface and not the heat transfer ability of nano-
fluids. Subsequent studies revealed that nucleate boiling beings
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
about nanoparticles deposition due to the fouling mechanism of
bubbling and that the nanoparticles deposition layer causes
micro/nanoscaled structures. Recently, significant enhancement
in CHF by nanofluid boiling is regarded to be possible by coating
micro/nanostructures on a heating surface. A few conjectures are
available to explain the effect of nanoparticles on CHF. One study
[60] enumerates that the change in liquid macrolayer thickness
is caused by enhanced surface wettability, promotion of heat
dissipation of the hot and dry spot owing to thermal conductivity
enhancement, increase in evaporation recoil force due to higher
wettability, and reduced nucleate bubble interaction owing to an
increase in the wettability increase brings about CHF enhancement
on nanoparticles-coated surfaces. Another study [37] emphasizes
that an improvement in capillary wicking owing to the formation
of a porous layer by the nanoparticles causes CHF enhancement.
Pool boiling tests on porous layer surfaces with pores of one 
hundreds of micrometers size have produced CHF enhancement.
Studies [82,83] on surfaces with microporous enhancement coat-
ings have produced CHF enhancement by as much as 100% over
the reference surface (Fig. 20a). They reported that large-sized
(100 lm) pores offer more efficient liquid/vapor exchange chan-
nels that result in increased convection heat transfer. Liter and
Kaviany [24] obtained significant CHF enhancement results from
pool boiling tests with modulated porous layer-coated surfaces.
Fig. 20. CHF enhancement results for microporous surfaces: (a) [83], (b) [24], and (c) [84].
191
Particularly, the results indicated approximately three times higher
CHF performance on the dual-height modulated surface than that
on a plain surface (Fig. 20b). Based on the theories of Kutateladze
[22] and Zuber [23], the researchers reported that a heater surface
coated with a modulated porous layer can control the wavelength
of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability and thereby, enhance the CHF
value. In another study [84], a microporous coating was formed
on a platinum wire using the previously discussed DOM coating
method to achieve a much higher (more than twice) CHF value on
a porous layered surface than that on a plain surface (Fig. 20c).
The researchers conjectured that microporous coating delays the
transfer of CHF through reduced bubble diameters at increased
bubble frequencies, which provides significantly more convection
heat transfer contribution than does the plain surface, and
increased hydrodynamic stability as a result of increased vapor
bubble inertia. Ahn et al. [102] conducted water pool boiling experi-
ments with a surface with 3D graphene foam, and observed 80%
enhancement of CHF value compared to that on a plain surface.
They suggested thermal conductivity increase (due to graphene
structures) and the promotion of liquid capillary flow caused by
3D porous structures as the reasons for CHF enhancement.
Some researchers have tried to examine the effect of surface
wettability alone on CHF enhancement. In one such study [32],
heater surfaces without any change in surface morphology and
192 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196

treated with TiO2 coating to control surface wettability were pre- [100] coated a very thin Al2O3 layer on a Pt wire while maintaining
pared. Water pool boiling tests on these surfaces produced greater the roughness of the bare wire. The coated surface demonstrated a
CHF enhancement with a decrease in the static contact angle. In much lower static contact angle and significantly higher CHF val-
another study [87], boiling experiments were conducted on a super ues than did the bare surface. They reported that CHF enhance-
hydrophobic surface coated with PTFE. Stable film boiling occurred ment in the coated surfaces can be explained by the larger
under very small superheating and no nucleate boiling region was amount of liquid present in the macrolayer as a result of high adhe-
observed, i.e., the CHF value significantly decreased. Forrest et al. sion energy and hence, improved wettability of Al2O3.
[73] reported that only a receding contact angle can influence Recently, CHF enhancement has been reported for surfaces with
CHF enhancement through thin-film coating with fluorosilane on vertically aligned micro/nanostructures such as nanowires
a heater surface, which implies that a static and advancing contact [105,106], micropillars [35], CNTs [111,112], and microridges
angle indicates hydrophobic characteristics whereas a receding [130]. Researchers have suggested wettability increase, surface
contact angle indicates hydrophilic characteristics. Feng et al. area enhancement, and efficient liquid wicking (due to the

Table 6
Theoretical CHF models for micro/nano-structured surfaces.

Ref. CHF correlation Remarks

Kandlikar [30] 1=2
h i1=4 Irreversible vapor bubble spreading based on
0:5 1þcos b 2 p
q00CHF ¼ hlg q g 16 p þ 4 ð1 þ cos bÞ cos / rgðql  qg Þ
the relation between surface adhesion force of
b  dynamic receding contact angle liquid and vapor recoil force
/  inclination angle of the heater surface to the horizontal base
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi h i
Polezhaev and Kovalev [137] r qq Based on hydrodynamic theory by Kutateladze
q00CHF ¼ kp =kl q00CHF-bare ¼ 0:52e2:28 hfg ðq fgþqf Þrgpo
f r
[22] and Zuber [23], Rayleigh–Taylor instabil-
kp  critical instability wavelength on bare surface
ity wavelength change due to porous struc-
kl  critical instability wavelength on surface with microscale coating tures
ew  porosity of the whole nanowire array
r po  diameter of the breakthrough bubbles
Liter and Kaviany [24] 1=2 rfg qg 1=2 Consideration of balance between capillary
q00CHF ¼ p8 qg hfg km
pumping force and liquid viscous drag along its
km  critical instability wavelength on modified surface flow path
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Kim and Kim [37] q00CHF ¼ 0:98Dq00capillary þ q00CHF-bare ¼ 0:98hfg qeð2pr b sin hdporous Þ 2rfg cos h=qf Rc =4r 2b CHF enhancement effect owing to capillary
wicking ability in porous layers formed by
þ q00CHF-bare
nanoparticles
h  ðapparentÞcontact angle
e  porosity of nano deposition layer
r b  heater diameter
dporous  thin porous layer thickness
Rc  radius of microscopic structure
Ahn et al. [110] q00CHF ¼ q00CHF Kandlikar þ q00spreading liquid supplying Consideration of CHF enhancement effect
1=2 1þcos hD 2 p 1=2 owing to liquid spreading due to
¼ S  hfg q g 16 p þ 4 ð1 þ cos hD Þ cos / micro/nanostructures
h i1=4 2 3 
rfg gðqf  qg Þ þ 14 p kRcurvature hD 3 
hD dRcurvature
dt
þ 4kRcurvature ddt
hD

qf hfg =Aheating surface

S  constant factor ð0:823Þ

hD  ðapparentÞtime-averaged dynamic contact angle
/  inclined angle of the heater
Rcurvature  time-averaged curvature of the spreading droplet on the heater
k  effective parameterð0:6Þ
Aheating surface  heater area

Chu et al. [35]
Zou and Maroo [130]
Park and Bang [26]
h i1=2 h i1=4 Based on study [30], considering increase of
1þcos hD 2ð1þr cos hD;0 Þ 1=2
q00CHF ¼ 16 pð1þcos hD Þ þ p4 ð1 þ cos hD Þ cos / hfg qg rfg gðqf  qg Þ
solid–liquid adhesion force owing to increase
r  roughness ratio in length of triple contact line by micropillars
hD;0  ðintrinsicÞdynamic contact angle
hD  ðapparentÞdynamic contact angle
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
q00CHF ¼ C f 2pklp ffiffiffiffiffiffi N a ½D2b f ne f b f b ¼ V VV
ðT w T sat Þ
pa b
b
ne
; V b ¼ p6 ðr b þ r b cos hÞ½3r 2b sin2 h Consideration of additional evaporation of
f
metastable non-evaporating film beneath
2 RT sat
þðr b þ r b cos hÞ ; V ne ¼ 2qf p r 2ne d0 ðPf þ2 rfg =rb Þ vapor bubble by fragmentation of film owing
C f  the difference in the quenching heat flux ð1:35Þ to presence of vertically arranged microridges
kf  liquid thermal conductivity
af  liquid thermal diffusivity
Db  bubble departure diameter
f ne  the film evaporation factor
f b  bubble departure frequency
V b  bubble departure volume
V ne  equivalent vapor volume of the non-evaporating
liquid fime underneath the bubble
r b  bubble departure radius
d0  non-evaporation film thickness
3 3 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Based on study [24], change in Rayleigh–Taylor
q00CHF ¼ kbare
km q00CHF-bare ¼ kbare
km
p
24 q1=2
g hfg
4
rfg gðqf  qg Þ
instability wavelength due to porous struc-
kbare  critical instability wavelength on bare surface tures formed by nanoparticles coating
km  critical instability wavelength on modified surface
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
Fig. 21. Droplet wetting phenomena in different states of microstructured surfaces.
presence of vertical micro/nano structures) as the main reasons for
CHF enhancement. Particularly, Chu et al. [35] and Zou et al. [130]
presented interesting explanations for CHF enhancement on the
surfaces they developed. Based on Kandlikar’s theory [30] (Eq.
(8)), Chu et al. [35] hypothesized that micropillar structures can
enhance the length of the liquid–vapor–solid triple contact line
and consequently, the increase in solid–liquid adhesion force,
which contributes to CHF enhancement.
  1=2 h
1 þ cosb p 2
q00CHF ¼ hlg q0:5
g þ ð1 þ cosbÞ cos/ rgðql  qg Þ
16 p 4
where b is the dynamic receding contact angle and / is the inclina-
tion angle of the heater surface to the horizontal base.
Zou and Maroo concerned a metastable non-evaporating film
beneath a vapor bubble and hypothesized that the will be frag-
mented by the microridges vertically arranged on the heating sur-
face, and as it can be evaporated, the CHF value on the surface will
be enhanced.
More recently, by means of the accumulated knowledge on CHF
enhancement, surfaces with micro/nano hybrid structures have
been fabricated, and their performances validated by boiling tests
[110,124,128].
Although the CHF phenomenon is an extremely complicated
mechanism that occurs in a severe boiling state, certain theoretical
models to predict the CHF value for a micro/nanostructured surface
are available. Table 6 shows these CHF models with brief remarks.
In summary, the characteristics of boiling surfaces with
enhanced CHF may be presented as follows:
 High surface wettability (small liquid contact angle).
 Micro/nano-sized roughness.
 Micro-sized porous structures.
The above parameters do not occur independently but are clo-
sely connected. Surface wettability is intimately related to surface
roughness, produced by micro/nanostructures and porous struc-
tures. If a droplet is placed on a rough surface, it will have various
wetting states based on the surface conditions. A droplet placed on
a hydrophilic rough surface is generally in the Wenzel state
(Fig. 21a) and the surface is fully wetted. However, on a hydropho-
bic rough surface, the droplet is in the Cassie state (Fig. 21b) and
the surface is partially wetted. Particularly, on a hydrophilic sur-
face with relatively high roughness, the droplet is in the sunny-
side-up state (Fig. 21b) and a spreading precursor is formed as a
result of the capillary wicking ability. The velocity of the spreading
precursor is influenced by the surface roughness. Thus, the change
in wettability due to the presence of micro/nano structures can
affect the liquid rewetting phenomenon, and thereby significantly
enhance the CHF value for a micro/nano-structured heating
surface.
Furthermore, micro/nanostructures themselves may signifi-
cantly influence the evaporation behavior at the bubble interface.
As these structures can change the formation and occupying area
193
of the microlayer owing to their small sizes (of a few micrometers),
evaporation at the liquid–vapor interface is capable of being pro-
moted on their surfaces. This will affect the bubble growth behav-
ior comprising of bubble departure diameter, growth rate, and
departure frequency and thereby, enhance the CHF value.
Furthermore, micro/nanostructures significantly influence the
thermal conductivity, solid–liquid adhesion force, capillary wick-
ing, and Rayleigh–Taylor instability wavelength, judging from pre-
i1=4 vious studies.
Therefore, for designing an optimum CHF enhancement surface,
a comprehensive understanding of existing theoretical and experi-
ð8Þ mental researches is necessary.
5. Concluding remarks
In this review paper, micro/nanostructured surfaces, which
have been designed to enhance boiling heat transfer, are intro-
duced and the characteristics of these surfaces are explained in
view of NBHT and CHF. Additionally, detailed fabrication tech-
niques used for achieving the modified surfaces are described.
The features of existing surfaces capable of enhancing NBHT can
be summarized as follows:
 Increase in active nucleation site density with randomly formed
micro/nano-sized roughness.
 Ability of vapor/gas entrapment to enhance cavities by reen-
trant cavities fabrication and wettability control (increase in
liquid contact angle).
 Favorable bubble initiation, growth, and departure on microp-
orous layered surface.
 Promotion of evaporation mass flux at vapor–liquid interface by
micro/nanostructures.
The features presented above appear to be closely related. If one
surface has higher vapor entrapment ability, the active nucleation
site density of the surface would be larger and the bubble initia-
tion, growth, and departure behavior, more active. Therefore, for
designing a surface with optimal NBHT performance, the compre-
hensive consideration of these advantages is required.
The characteristics of the CHF enhancement surfaces introduced
in this paper can be categorized as follows:
 Highly liquid-wettable surface (small liquid contact angle).
 Surfaces with micro/nano-sized roughness.
 Micro-sized porous structures.
It has been hitherto difficult to strongly establish CHF enhance-
ment mechanisms for modified surfaces. Surfaces with micro/-
nano-sized roughness and porous structures can directly
contribute to the liquid wettability of a surface. Micro/nano struc-
tures also significantly influence thermal conductivity, solid–liquid
adhesion force, capillary wicking and even the Rayleigh–Taylor
instability wavelength. As a universal theory for CHF mechanism
does not exist as yet, a comprehensive understanding of existing
194 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
studies is necessary for designing an optimum CHF enhancement
surface.
From the above outcomes and the existing experimental results,
we can suggest the types of the surface morphology in order to
enhance both NBHT and CHF. The surfaces available for simultane-
ously enhancing NBHT and CHF would have the micro-sized por-
ous structure [75,83–85,102] or micro/nano-sized roughness
[124,128]. The micro-porous and small size roughness structures
on a surface can play the important role to increase the active
nucleation cavities and promote bubble initiation and growth, thus
NBHT enhanced. Also, the micro-sized channels created by the sur-
face morphologies can provide the additional passages for the liq-
uid intake and vapor discharge on a boiling surface, and CHF
enhancement achieved.
Although several boiling enhancement surfaces with innovative
performance have been developed, a few critical engineering prob-
lems still exist. Among these, the representative aspect is durabil-
ity against mechanical and thermal stress, and chemical corrosion.
Particularly, the micro/nano structures (nanowires, micropillars
CNTs, etc.) fabricated using a current wafer-scale fabrication tech-
nique might fail to maintain the original shape in harsh environ-
ments containing mechanical and pressure impact, thermal
stress, fouling and chemical corrosion. Amongst the surface
fabrication techniques described in this paper, the machining tech-
niques are recommendable in view of durability but current
machining techniques have a critical limitation with regard to
the fabrication of micro/nano-sized structures. Thus, the develop-
ment of fabrication techniques (involving machining, coating,
chemical processes, and MEMS/NEMS) for achieving more durable
micro/nano structures may be regarded as an important future
work.
Additionally, in view of NBHT, the onset of nucleate boiling
(ONB), single bubble growth, bubble coalescence, and mushroom
bubble generation, which are key mechanisms of boiling, should
be quantitatively studied. The physical definitions and reasonable
explanations for CHF and its triggering mechanism also have to
be understood. From the ONB, the surface condition would
strongly influence the entire boiling regime (single bubble growth,
bubble coalescence, and mushroom bubble generation), finally
CHF. However, the recent reports of CHF enhancement provided
the reduced Rayleigh–Taylor instability wavelength at film boiling
condition [25,26]. As previously described in Section 3 and 4, the
bubble behavior such as nucleation, growth, and departure was
basically induced by the phase change phenomena from liquid to
vapor. Thus, the wet liquid on the heater surface would be an
important parameter to explain the NBHT and CHF mechanism
according to the surface condition. On the other hand, even though
the liquid cannot contact on the heater surface in film boiling such
as quenching experiment, the pool boiling curve from quenching of
the micro/nano structured surfaces shows the enhancement of CHF
and minimum heat flux point. In addition, the Leidenfrost point on
the micro/nano structured surfaces is also higher than it on bare
surface [138]. Here, we raised interesting questions as follows.
 If the surface condition would influence the entire boiling
regime from ONB to CHF by means of liquid wetting, how the
surface condition in film boiling leads the reduced Rayleigh–
Taylor instability wavelength?
 In quenching process from film boiling to nucleate boiling, the
boiling curve shows the enhancement of CHF and minimum
heat flux point. At the early state of quenching (film boiling),
how the vapor film feels the nano/microstructures without
any liquid contact to a surface?
 Based on above questions, could the surface condition influence
on the entire boiling regime understand beyond the CHF?
Considering the above questions, we strongly recommend that
the further researches should be conducted with the insights of
the full coverage of an entire boiling regime according to the sur-
face condition.
In conclusion, this review article provided the state-of-art of
several researches on boiling enhancement surfaces. The fabrica-
tion techniques used for the engineered surfaces were classified
and described in detail. Explanations and analysis of the results
of boiling heat transfer enhancement tests were provided sepa-
rately considering NBHT and CHF. Based on this review, it is clear
that a well-established boiling heat transfer model and compre-
hensive understanding of the NBHT and CHF enhancement mecha-
nisms are necessary for designing and fabricating an optimized
surface for boiling heat transfer.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Kyungpook National University
Research Fund, 2014.
References
[1] S. Nukiyama, The maximum and minimum values of heat Q transmitted from
metal to boiling water under atmospheric pressure, J. Jap. Soc. Mech. Eng. 37
(1934) 367–374. translated in Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 9 (1966) 1419–1433.
[2] M. Jakob, W. Linke, Phys. Z. 36 (1935) 267.
[3] T.B. Drew, C. Mueller, Boiling, Trans. AAIChE 33 (1937) 449.
[4] I.C. Bang, J.H. Jeong, Nanotechnology for advanced nuclear thermal-hydraulics
and safety: boiling and condensation, Nucl. Eng. Technol. 43 (2011) 217–242.
[5] H. Kim, Enhancement of critical heat flux in nucleate boiling of nanofluids: a
state-of-art review, Nanoscale Res. Lett. 6 (2011) 415.
[6] H.S. Ahn, M.H. Kim, A review on critical hat flux enhancement with nanofluids
and surface modification, J. Heat Transfer 134 (2) (2012) 024001.
[7] M. Shojaeian, A. Kosßar, Pool boiling and flow boiling on micro- and
nanostructured surfaces, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 63 (2015) 45–73.
[8] W.M. Rohsenow, A method of correlating heat transfer data for surface boiling
of liquids, Trans. ASME 84 (1962) 969.
[9] H.K. Forster, N. Zuber, Dynamics of vapor bubbles and boiling heat transfer,
AIChE J. 1 (1955) 531.
[10] K. Stephan, M. Abdelsalam, Heat-transfer correlations for natural convection
boiling, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 23 (1980) 73–87.
[11] N. Kurul, M.Z. Podowski, Multidimensional effects in forced convection
subcooled boiling, in: Proceedings of the 9th International Heat Transfer
Conference, Jerusalem, Israel, 1990, pp. 21–25.
[12] R.W. Bowring, Physical model based on bubble detachment and calculation of
steam voidage in the subcooled region of a heated channel, OECD Halden
Reactor Project Report HPR-10, 1962.
[13] M. Jakob, Heat transfer in evaporation and condensation—I, Mech. Eng. (Am.
Soc. Mech. Eng.) 58 (1936) 643–660.
[14] J.W. Westwater, Boiling Heat Transfer, Am. Sci. 47 (1958) 427–446.
[15] H.B. Clark, P.S. Strenge, J.W. Westwater, Active sites for nucleate boiling,
Chem. Eng. Prog., Symp. Ser. 55 (29) (1959) 103–110.
[16] S.G. Bankoff, Ebullition from solid surfaces in the absence of a pre-existing
gaseous phase, Trans. ASME 79 (1958) 735–740.
[17] S.G. Bankoff, Entrapment of gas in the spreading of a liquid over a rough
surface, AIChE J. 4 (1) (1958) 24–26.
[18] P. Griffith, J.D. Wallis, The role of surface conditions in nucleate boiling, Chem.
Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser. 56 (30) (1960) 49–63.
[19] M.G. Cooper, A.J.P. Lloyd, The microlayer in nucleate pool boiling, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 12 (1969) 895–914.
[20] T. Hibiki, M. Ishii, Active nucleation site density in boiling system, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 46 (2003) 2587–2601.
[21] S.M. You, J.H. Kim, K.H. Kim, Effect of nanoparticles on critical heat flux of
water in pool boiling heat transfer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83 (16) (2003) 3374–
3376.
[22] S.S. Kutateladze, On the transition to film boiling under natural convection,
Kotloturbostroenie No. 3, 1948, 10.
[23] N. Zuber, Hydrodynamic aspects of boiling heat transfer, AEC Rep., AECU-
4439, 1959, June.
[24] S.G. Liter, M. Kaviany, Pool-boiling CHF enhancement by modulated porous-
layer coating: theory and experiment, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 44 (22)
(2001) 4287–4311.
[25] S.D. Park, S.W. Lee, S. Kang, I.C. Bang, J.H. Kim, H.S. Shin, D.W. Lee, D.W. Lee,
Effects of nanofluids containing graphene/graphene-oxide nanosheets on
critical heat flux, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97 (2010) 023103.
[26] S.D. Park, I.C. Bang, Experimental study of a universal CHF enhancement
mechanism in nanofluids using hydrodynamic instability, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 70 (2014) 844–850.
 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
[27] Y. Haramura, Y. Katto, A new hydrodynamic model of critical heat flux,
applicable widely to both pool and forced convection boiling on submerged
bodies in saturated liquids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 26 (3) (1983) 389–399.
[28] S.P. Liaw, V.K. Dhir, Effect of surface wettability on transition boiling heat
transfer from a vertical surface, in: Proceedings of the 8th International Heat
Transfer Conference, vol. 4, San Francisco, CA, 1986, pp. 2031–2036.
[29] J.M. Ramilison, P. Sadasivan, J.H. Lienhard, Surface factors influencing burnout
on flat heaters, ASME J. Heat Transfer 114 (1) (1992) 287–290.
[30] S.G. Kandlikar, A theoretical model to predict pool boiling CHF incorporating
effects of contact angle and orientation, ASME J. Heat Transfer 123 (2001)
1071–1079.
[31] T.G. Theofanous, T.N. Dinh, J.P. Tu, A.T. Dihn, The boiling crisis phenomenon:
Part II: dryout dynamics and burnout, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 26 (2002) 793–
810.
[32] Y. Takata, S. Hidaka, J.M. Cao, T. Nakamura, H. Yamamoto, M. Masuda, T. Ito,
Effect of surface wettability on boiling and evaporation, Energy 30 (2005)
209–220.
[33] V.S. Nikolayev, D.A. Beysens, Boiling crisis and non-equilibrium drying
transition, Europhys. Lett. 47 (1999) 345–351.
[34] V.S. Nikolayev, D. Chatain, Y. Garrabos, D. Beysens, Experimental evidence of
the vapor recoil mechanism in the boiling crisis, Phys. Rev. Lett. 97 (2006)
184503.
[35] K.H. Chu, R. Enright, E.N. Wang, Structured surfaces for enhanced pool boiling
heat transfer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 100 (2012) 241603.
[36] S.J. Kim, I.C. Bang, J. Buongiorno, L.W. Hu, Surface wettability change during
boiling of nanofluids and its effect on critical heat flux, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 50 (2007) 4105–4116.
[37] H.D. Kim, M.H. Kim, Effect of nanoparticle deposition on capillary wicking
that influences the critical heat flux in nanofluids, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91 (2007)
014104.
[38] R.J. Benjamin, A.R. Balakrishnan, Nucleation site density in pool boiling of
saturated pure liquids: effect of surface microroughness and surface and
liquid physical properties, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 15 (1997) 32–42.
[39] L.H. Chien, R.L. Webb, Visualization of pool boiling on enhanced surfaces, Exp.
Thermal Fluid Sci. 16 (1998) 332–341.
[40] L.H. Chien, R.L. Webb, Measurement of bubble dynamics on an enhanced
boiling surface, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 16 (1998) 177–186.
[41] L.H. Chien, R.L. Webb, A nucleate boiling model for structured enhanced
surfaces, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 41 (14) (1998) 2183–2195.
[42] M.G. Kang, Effect of surface roughness on pool boiling heat transfer, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 43 (2000) 4073–4085.
[43] G. Guglielmini, M. Misale, C. Schenone, Boiling of saturated FC-72 on square
pin fin arrays, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 41 (2002) 599–608.
[44] S. Kotthoff, D. Gorenflo, E. Danger, A. Luke, Heat transfer and bubble
formation in pool boiling: effect of basic surface modifications for heat
transfer enhancement, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 45 (2006) 217–236.
[45] Y. Chi, Y. Tang, J.C. Chen, X.X. Deng, L. Liu, Z.P. Wan, Z.Q. Liu, Forming process
of cross-connected finned micro-grooves in copper strips, Trans. Nonferrous
Met. Soc. China 17 (2007) 267–272.
[46] S.W. Chen, J.C. Hsieh, C.T. Chou, H.H. Lin, S.C. Shen, M.J. Tsai, Experimental
investigation and visualization on capillary and boiling limits of micro-
grooves made by different processes, Sens. Actuat. A 139 (2007) 78–87.
[47] B.J. Jones, J.P. McHale, S.V. Garimella, The influence of surface roughness on
nucleate pool boiling heat transfer, ASME J. Heat Transfer 131 (2009) 121009.
[48] A.K. Das, P.K. Das, P. Saha, Performance of different structured surfaces in
nucleate pool boiling, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 3643–3653.
[49] R. Hosseini, A. Gholaminejad, M. Nabil, Concerning the effect of surface
material on nucleate boiling heat transfer of R-113, J. Electron. Cooling
Thermal Control 1 (2011) 22–27.
[50] Y. Watanabe, K. Nagato, N. Shikazono, M. Nakao, Improvement of heat
transfer coefficient of boiling surface on nanostructured metal using
nanoimprinting, from aspe.net, 2012.
[51] S.G. Kandlikar, Controlling bubble motion over heated surface through
evaporation momentum force to enhance pool boiling heat transfer, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 102 (2013) 051611.
[52] T. Chen, An experimental investigation of nucleate boiling heat transfer from
an enhanced cylindrical surface, Appl. Therm. Eng. 59 (2013) 355–361.
[53] S.U.S. Choi, Enhancing thermal conductivity of fluids with nanoparticles, in:
D.A. Siginer, H.P. Wang (Eds.), Developments and Applications of Non-
Newtonian Flows, ASME, New York, 1995, pp. 99–105. FED – Vol. 231/MD –
Vol. 66.
[54] J.A. Eastman, S.U.S. Choi, S. Li, W. Yu, L.J. Thompson, Anomalously increased
effective thermal conductivities of ethylene glycol-based nanofluids
containing copper nanoparticles, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78 (2001) 718–720.
[55] P. Vassallo, R. Kumar, S.D. Amico, Pool boiling heat transfer experiments in
silica–water nano-fluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 47 (2004) 407–411.
[56] H. Kim, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, Effect of nanoparticles on CHF enhancement in pool
boiling of nano-fluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 5070–5074.
[57] I.C. Bang, S.H. Chang, Boiling heat transfer performance and phenomena of
Al2O3–water nano-fluids from a plain surface in a pool, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 48 (2005) 2407–2419.
[58] S.K. Das, N. Putra, W. Roetzel, Pool boiling of nano-fluids on horizontal narrow
tubes, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 29 (2003) 1237–1247.
[59] S.K. Das, N. Putra, W. Roetzel, Pool boiling characteristics of nano-fluids, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 46 (2003) 851–862.
195
[60] S.J. Kim, I.C. Bang, J. Buongiorno, L.W. Hu, Effects of nanoparticle deposition
on surface wettability influencing boiling heat transfer in nanofluids, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 89 (2006) 153107.
[61] H.D. Kim, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, Experimental studies on CHF characteristics of
nano-fluids at pool boiling, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 33 (2007) 691–706.
[62] M. Chopkar, A.K. Das, I. Manna, P.K. Das, Pool boiling heat transfer
characteristics of ZrO2–water nanofluids from a flat surface in a pool, Heat
Mass Transfer 44 (2008) 999–1004.
[63] Y.H. Jeong, W.J. Chang, S.H. Chang, Wettability of heated surfaces under pool
boiling using surfactant solutions and nano-fluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
51 (2008) 3025–3031.
[64] V. Trisaksri, S. Wongwises, Nucleate pool boiling heat transfer of TiO2-R141b
nanofluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 1582–1588.
[65] H. Kim, M. Kim, Experimental study of the characteristics and mechanism of
pool boiling CHF enhancement using nanofluids, Heat Mass Transfer 45
(2009) 991–998.
[66] H. Kim, H.S. Ahn, M.H. Kim, On the mechanism of pool boiling critical heat
flux enhancement in nanofluids, ASME J. Heat Transfer 132 (2010) 061501.
[67] S.B. White, A.J. Shih, K.P. Pipe, Effects of nanoparticle layering on nanofluid
and base fluid pool boiling heat transfer from a horizontal surface under
atmospheric pressure, J. Appl. Phys. 107 (2010) 114302.
[68] D. Wen, M. Corr, X. Hua, G. Lin, Boiling heat transfer of nanofluids: the effect
of heating surface modification, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 50 (2011) 480–485.
[69] S.B. White, A.J. Shih, K.P. Pipe, Boiling surface enhancement by
electrophoretic deposition of particles from a nanofluid, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 54 (2011) 4370–4375.
[70] M. Kole, T.K. Dey, Investigations on the pool boiling heat transfer and critical
heat flux of ZnO–ethylene glycol nanofluids, Appl. Therm. Eng. 37 (2012)
112–119.
[71] D. Wen, Influence of nanoparticles on boiling heat transfer, Appl. Therm. Eng.
41 (2012) 2–9.
[72] J.Y. Jung, E.S. Kim, Y.T. Kang, Stabilizer effect on CHF and boiling heat transfer
coefficient of alumina/water nanofluids, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 55 (2012)
1941–1946.
[73] E. Forrest, E. Williamson, J. Buongiorno, L.W. Hu, M. Rubner, R. Cohen,
Augmentation of nucleate boiling heat transfer and critical heat flux using
nanoparticle thin-film coatings, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53 (2010) 58–67.
[74] W.J. Yang, H. Takizawa, Augmented boiling on copper–graphite composite
surface, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 34 (1991) 2751–2758.
[75] H.S. Liang, W.J. Yang, Nucleate pool boiling heat transfer in a highly wetting
liquid on micro-graphite–fiber composite surfaces, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
41 (13) (1998) 1993–2001.
[76] M.S. El-Genk, J.L. Parker, Pool boiling in saturated and subcooled hfe-7100
dielectric fluid from a porous graphite surface, in: The 9th Intersociety
Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic
Systems, 2004, ITHERM’04, IEEE, 2004.
[77] J.L. Parker, M.S. El-Genk, Effect of surface orientation on nucleate boiling of
FC-72 on porous graphite, ASME J. Heat Transfer 128 (2006) 1159–1175.
[78] S. Vemuri, K.J. Kim, Pool boiling of saturated FC-72 on nano-porous surface,
Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer 32 (2005) 27–31.
[79] J. Tehver, H. Sui, V. Temkina, Heat transfer and hysteresis phenomena in
boiling on porous plasma-sprayed surface, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 5 (1992)
714–727.
[80] S.S. Hsieh, C.J. Weng, Nucleate pool boiling from coated surfaces in saturated
R-134a and R-407c, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 40 (3) (1997) 519–532.
[81] J.T. Cieslinski, Nucleate pool boiling on porous metallic coatings, Exp. Thermal
Fluid Sci. 25 (2002) 557–564.
[82] J.Y. Chang, S.M. You, Boiling heat transfer phenomena from microporous and
porous surfaces in saturated FC-72, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 40 (18) (1997)
4437–4447.
[83] J.Y. Chang, S.M. You, Enhanced boiling heat transfer from microporous
surfaces: effects of a coating composition and method, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 40 (18) (1997) 4449–4460.
[84] J.H. Kim, K.N. Rainey, S.M. You, J.Y. Pak, Mechanism of nucleate boiling heat
transfer enhancement from microporous surfaces in saturated FC-72, ASME J.
Heat Transfer 124 (2002) 500–506.
[85] G.S. Hwang, M. Kaviany, Critical heat flux in thin, uniform particle coatings,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 49 (2006) 844–849.
[86] C.H. Li, T. Li, P. Hodgins, C.N. Hunter, A.A. Voevodin, J.G. Jones, G.P. Peterson,
Comparison study of liquid replenishing impacts on critical heat flux and heat
transfer coefficient of nucleate pool boiling on multiscale modulated porous
structures, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 3146–3155.
[87] Y. Takata, S. Hidaka, T. Uraguchi, Boiling feature on a super water-repellent
surface, Heat Transfer Eng. 27 (8) (2006) 25–30.
[88] H.S. Ahn, N. Sinha, M. Zhang, D. Banerjee, S. Fang, R.H. Baughman, Pool boiling
experiments on multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) forests, ASME J. Heat
Transfer 128 (2006) 1335–1342.
[89] H.S. Ahn, V. Sathyamurthi, D. Banerjee, Pool boiling experiments on a nano-
structured surface, IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Technol. 32 (1) (2009) 156–
165.
[90] C. Li, Z. Wang, P.I. Wang, Y. Peles, N. Koratkar, G.P. Peterson, Nanostructured
copper interfaces for enhanced boiling, Small 4 (8) (2008) 1084–10188.
[91] J.A. Weibel, S.S. Kim, T.S. Fisher, S.V. Garimella, Crbon nanotube coatings for
enhanced capillary-fed boiling from porous microstructures, Nanoscale
Microscale Thermophys. Eng. 16 (2012) 1–17.
196 D.E. Kim et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015) 173–196
[92] J.P. McHale, S.V. Garimella, T.S. Fisher, G.A. Powell, Pool boiling performance
comparison of smooth and sintered copper surfaces with and without carbon
nanotubes, Nanoscale Microscale Thermophys. Eng. 15 (2011) 133–150.
[93] X. Dai, X. Huang, F. Yang, X. Li, J. Sightler, Y. Yang, C. Li, Enhanced nucleate
boiling on horizontal hydrophobic–hydrophilic carbon nanotube coatings,
Appl. Phys. Lett. 102 (2013) 161605.
[94] S. Li, R. Furberg, M.S. Toprak, B. Palm, M. Muhammed, Nature-inspired boiling
enhancement by novel nanostructured macroporous surfaces, Adv. Funct.
Mater. 18 (2008) 2215–2220.
[95] R. Furberg, B. Palm, Boiling heat transfer on a dendritic and microporous
surface in R134a and FC-72, Appl. Therm. Eng. 31 (16) (2011) 3595–3603.
[96] A.F. Ali, M.S. El-Genk, Effect of inclination on saturation boiling of PF-5060
dielectric liquid on 80- and 137-lm thick copper micro-porous surfaces, Int. J.
Therm. Sci. 53 (2012) 42–48.
[97] T.J. Hendricks, S. Krishnan, C. Choi, C.H. Chang, B. Paul, Enhancement of pool-
boiling heat transfer using nanostructured surfaces on aluminum and copper,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53 (2010) 3357–3365.
[98] A.R. Betz, J. Xu, H. Qiu, D. Attinger, Do surfaces with mixed hydrophilic and
hydrophobic areas enhance pool boiling?, Appl Phys. Lett. 97 (2010) 141909.
[99] A.R. Betz, J.R. Jenkins, C.J. Kim, D. Attinger, Significant boiling enhancement
with surfaces combining superhydrophilic and superhydrophobic patterns,
in: IEEE 24th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
(MEMS), 2011, pp. 1193–1196.
[100] B. Feng, K. Weaver, G.P. Peterson, Enhancement of critical heat flux in pool
boiling using atomic layer deposition of alumina, Appl. Phys. Lett. 100 (2012)
053120.
[101] H.T. Phan, N. Caney, P. Marty, S. Colasson, J. Gavillet, Surface wettability
control by nanocoating: the effects on pool boiling heat transfer and
nucleation mechanism, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 5459–5471.
[102] H.S. Ahn, J.M. Kim, C. Park, J.W. Jang, J.S. Lee, H. Kim, M. Kaviany, M.H. Kim, A
novel role of three dimensional graphene foam to prevent heater failure
during boiling, Sci. Rep. 3 (1960) (2013) 1–7.
[103] H.S. Ahn, J.M. Kim, M. Kaviany, M.H. Kim, Pool boiling experiments in reduced
graphene oxide colloids part II – behavior after the CHF, and boiling
hysteresis, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 78 (2014) 224–231.
[104] C. Ramaswamy, Y. Joshi, W. Nakayama, W.B. Johnson, High-speed
visualization of boiling from an enhanced structure, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 45 (2002) 4761–4771.
[105] R. Chen, M.C. Lu, V. Srinivasan, Z. Wang, H.H. Cho, A. Majumdar, Nanowires
for enhanced boiling heat transfer, Nano Lett. 9 (2) (2009) 548–553.
[106] M.C. Lu, R. Chen, V. Srinivasan, V.P. Carey, A. Majumdar, Critical heat flux of
pool boiling on Si nanowire array-coated surfaces, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
54 (2011) 5359–5367.
[107] C.Y. Lee, M.M.H. Bhuiya, K.J. Kim, Pool boiling heat transfer with nano-porous
surface, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53 (2010) 4274–4279.
[108] B.J. Zhang, K.J. Kim, H. Yoon, Enhanced heat transfer performance of alumina
sponge-like nano-porous structures through surface wettability control in
nucleate pool boiling, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 7487–7498.
[109] H.S. Ahn, C. Lee, H. Kim, H.J. Jo, S.H. Kang, J. Kim, J. Shin, M.H. Kim, Pool boiling
CHF enhancement by micro/nanoscale modification of zircaloy-4 surface,
Nucl. Eng. Des. 240 (2010) 3350–3360.
[110] H.S. Ahn, H.J. Jo, S.H. Kang, M.H. Kim, Effect of liquid spreading due to nano/
microstructures on the critical heat flux during pool boiling, Appl. Phys. Lett.
98 (2011) 071908.
[111] H.S. Ahn, C. Lee, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, The effect of capillary wicking action of
micro/nano structures on pool boiling critical heat flux, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 55 (2012) 89–92.
[112] H.S. Ahn, G. Park, J.M. Kim, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, The effect of water absorption on
critical heat flux enhancement during pool boiling, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 42
(2012) 187–195.
[113] Y.S. Joung, C.R. Buie, Hybrid electrophoretic deposition with anodization
process for superhydrophilic surfaces to enhance critical heat flux, Key Eng.
Mater. 507 (2012) 9–13.
[114] Z. Yao, Y.W. Lu, S.G. Kandlikar, Direct growth of copper nanowires on a
substrate for boiling applications, Micro Nano Lett. 6 (7) (2011) 563–566.
[115] Z. Yao, Y.W. Lu, S.G. Kandlikar, Effects of nanowire height on pool boiling
performance of water on silicon chips, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 50 (2011) 2084–
2090.
[116] Y. Im, Y. Joshi, C. Dietz, S.S. Lee, Enhanced boiling of a dielectric liquid on
copper nanowire surfaces, Int. J. Micro-Nano Scale Transp. 1 (1) (2010) 79–
95.
[117] H. Honda, H. Takamastu, J.J. Wei, Enhanced boiling of FC-72 on silicon chips
with micro-pin-fins and submicron-scale roughness, ASME J. Heat Transfer
124 (2002) 383–390.
[118] J.J. Wei, H. Honda, Effects of fin geometry on boiling heat transfer from silicon
chips with micro-pin-fins immersed in FC-72, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 46
(2003) 4059–4070.
[119] J. Mitrovic, F. Hartmann, A new microstructure for pool boiling, Superlattices
Microstruct. 35 (2004) 617–628.
[120] J. Mitrovic, How to create an efficient surface for nucleate boiling?, Int J.
Therm. Sci. 45 (2006) 1–15.
[121] A. Ustinov, V. Ustinov, J. Mitrovic, Pool boiling heat transfer of tandem tubes
provided with the novel microstructures, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 32 (2011)
777–784.
[122] S. Launaya, A.G. Fedorova, Y. Joshia, A. Caob, P.M. Ajayan, Hybrid micro-nano
structured thermal interfaces for pool boiling heat transfer enhancement,
Microelectron. J. 37 (2006) 1158–1164.
[123] M. Zhang, K. Lian, Using bulk micromachined structures to enhance pool
boiling heat transfer, Microsyst. Technol. 14 (2008) 1499–1505.
[124] S. Kim, H.D. Kim, H. Kim, H.S. Ahn, H. Jo, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, Effects of nano-fluid
and surfaces with nano structure on the increase of CHF, Exp. Thermal Fuild
Sci. 34 (2010) 487–495.
[125] D. Cooke, S.G. Kandlikar, Pool boiling heat transfer and bubble dynamics over
plain and enhanced microchannels, ASME J. Heat Transfer 133 (2011)
052902.
[126] B.S. Kim, S. Shin, S.J. Shin, K.M. Kim, H.H. Cho, Micro-nano hybrid structures
with manipulated wettability using a two-step silicon etching on a large area,
Nanoscale Res. Lett. 6 (2011) 333.
[127] Z. Yao, Y.W. Lu, S.G. Kandlikar, Micro/nano hierarchical structure in
microchannel heat sink for boiling enhancement, in: IEEE 25th
International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS),
2012, pp. 285–288.
[128] Z. Yao, Y.W. Lu, S.G. Kandlikar, Fabrication of nanowires on orthogonal
surfaces of microchannels and their effect on pool boiling, J. Micromech.
Microeng. 22 (2012) 115005.
[129] D. Coso, V. Srinivasan, M.C. Lu, J.Y. Chang, A. Majumdar, Enhanced heat
transfer in biporous wicks in the thin liquid film evaporation and boiling
regimes, ASME J. Heat Transfer 134 (2012) 101501.
[130] A. Zou, S.C. Maroo, Critical height of micro/nano structures for pool boiling
heat transfer enhancement, Appl. Phys. Lett. 103 (2013) 221602.
[131] L. Dong, X. Quan, P. Cheng, An experimental investigation of enhanced pool
boiling heat transfer from surfaces with micro/nano-structures, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer 71 (2014) 189–196.
[132] S.R. Yang, R.H. Kim, A mathematical-model of the pool boiling nucleation site
density in terms of the surface characteristics, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 31
(1988) 1127–1135.
[133] C.H. Wang, V.K. Dhir, Effect of surface wettability on active nucleation site
density during pool boiling of water on a vertical surface, ASME J. Heat
Transfer 115 (1993) 659–669.
[134] R.J. Benjamin, A.R. Balakrishnan, Nucleation site density in pool boiling of
saturated pure liquids: effect of surface microroughness and surface and
liquid physical properties, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 15 (1997) 32–42.
[135] N. Basu, G.R. Warrier, V.K. Dhir, Onset of nucleate boiling and active
nucleation site density during subcooled flow boiling, ASME J. Heat
Transfer 124 (2002) 717–728.
[136] C. Gerardi, J. Buongiorno, L. Hu, T. McKrell, Study of bubble growth in water
pool boiling through synchronized, infrared thermometry and high-speed
video, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53 (2010) 4185–4192.
[137] Y.V. Polezhaev, S.A. Kovalev, Modelling heat transfer with boiling on porous
structures, Therm. Eng. 37 (1990) 617–620.
[138] H. Kim, B. Truong, L. Hu, J. Buongiorno, On the effect of roughness, wettability
and nano-porosity on Leidenfrost phenomena, Appl. Phys. Lett. 87 (2011)
083121.