Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Research on modeling the thixotropic properties of cementitious systems

using regression methods in machine learning
Hatice Gizem Şahin a, Öznur Biricik Altun a, Murat Eser b, Ali Mardani a, *, 1, Metin Bilgin b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Nilüfer-Bursa, Turkey
b
Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Nilüfer-Bursa, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the rheological properties of cementitious systems were investigated through modeling studies on
Dynamic yield stress structural build-up and breakdown area. The area values were calculated using Herschel Bulkley analysis and
Structural build-up/breakdown area hysteresis area method. The properties were examined by varying the composition of the cementitious system
Linear regression analysis
(cement fineness, C4AF, C3S, C2S, C3A, equivalent alkali and metakaolin ratio) and changes made in the rheo­
AdaBoost
K nearest neighbor
logical measurement processes (applied shear rate, maximum shear rate and duration). For this purpose, cement
paste mixtures were prepared by substituting metakaolin at four different ratios (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%) into
cements with varying C3A content (2.13, 3.60, 6.82, 9.05%). The modeling study of the obtained results was
conducted using three different learning methods: Linear Regression Analysis (LR), AdaBoost, and K Nearest
Neighbor (KNN), encompassing machine learning and ensemble learning techniques. It was determined that the
most dominant parameter affecting the rheology and thixotropic properties of the mixtures is the metakaolin
usage ratio. The pre-shear rate was dominant over the duration and maximum shear rate parameters. Effect of
the C3A content on dynamic yield stress and viscosity becomes more pronounced with an increase in the applied
shear rate. The KNN method has yielded the best results in all experimental modeling studies. Euclidean distance
criterion was used in the KNN method. Although the AdaBoost method obtained results close to the KNN method,
the opposite situation was observed depending on the number of data. Logcosh, MAE and RMSE metrics were
used to evaluate the experimental results. When the results for 3 different metrics in all modeling studies were
examined, the success order of the metrics was found to be Logcosh, MAE and RMSE.

concrete mixtures [10]. It was reported that the structural recovery of

3D printable concrete mixtures before and during extrusion depends on
1. Introduction
their thixotropic properties [11]. It was emphasized by Şahin and
Mardani [12] that the rheological properties of 3D printable concrete
Several researchers have emphasized that the thixotropic properties
mixtures seriously affect extrudability, buildability and interlayer
of cementitious systems directly influence the strength and durability
bonding strength. It was emphasized by the researchers that 3D print­
performance [1] as well as the placement-pumping process [2]. It was
able concrete mixtures should have a high static yield stress value in
reported that the term thixotropy, more commonly used in the food [3,
order to resist deformation caused by the weight of the upper layers.
4] and paint industry [5,6], has also become widely used in concrete
It has also been stated that the static yield stress of 3D printable
technology in recent years, with the proliferation of special rheological
concrete mixtures should not be high in order to improve printability
requirements for mixtures such as 3D printable [1] and self-compacting
performance. It was reported by Lloret et al., [13] that the stability of 3D
concrete [7]. Various researchers have stated that 3D printable concrete
printable concrete mixtures during the printing process depends on the
mixtures need to have a low dynamic yield stress during extrusion to
static yield stress, dynamic yield stress and structural build-up. It was
easily pass through the nozzle and a high static yield stress to maintain
reported by Nodehi et al., [14] that the lack of appropriate rheology in
dimensional stability after extrusion [8,9]. It was emphasized that
3D printable concrete mixtures can seriously affect the distribution of
extrudability is a critical factor in the printing process, as materials with
materials and lead to agglomeration. It was emphasized by researchers
yield stress above 150 Pa are used to ensure buildability in 3D printable

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: alimardani@uludag.edu.tr, ali.mardani16@gmail.com (A. Mardani).
1
Orcid: 0000-0003-0326-5015

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134633
Received 5 October 2023; Received in revised form 11 December 2023; Accepted 14 December 2023
Available online 28 December 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.G. Şahin et al.
Nomenclature
AC admixture content.
AI Artificial Intelligence.
ANN Artificial Neural Network.
ANN-BP Artificial Neural Network Trained by BP.
ANN- TLABC Artificial Neural Network Trained by TLABC.
ASC solid content of admixture.
CCED Central composite experimental design.
CF cement fineness.
EAR equivalent alkali ratio of cement.
EF Exponential Regression Function.
FL fuzzy logic.
KNN K-nearest neighbors algorithm.
Logcosh Log hyperbolic Cosine.
LS Lignosulphonates.
MAE Mean Absolute Error.
MARS Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines.
MAE Mean Absolute Error.
that supplementary cementitious materials should be used in 3D print­
able concrete mixtures to ensure resistant rheological parameters such
as plastic viscosity and yield stress.
In self-compacting concrete mixtures, it was reported by Reiter et al.
[15] that the shear stress during casting should be around 20 Pa and
then increase to approximately 3000–5000 Pa to become
self-supporting. As a result of applying shear rate to a non-Newtonian
system, different structural changes may occur depending on the prop­
erties of the system. This structure change results from the breaking of
weak bonds in the system, the alignment of irregular particles and the
formation of agglomeration between particles [16]. The structure
change that occurs because of the applied shear rate is called thixotropy
if the viscosity of the system decreases over time, and negative thixot­
ropy or antithixotropy if it increases. When a shear rate is applied to a
system with thixotropic properties for a certain period, the viscosity
decreases, but it regains its viscosity when the system is left motionless
[17]. Generally, the thixotropy of cement-based materials is determined
by the amount of clustering (agglomeration) of the mixture when left
idle and the rate of dispersion of clusters after mixing, leading to the
recovery of fluidity [2]. The Van der Waals forces and Hydrogen
Bonding, also referred to as physical bonds, existing between cement
particles, have been reported as the main reason for the physical prop­
erties such as flocculation and deflocculation in cement paste, and they
are considered the most significant contributing factors to its thixotropic
properties [18,19]. It was stated that the increase in viscosity due to
hydration can be confused with thixotropic behavior [20]. However, it
was emphasized that the thixotropic-based structuring is reversible,
whereas the structure formed as a result of hydration is irreversible [20].
It was reported that the C-S-H gel formed as a result of hydration can
increase surface roughness and phase volume, leading to a certain in­
crease in viscosity over time. In this context, it was stated that two types
of agglomeration can occur in cementitious systems [21]. It was re­
ported that the first type is reversible agglomeration, where two
agglomerated cement particles can be redispersed at a specific mixing
rate unique to each mixture [22]. The second type, on the other hand, is
described as irreversible agglomeration, where two cement particles
cannot be separated even with the given energy input [23]. It was un­
derstood that there are numerous parameters influencing the thixotropic
properties of cementitious systems, including the type of binder
[24–30], the type and quantity of chemical admixtures [31–34], binder
fineness [35], and the amount of C3A [2]. It was understood that
numerous studies were conducted using various rheometers to examine
the parameters affecting the rheological and thixotropic properties of
2
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633
NS Nash-Sutcliffe.
PCE Polycarboxylate Ether Superplasticizer.
PF Power Regression Function.
RF Random Forest.
RMSE Root Mean Square Error.
SCC selfcompacting concrete.
SMF Sulfonated melamine–formaldehyde condensates.
SNF Sulfonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates.
SSE sum square error.
PR Pre-shear rate.
MS Maximum shear rate.
D Duration.
MK Metakaolin.
MUR Metakaolin usage rate.
DYS Dynamic yield stress.
V Viscosity.
S-SBUA Shear stress structural build up area.
V-SBUA Viscosity structural build up area.
cementitious systems. The results of some of the studies related to this
topic, along with the variables investigated and the type of rheometer
used, are summarized in Table 1.
It is also understood from Table 1 that there is a considerable number
of parameters affecting the rheological properties of cementitious sys­
tems. In research related to this topic, it was often noted that commercial
products are used, and their properties are not fully known, as
mentioned by Mardani-Aghabaglou [24]. Furthermore, it was empha­
sized that there are a high number of influencing parameters, and the
number of studies examining the simultaneous variation of these pa­
rameters on rheological properties is very limited [35]. Thus, it was
understood that a definitive conclusion has not been reached on the
subject [24]. In such a situation, several researchers have stated that
statistical approaches can yield useful results [43].
In this context, it was reported by Chaabene et al. [44] that machine
learning, which is a data-driven approach that does not rely solely on
theoretical and empirical analysis, has emerged as a promising tool. This
method, using reliable datasets, allows for the prediction/optimization
of the properties of complex heterogeneous materials and the estab­
lishment of highly intricate relationships among various types of per­
formance parameters, as emphasized by Chou et al. [45].
The rapid growth of artificial intelligence in various fields has
facilitated the application and advancement of machine learning in the
construction industry, leading to a significant increase in the number of
relevant research and reports in recent years [46]. It was understood
that modeling studies can be beneficial in producing cementitious sys­
tems with optimal properties using the optimal amount of material,
contributing to sustainability. The main difference of machine learning
compared to classical methods is that it uses the patterns/connections it
learns as a result of using data sets to predict future events. By using the
knowledge gained through learning, successful predictions can be made
on real-time and constantly changing data. Their ability to process and
analyze large data sets is highly developed. As it is known, rheology
experiments are very sensitive experiments that vary depending on the
measurement method, the properties of the materials used, the amount
of material, w/b ratio, admixture type and content. In this study, the
total binder volume was kept constant in all cement paste mixtures. For
each cement type, 5 series of cement paste mixtures were prepared by
substituting 0%, 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% of the total binder volume with
metakaolin. Modeling studies were carried out on mixtures containing
water reducing admixture at the rate of 0.38% of the binder volume and
having a w/b ratio of 0.36.
Machine learning was commonly used in concrete technology for
H.G. Şahin et al.
Table 1
Some Study Results on the Rheological and Thixotropic Properties of Cementitious Systems.
Reference Influencing parameter Utilization ratio
Qian et al.[36] PCE From 0.6% to 1.2%
(cement mass)
Zhang et al.[37] w/c From 0.20 to 0.40 (bulk
weight from 2320 kg/m3
to 1950 kg/m3)
Duan et al.[38] Metakaolin From 0% to 10% (cement
mass)
Jiang et al.[39] Fly ash 0-30% (cement mass)
Slag 0-60% (cement mass)
Silica fume 0- 15% (cement mass)
Mardani- PCE usage ratio, cement - MCR 52 (make: Anton Paar) fitted
Aghabaglou fineness, w/c ratio, C3S ratio,
et al.[40] C3A ratio, equivalent alkali
ratio
Altun et al.[41] Fly ash utilization ratio 0%, 15%, 30%, and 45%
(cement mass)
Kobya et al.[42] C3A utilization ratio 3.60%, 6.82%, and
9.05%.
predicting mechanical properties such as compressive strength [47],
elastic modulus [48], shear strength [49], and tensile strength [50].
Sezer et al. [51] used soft computing methods to predict the mechanical
and penetration properties of clay samples stabilized with cement
exposed to sulfate attack. In terms of fresh properties, experiments are
generally conducted using test data such as slump [52], Marsh funnel
flow time [53], and L-box [54]. In a study conducted by Mardani
Aghabaglou et al. [40], cement-based parameters affecting the
compatibility of CEMI Portland cements with polycarboxylate
ether-based high-range water-reducing admixtures were investigated.
The models employed multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
and multiple additive regression trees (MART) methods.
In conclusion, the most influential cement properties causing a
decrease in the rheological properties of the paste were found to be, in
order, cement fineness, C3S content, C3A content, and equivalent alkali
content. In another study [43], parameters affecting the flow time of the
Marsh funnel and the mini-slump of paste mixtures were investigated by
modeling the coefficients of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) with the
Teaching-Learning-Based Artificial Bee Colony (TLABC) algorithm. As a
result, it was determined that additive content, cement fineness, addi­
tive solid content, and cement C3A content were the most important
parameters affecting the fluidity of the paste.
Charrier et al. [55] used Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to predict
the rheological properties of 3D printed concrete mixtures. In this study,
various additives such as high-efficiency water-reducing agents, hy­
drated calcium silicate, nano-clay, viscosity-modifying agents, and
accelerator agents were examined for their effects on the rheological
properties of cementitious systems through their impact on mini-slump
and dynamic yield stress values. It was found that the predicted results
were highly consistent with the actual results.
In the study conducted by Amin et al. [56], it was reported that
compared to the neural network approach, the random forest approach
was more effective in predicting both the plastic viscosity and yield
stress of fresh concrete. It was understood that there is insufficient in­
formation in the literature for modeling the thixotropic properties of
cementitious systems [40,57]. In this study, the effect of parameters
such as metakaolin usage rate, cement fineness, the content of C4AF,
C3S, C2S and C3A in cement, equivalent alkali ratio, and the rheological
measurement process (with altered shear rate values) on the rheological
and thixotropic properties of cement paste mixtures were examined
through experimental and modeling approaches. The modeling of these
parameters was carried out using two different learning methods,
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633
Reometer Type Highlights
LVDV-S rheometer (Ametek The viscosity of the cement pastes has decreased by
Brookfield, United States) 42.47%.
Coaxial cylinder For the equal flow value (225 ± 5 mm), the shear stress
rheometer (Brookfield R/S and viscosity values determined with the rheometer
SST2000) have increased by 230% and 300%, respectively.
Rotational rheometer - MCR 102 The hysteresis area value has increased from 50.480 Pa/
(make: Anton Paar) fitted with the s to 2805.630 Pa/s. The maximum printable layer count
ball measurement system (BMS) has increased from 17 to 23, and the height has reached
339 mm from 254 mm.
Rotational rheometer (Brookfield The hysteresis area value at 120 min has increased by
RSR-SST Rheometer) 65% for fly ash, 60% for slag, and 28% for silica fume,
respectively.
It was determined that the most influential parameters
with the BMS on the dynamic yield stress of pastes (in decreasing
order) are the mixture’s admixture content, cement
fineness, solid content, C3S content, water/cement ratio,
C3A content, and the equivalent alkali content of the
cement.
MCR 52 (make: Anton Paar) fitted It was reported that the use of fly ash negatively affects
with the BMS the rheological properties of the mixtures.
MCR 52 (make: Anton Paar) fitted It was reported that an increase in C3A content leads to
with the BMS an increase in the dynamic yield stress and viscosity
values of the mixtures.
namely Machine Learning and Ensemble Learning. Machine learning is a
field of study that focuses on developing algorithms and models that
enable computers to learn and make predictions or decisions without
being explicitly programmed. It is also used in natural language pro­
cessing, computer vision, regression problems, fraud detection, recom­
mendation systems, and many other areas [58]. It performs statistical
calculations on data to recognize, learn and predict certain patterns in
the data. Ensemble learning is an approach to machine learning where
multiple learning algorithms or learning methods come together to solve
a problem and make predictions based on their decisions. The ensemble
methods are trained separately to solve the problem. In the decision
phase, a final decision is made based on the outputs produced by the
methods [59]. The main purpose of its use is to increase the prediction
success of the method. Within the scope of the study, Linear Regression
Analysis (LR), AdaBoost, and K Nearest Neighbor (KNN) methods were
employed. Additionally, the dominance ranking of parameters affecting
rheological and thixotropic properties were determined using the Ada­
Boost method.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Materials
Some properties of the cement and metakaolin used in the study are
shown in Table 2. In the study, polycarboxylate based high range water
reducing admixture was used (Table 3).
2.2. Preparation of mixtures and experiments
In this article, a modeling study was conducted using data obtained
from the studies by Biricik et al. [7]. Within the scope of the study, paste
mixtures were prepared by substituting 5 different proportions (0%, 3%,
6%, and 9%) of metakaolin with cements containing 2.13%, 3.6%,
6.82%, and 9.05% C3A by volume. Paste mixtures having 0.36 w/b ratio
were produced and water-reducing admixture was used at the rate of
0.38% of the binder volume.
2.3. Method
A rheometer (Anton Paar MCR102) equipped with a ball measuring
system (BMS) and an 8 mm ball head were used to measure the mixtures
rheology (Fig. 1). In the prepared paste mixtures, rheological parameters
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H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 2
Physical and chemical properties of cements and metakaolin [60].
Item (%) 2.13% 3.60% 6.82% 9.05% C3A Metakaolin
C3A C3A C3A

SiO2 18.94 19.58 19.73 20.15 56.10

Al2O3 4.33 4.72 5.19 5.53 40.23
Fe2O3 5.53 5.27 4.10 3.31 0.85
CaO 61.67 60.62 62.62 62.68 0.19
MgO 1.55 1.77 1.75 1.69 0.16
SO3 2.82 2.66 2.36 3.10 -
Na2O 0.31 0.32 0.36 0.26 0.24
K2O 0.57 0.54 0.57 0.58 0.51
Cl- 0.0375 0.0417 0.0436 0.0495 -
Free CaO 0.75 0.86 1.11 0.70 -
C3A 2.13 3.60 6.82 9.05 -
C3S 58.98 47.60 52.96 48.42 -
C2S 9.80 20.22 16.61 21.25 -
C4AF 16.83 16.04 12.48 10.07 -
Physical properties
Specific gravity 3.21 3.20 3.17 3.1
Blaine specific surface (cm2/g) 3786 3754 3659 4259
Residual on 0.045 mm sieve (%) 4.3 4.4 3.0 2.9
Compressive Strength (MPa) Pozzolanic activity index (%)
7 day 28 90
day day
48.5 48.4 51.0 50.7 105.0 127.2 131.3
Initial-final setting time (minute)
211-271 181-311 172-222 140-190

summarized in Fig. 2 [7]. Effect of pre-shear procedure on thixotropic

Table 3
behavior of mixtures, effect of duration and shear rate increase in 1 s on
Water reducing admixture properties.
the thixotropic behavior of mixtures, effect of maximum applied shear
Density Solid Content pH Chloride content Alkali ratio, (%) rate and shear rate increase in 1 s on the thixotropic behavior of mix­
(g/cm3) (%) (%) Na2O
tures, the effect of the applied maximum shear rate and duration on the
1.060 32 2-5 < 0.1 < 10
thixotropic behavior of the mixtures was examined through Method 1–4,
Method 5–8, Method 9–11, Method 9–10. In this study, the Herschel
Bulkley equation given in Eq. 1 was used. Eqs. 2, 3, 4 and 5 were used to
compute the hysteresis areas using the Herschel-Bulkley method
[60–62]. In addition, Total organic carbon measurement was made to
determine the adsorption amount of PCE admixture on cement and
metakaolin with C3A values of 2.13%, 3.6%, 6.82%, and 9.05%.
•p
τ = τo + b.γ (1)
In this equation, τ is defined as shear stress (Pa), τo is defined as
yield stress (Pa), γ is defined as shear rate (s− 1), b is defined as the
•

“Herschel-Bulkley consistency coefficient” and p is defined as the

“Herschel-Bulkley index”. If p < 1, "Pseudoplastic" behavior called shear
thinning occurs, and if p > 1, "Dilatant" behavior called shear thickening
occurs. When p = 1, the equation turns into the Bingham model [24].
[ ] [ ]
∑
n− 1 ∑
n− 1
Ashear_stress = Ai,shear_up − Ai,shear_down (2)
i=1 i=1

1 • •
Ai = [(γi − γi+1 ).(τi + τi+1 ) ] (3)
2
[ ] [ ]
∑
n− 1 ∑
n− 1
Aviscosity = Ai,viscosity_up − Ai,viscosity_down (4)
i=1 i=1

1 • •
Fig. 1. Rheometer used for measuring rheological parameters of mixtures [60]. Ai = [(γi − γi+1 ).(η i +η i+1 ) ] (5)
2

such as applied shear rate, maximum velocity, and duration were varied
during rheological measurements, and rheological parameters such as
dynamic yield stress and viscosity were measured. The tixotropic
properties were examined by conducting these measurements immedi­
ately after the preparation of the mixture (initial) and 20 min after
Where,
n: number of data, Ashear_stress : hysteresis area formed in the shear
stress-shear rate graph (Pa/s), Ai,shear_up : area under the accelerating flow
curve (Pa/s), Ai,shear_down : area under the decelerating flow curve (Pa/s),
τ: shear stress (Pa), γ: shear rate (s− 1), Aviscosity : hysteresis area formed in
•

preparation, and the structural build-up areas were calculated. The the viscosity-shear rate graph (Pa), Ai,viscosity_up :area under the
measurement processes applied within the scope of the study are

4
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Fig. 2. Flow curve patterns of cement paste mixtures.

5
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 4 Table 5
The parameters used in the experiments for the KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors) The parameters used in experiments for the AdaBoost method.
method. Experiment data Parameters
Experiment data Parameters
estimator learning_rate loss
k weigh method distance method
Initial DYS 9 1 square
Initial DYS 3 uniform euclidean Viscosity 23 1 square
Viscosity 3 uniform euclidean Shear stress-SBUA 5 1 exponential
Shear stress-SBUA 11 distance euclidean Viscosity-SBUA 7 1 exponential
Viscosity-SBUA 3 distance euclidean 20th minute DYS 41 1 linear
20th minute DYS 7 uniform euclidean 20th minute Viscosity 41 4 exponential
20th minute Viscosity 3 uniform euclidean 20th minute Shear stress-SBUA 3 4 linear
20th minute Shear stress-SBUA 5 distance euclidean 20th minute Viscosity-SBUA 3 1 exponential
20th minute Viscosity-SBUA 41 distance euclidean

∑
n
accelerating flow curve (Pa), Ai,viscosity_down : area under the decelerating MAE =
1
|Ei− Pi | (8)
flow curve (Pa) and η: viscosity (Pa.s). n i=1
Information regarding the modeling of the initial and 20-minute
[ ]1/2
dynamic yield stress, viscosity, and structural build-up area data ob­ 1 ∑
n

tained from experimental studies [62] using three different methods in a RMSE = (Ei− Pi )2 (9)
n
computer environment was presented. Out of the 76 data points ob­
i=1

tained from the experimental studies, approximately 84% (54 data ∑

n
ex + e− x
points for training and 10 data points for validation) and 16% (12 data Logcosh = log(cosh((Ei− Pi ))cosh(x) = (10)
2
points) were used for training and testing, respectively. To create more i=1

efficient models, the input data was initially normalized between 0.1
and 0.9, as shown in Eq. 6. Since machine learning algorithms are sen­
sitive to the differences between the scales of input data, learning with
unscaled data usually results in poor performance. In multivariate
regression problems, normalization is applied to improve performance
so that variables in different scale ranges contribute equally to the
analysis. For example, when normalization is not applied on a feature
between 0–1000 and a feature between 0–10 in the data set, the dis­
tribution of weights for the model will be disproportionate. For this
reason, it is aimed to increase the success by applying normalization
process on experimental data.
(O − Omin )
Oi = 0.8 + 0.1
(Omax − Omin )
In this study, linear LR, KNN, and AdaBoost algorithms were
employed as modeling methods. Eq. 7 was utilized in the LR method to
determine the coefficients.
For the KNN method, experiments were conducted by varying the
value of k between 3 and 99 and using Euclidean and Minkowski metrics
for the distance measure. In the case of the AdaBoost algorithm, ex­
periments were performed by varying the number of estimators between
3 and 99, using linear, square, and exponential loss functions, and trying
values from 1 to 5 for the learning rate. Information about the param­
eters used in the modeling study is presented in Tables 4–5.
)2 ∑ ( )2
∑M ( ∑p
y − y =
M
y − w × x (7)
i i i j ij
i=1 i=1 j=0
In Eq. 7, M represents the number of samples, p represents the fea­
tures, and w represents the coefficients, yi , stands for the actual value, yi ,
stands for the predicted value, and x represents the inputs for coefficient
regularization.
Three different metrics were used to evaluate the results of 3
different modeling methods applied within the scope of the study. Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and Logcosh
metrics shown in Eqs. 8–10 were used to evaluate the modeling results.
Here, Ei is the experimental result, Pi is the result obtained from our
model, and n is the number of data.
3. Experimental results and evaluation
3.1. Determination of parameters affecting rheological properties
The values of initial and 20-minute dynamic yield stress, viscosity,
shear stress-structural build-up area, and viscosity-structural build-up
area of paste mixtures, along with the changes in shear rate, duration,
cement C3A content, and metakaolin usage ratio applied during rheo­
logical measurements, are presented in Tables 6–9.
(6) To determine the dominant parameters affecting the rheological
values of paste mixtures, Feature Importance values were calculated for
the AdaBoost model, and an evaluation was conducted based on this
value. The results of the assessments are summarized in Table 10.
It is evident from Table 10 that the most dominant parameter
affecting the rheological properties of paste mixtures for both initial and
20-minute measurements is the metakaolin usage ratio. Regardless of
the cement C3A content, it was observed that the addition of metakaolin
to the mixtures leads to an increase in dynamic yield stress, viscosity,
and structural build-up area values. This is believed to result from an
increase in the total surface area in the mixture due to the higher specific
surface area value of the used metakaolin compared to cement, leading
to an increase in water demand [24]. As a result, it is expected that the
risk and rate of agglomeration formation in the mixture will increase.
Additionally, while the replacement of metakaolin is expected to reduce
the amount of cement undergoing hydration in the mixtures, leading to a
decrease in the hydration rate, it was expressed by Justice and Kurtis
[63] that metakaolin accelerates the hydration of the cement’s alumi­
nate phases, contributing to the formation of durable structures.
In addition, it is known that the interaction of various surface
charges of clays with polycarboxylate ether (PCE) can significantly
affect the workability of cement mixtures [64]. The dispersal ability of
high range water-reducing admixturees in cementitious systems varies
depending on the chemical structure of the admixtures. Adsorption onto
cement particles is crucial for the better demonstration of the dispersal

6
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 6
The rheological measurement results of the paste mixture produced from cement with a C3A content of 2.13%.
Parameters Initial 20th minute

PR MS D MUR DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA
(s− 1) (s− 1) (s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s)

5.00 40.00 40.00 0.00 2.94 1.16 0.05 0.00 5.49 2.05 26.05 2.25
80.00 6.13 1.61 56.37 5.37 12.50 2.82 195.15 19.91
120.00 10.81 1.65 95.65 9.12 12.15 2.71 96.82 11.51
160.00 6.75 1.68 126.94 12.33 13.57 2.72 132.33 17.57
60.00 120.00 8.11 2.07 135.17 8.48 17.38 3.31 182.74 22.76
80.00 160.00 9.35 1.99 168.23 9.80 15.73 2.82 41.94 5.57
120.00 7.35 1.99 173.32 10.70 11.29 2.63 41.94 5.57
0.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 7.63 2.19 87.84 7.83 13.22 3.14 207.33 23.77
3.00 10.87 2.29 188.06 20.86 18.50 3.50 455.44 32.06
6.00 14.57 2.96 231.82 21.68 27.02 4.48 441.06 36.10
9.00 25.06 3.84 527.01 59.98 45.70 5.92 434.53 32.15
12.00 47.71 5.61 193.70 14.33 60.59 7.21 654.51 57.04
5.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 5.55 1.83 100.83 10.12 12.11 3.05 124.86 18.05
3.00 7.82 2.56 202.04 20.13 20.83 3.98 606.93 44.66
6.00 15.98 3.36 258.22 22.07 23.97 4.04 201.58 23.94
9.00 29.23 4.49 423.06 37.93 44.51 5.68 243.16 23.90
12.00 50.18 5.82 511.44 51.49 31.08 5.84 522.93 42.15
25.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 12.39 1.91 117.35 12.79 11.06 2.95 216.57 20.04
50.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 3.77 1.39 101.52 11.85 7.87 2.37 172.00 16.34

Table 7
The rheological measurement results of the paste mixture produced from cement with a C3A content of 3.60%.
Parameters Initial 20th minute

PR MS D MUR DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA
(s− 1) (s− 1) (s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s)

5.00 40.00 40.00 0.00 9.16 1.81 72.42 6.96 16.10 3.22 358.37 29.49
80.00 0.00 9.07 2.29 172.42 15.39 21.05 4.35 641.14 57.66
120.00 0.00 10.45 2.07 168.36 16.05 21.51 3.85 735.40 55.10
160.00 0.00 12.93 2.20 251.84 24.71 27.65 4.15 824.37 61.61
60.00 120.00 0.00 18.94 2.26 203.54 13.43 21.38 3.70 246.89 27.64
80.00 160.00 0.00 17.58 2.26 157.83 9.98 18.21 3.22 71.90 10.22
120.00 0.00 9.41 2.21 246.82 12.04 16.78 3.08 84.09 11.69
0.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 10.72 2.27 218.67 24.22 19.24 4.08 724.07 55.50
3.00 13.73 2.80 275.62 27.05 25.15 4.50 882.69 72.42
6.00 18.82 3.47 323.79 29.15 34.88 5.16 836.10 73.93
9.00 32.21 4.82 499.20 42.18 55.03 6.83 677.99 64.55
12.00 53.62 5.95 592.19 57.30 46.61 6.15 584.83 29.83
5.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 10.03 2.00 201.37 22.26 15.75 3.48 516.96 47.45
3.00 13.78 2.65 276.80 30.31 24.69 4.36 911.23 77.41
6.00 22.59 3.68 410.82 40.80 34.32 5.17 734.22 73.09
9.00 38.29 4.93 623.25 62.73 57.82 6.77 628.13 56.24
12.00 60.81 6.25 798.50 84.62 35.41 6.01 566.42 37.72
25.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 11.52 2.16 253.70 29.17 19.54 3.67 483.90 48.69
50.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 9.71 2.03 215.48 24.08 16.95 3.48 226.30 15.27

efficiency of chemical admixtures in cementitious systems [65]. The
adsorption of the admixture onto the surface of cement particles occurs
as a result of the strong interaction between the carboxylate groups in
the admixture and the Ca2+ ions on the cement surface [66,67]. The
adsorption properties of the admixture affect the workability, hydration
process, and strength of cementitious systems [68].
When calcined clays are added to cementitious systems, they initially
exhibit a negative surface charge [69]. Substituting metakaolin for
cement and increasing the substitution ratio result in an increased
negative surface charge in the mixture. More negative surface charge
will require a greater number of Ca2+ ions to achieve neutralization. It
was claimed that metakaolin absorbs large amounts of Ca2+ from the
pore solution, as evidenced by zeta potential measurements [64]. It is
stated that PCE admixtures adsorb more onto metakaolin due to surfaces
packed more densely with Ca2+ ions. This was confirmed through Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) experiments conducted in this study. The
adsorption amounts for cements with C3A ratios of 2.13%, 3.60%,
6.82%, and 9.05%, and metakaolin were found to be 0.51, 0.78, 0.47,
0.99, and 1.89 mg TOC/g cement, respectively. Thus, it appears that
PCEs fail to increase the fluidity of cement particles because they adsorb
more on metakaolin compared to cement.
It was understood that, in addition to the metakaolin usage ratio,
fineness, C3A, and equivalent alkali ratio are the most dominant pa­
rameters for the initial parameters, respectively. Compared to other
major components, it was stated by Mardani-Aghabaglou et al. [35] that
the C3A ratio is the most influential major component on the rheological
properties and structural recovery behavior of cementitious systems. A
low C3A content is considered a desirable condition for cement paste
rheological behavior, as emphasized by Ai¨tcin [70]. It was reported that
ettringite, formed as a result of the reaction between C3A and sulfate
ions, consumes the available water in the environment and reduces the
workability of cement paste [71]. Despite various studies on the effect of
cement C3A content on the rheological properties of cementitious sys­
tems, a conclusive result has not been reached due to the large number
of influencing parameters. Furthermore, it was understood that there is
limited information in the literature regarding the impact of the main
component content of cement on the thixotropic properties of cemen­
titious systems. In a study conducted by Gołaszewski et al. [72], it was

7
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 8
The rheological measurement results of the paste mixture produced from cement with a C3A content of 6.82%.
Initial 20th minute

PR MS D MUR DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA
(s− 1) (s− 1) (s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s)

5.00 40.00 40.00 0.00 10.34 2.21 134.62 12.44 21.18 4.55 838.42 68.73
80.00 0.00 10.31 2.27 189.41 18.24 24.74 4.88 1119.70 79.47
120.00 0.00 12.49 2.57 299.84 28.82 33.54 5.63 1343.93 88.98
160.00 0.00 17.14 2.90 400.38 40.47 41.77 5.65 1388.55 105.39
60.00 120.00 0.00 13.39 2.66 356.82 23.88 24.83 4.29 262.45 36.31
80.00 160.00 0.00 21.31 2.38 379.98 21.00 19.82 4.08 98.48 11.27
120.00 0.00 12.08 2.69 367.86 17.14 19.78 4.06 184.48 22.32
0.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 11.36 2.41 266.16 29.85 20.51 4.65 920.44 78.34
145.00 3.00 17.80 3.39 423.30 43.50 24.99 5.25 684.30 66.22
145.00 6.00 23.80 4.02 493.24 50.27 46.41 6.58 339.36 27.72
145.00 9.00 33.49 5.02 559.39 47.76 28.01 5.09 255.40 16.01
145.00 12.00 46.54 5.69 510.67 56.18 34.67 6.58 417.61 21.64
5.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 8.70 2.03 212.79 24.03 16.26 4.03 549.51 55.68
145.00 3.00 15.44 3.04 408.54 44.31 30.00 5.02 836.56 76.12
145.00 6.00 22.37 3.78 521.85 58.01 35.96 5.69 639.69 73.00
145.00 9.00 35.15 4.90 748.04 80.60 37.52 5.38 168.85 12.15
145.00 12.00 61.88 6.49 760.05 93.46 46.48 7.21 871.47 56.76
25.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 11.40 2.41 303.54 36.00 22.57 4.75 572.08 55.22
50.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 10.01 2.03 280.39 32.81 18.37 4.01 64.31 7.14

Table 9
The rheological measurement results of the paste mixture produced from cement with a C3A content of 9.05%.
Initial 20th minute

PR MS D MUR DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA DYS (Pa) V (Pa.s) S-SBUA V-SBUA
(s− 1) (s− 1) (s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s) (Pa/s)

5.00 40.00 40.00 0.00 19.75 3.76 300.96 28.04 21.38 5.80 749.14 89.95
80.00 0.00 22.51 3.93 519.90 47.48 48.00 6.49 548.64 58.91
120.00 0.00 34.73 4.80 800.93 79.02 65.06 7.51 684.92 51.12
160.00 0.00 56.84 5.72 1172.54 122.18 61.69 6.77 445.01 30.00
60.00 120.00 0.00 53.35 6.33 1104.93 80.76 37.32 6.08 289.67 11.67
80.00 160.00 0.00 50.40 6.41 1197.61 66.54 43.84 7.45 35.00 0.46
120.00 0.00 47.04 6.00 1119.61 64.24 40.93 7.07 249.36 3.65
0.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 33.04 5.32 876.13 96.59 53.76 7.83 470.21 24.78
3.00 52.25 6.57 1128.03 128.34 34.26 6.35 662.73 48.35
6.00 74.30 7.62 1176.70 147.38 50.21 7.72 1109.35 71.03
9.00 49.32 6.95 722.06 53.00 69.26 7.87 2543.32 245.89
12.00 80.51 10.36 2083.24 143.49 92.19 8.01 2176.05 231.84
5.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 24.45 4.61 831.01 93.77 36.88 6.63 597.36 57.89
3.00 44.05 6.04 942.23 107.36 37.19 5.57 303.97 18.99
6.00 64.88 7.53 1454.28 183.09 45.90 7.49 933.90 61.38
9.00 76.75 9.19 1722.42 214.87 58.72 8.24 961.24 73.15
12.00 58.87 7.31 645.97 29.47 91.93 8.53 3134.16 330.59
25.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 25.70 4.48 737.17 88.56 46.45 7.93 767.04 57.03
50.00 35.00 145.00 0.00 26.19 4.73 719.69 83.63 48.31 7.86 169.87 6.44

Table 10
The parameters affecting rheological values - Feature Importance Values.
Experiment

PR MSR AD INC C3A C3S C2S C4AF EAR MUR

Initial DYS 0.0091 0.0223 0.0821 0.1521 0.1421 0.0721 0.0032 0.0056 0.1236 0.4841
Order of importance 8 7 5 2 3 6 10 9 4 1
Viscosity 0.0478 0.0103 0.0368 0.4216 0.3259 0.0082 0.0033 0.0062 0.1115 0.5383
Order of importance 5 7 6 2 3 8 10 9 4 1
Shear stress-SBUA 0.0909 0.0053 0.0190 0.1674 0.0359 0.0009 0.0008 0.0005 0.0008 0.4213
Order of importance 3 6 5 2 4 7 9 10 8 1
Viscosity-SBUA 0.0731 0.0181 0.0425 0.2545 0.1760 0.0629 0.0034 0.0040 0.2475 0.2661
Order of importance 5 8 7 2 4 6 10 9 3 1
20th minute DYS 0.0269 0.0244 0.1119 0.2166 0.0766 0.0689 0.0218 0.0214 0.0659 0.3873
Order of importance 7 8 3 2 4 5 9 10 6 1
20th minute Viscosity 0.1688 0.1359 0.1452 0.2641 0.1588 0.1121 0.0563 0.0283 0.0882 0.2906
Order of importance 3 6 5 2 4 7 9 10 8 1
20th minute Shear stress-SBUA 0.0327 0.0072 0.0358 0.3801 0.2915 0.1265 0.0228 0.0055 0.0428 0.3965
Order of importance 7 9 6 2 3 4 8 10 5 1
20th minute Viscosity-SBUA 0.0898 0.0427 0.0061 0.1628 0.1137 0.0227 0.0049 0.0022 0.0413 0.4039
Order of importance 4 5 8 2 3 7 9 10 6 1

8
 H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

found that an increase in the C3A content in cement led to an increase in

the yield stress of mortars while decreasing their viscosity. Furthermore,

-4.93744092e+ 02 -5.86243874e+ 02 -5.31419748e+ 01 -1.78965207e+ 13 -2.46557979e+ 16 -1.57257364e+ 16 -1.46190242e+ 16 -2.53596188e+ 16 1.42709103e+ 15 4.59010614e+ 02 + 4.0235783071278e+ 16
-4.42096389e+ 00 -1.88762759e+ 01 4.26007607e+ 01 -1.90452259e+ 11 -2.62383537e+ 14 -1.67351077e+ 14 -1.55573602e+ 14 -2.69873500e+ 14 1.51869023e+ 13 4.00963594e+ 01 + 428183551128223.94

-3.80071494e+ 01 -4.58208247e+ 01 -1.29404593e+ 01 -2.25782418e+ 12 -3.11057426e+ 15 -1.98395813e+ 15 -1.84433538e+ 15 -3.19936827e+ 15 1.80041735e+ 14 4.86911594e+ 01 + 5076144431903922.0
-6.04768584e+ 01 1.56348972e+ 02 3.54371541e+ 02 5.32593071e+ 12 7.33746372e+ 15 4.67991426e+ 15 4.35056128e+ 15 7.54691791e+ 15 -4.24696403e+ 14 5.15853691e+ 02 -1.1974003024751732e
researchers have reported that the effect of C3A becomes more dominant

5.24037167e+ 10 7.21959017e+ 13 4.60473322e+ 13 4.28067117e+ 13 7.42567956e+ 13 -4.17873818e+ 12 2.82332047e+ 00 -117816452445484.28

-2.02490980e+ 00 1.11746574e+ 01 8.15337608e+ 00 2.13813998e+ 11 2.94568694e+ 14 1.87879121e+ 14 1.74656967e+ 14 3.02977410e+ 14 -1.70497967e+ 13 4.75892925e+ 01 -480706491034389.2
-3.35576709e-01 6.98793065e-01 7.84235199e-01 2.18195972e+ 1 3.00605680e+ 13 1.91729576e+ 13 1.78236443e+ 13 3.09186727e+ 13 -1.73992208e+ 12 4.64104569e+ 00 -49055824535714.76

-4.36989932e+ 00 -1.56828440e+ 00 9.12740997e+ 00 -6.59882211e+ 10 -9.09110922e+ 13 -5.79840846e+ 13 -5.39034049e+ 13 -9.35062273e+ 13 5.26198362e+ 12 3.43028111e+ 01 148357761659353.8
as the fineness of cement increases. It was stated that an increase in
binder fineness leads to more clustering due to the increased surface
INTERCEPT

area and interaction between particles [73]. Additionally, it was re­

ported that an increase in cement fineness results in an increased water
+ 16

requirement for the mixture [35]. However, it was emphasized by Aydın

et al. [74] that an increase in cement fineness leads to an increase in
hydration heat and, consequently, an increase in evaporation rate,
resulting in decreased workability.
As previously emphasized, it is understood that the equivalent alkali
ratio in cement significantly affects the rheological properties and
MUR

structural build-up behavior of mixtures. In contrast to the results in the

literature, it was observed that in mixtures with the lowest equivalent
alkali ratio (0.64) and a C3A content of 9.05%, the highest rheological
parameters were measured. In previous studies, it is generally reported
that an increase in the equivalent alkali ratio leads to increased reac­
EAR

tivity of the C3A component and the formation of more ettringite [75].
Studies conducted by Dils et al. [76] and Gołaszewski [77] have
emphasized that an increase in the equivalent alkali ratio negatively
affects the rheological properties of cementitious systems. Similar
statements have also been expressed by Mardani et al. [78].
C4AF

It is also understood from Table 6 that, in addition to the mentioned

parameters, factors related to the measurement process also affect the
rheological properties for the 20-minute measurements. When the
measurement process parameters were examined among themselves, it
was generally understood that the pre-shear rate is more dominant
compared to the duration and maximum mixing rate parameters. It was
C2S

generally found that the parameter with the least influence on rheo­
logical properties is the maximum mixing rate change. Overall, it was
observed that after 30 s of waiting (1st method), the initial dynamic
yield stress and viscosity values were lower, and the structural recovery
area values were higher when measured without waiting immediately
C3S

after pre-shear (2nd method). An increase in the pre-shear rate was

found to have a more pronounced effect on the dynamic yield stress and
viscosity values, especially in relation to the C3A content. For structural
build-up area values, the opposite was observed. An increase in mixing
time and a decrease in the rate of increase in shear rate per second led to
higher values for dynamic yield stress, viscosity, and structural recovery
C3A

area. It was observed that an increase in duration and a decrease in the

rate of increase in shear rate per second made the influence of C3A
content on the dynamic yield stress, viscosity, and 20-minute structural
FINENESS

recovery area values more pronounced. An increase in maximum shear

rate resulted in an increase in initial shear stress-shear rate and viscosity-
shear rate, while it led to a decrease in 20-minute values.
6.53404335e-01

3.2. Modeling of Rheological Parameters

A modeling study was conducted using the LR method, and co­

AD

efficients for experimental parameters were calculated for Initial DYS,

-3.89674043e-01

Viscosity, S-SBUA, V-SBUA, 20th min DYS, 20th min Viscosity, 20th min
S-SBUA, and 20th min V-SBUA. The calculated coefficients for each
Turning the obtained data into equations.

experiment’s 10 different features (inputs) are presented in Table 11.

Weights for these features were computed. Utilizing these weights,
MS

predictions can be generated for data not present in the dataset or for
data available to another researcher. When Eq. 11 is examined, the
-2.12051168e-01

weight coefficient of − 3.35576709e-01 for the pre-shear rate feature in

Coefficient

the Viscosity experiment is multiplied by the value present in the

dataset. After applying this process for the remaining 9 features, the
PR

intercept value in the last column of the table is added to the result. The
obtained result is the output prediction for the relevant Viscosity
Viscosity-
Viscosity
Initial DYS
Experiment

Viscosity-

minute

minute

minute

minute
Viscosity

experiment data. Using the experiments and features presented in

stress-

stress-
Table 11

Shear
SBUA

SBUA

SBUA

SBUA
DYS
Shear

Table 11, predictions can be obtained for all data.

20th

20th

20th

20th
data

9
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 12
Data obtained from modeling.
Experiment Method MAE RMSE Logcosh

Train Val Test Train Val Test Train Val Test

Initial DYS LR 5.568 6.869 4.839 7.096 8.368 6.111 4.904 6.176 4.221
AdaBoost 3.944 4.213 4.028 6.647 6.431 5.023 3.342 3.594 3.383
KNN 4.333 4.051 3.198 5.199 5.945 4.960 3.741 3.517 2.663
Viscosity LR 0365 0328 0292 0502 0432 0354 0108 0086 0,06
AdaBoost 0332 0387 0281 0469 0478 0339 0099 0105 0054
KNN 0347 0274 0235 0526 0316 0311 0,11 0049 0047
Shear stress-SBUA LR 118.241 65.828 81.314 197.387 124.992 121.536 117.566 65.137 80.639
AdaBoost 95.562 73.538 111.993 139.666 126.591 135.801 94.885 72.915 11.300
KNN 4.677 2.039 5.189 0,0001 4.083 1.797 1.876 0.000 0.000
Viscosity-SBUA LR 13.988 10.240 10.430 24.038 16.707 21.609 13.312 9.649 9.757
AdaBoost 14.085 10.191 7.186 24.074 12.666 10.874 13.413 9.503 6.620
KNN 3.943 9.433 1.006 1.346 2.002 3.484 0.000 0.000 0.000
20th minute Shear stress LR 6.680 6.064 5.211 8.905 8.205 7.492 6.200 5.470 4.591
AdaBoost 6.819 5.720 4.733 6.820 3.885 6.057 6.156 5.140 4.084
KNN 5.616 3.194 4.436 9.376 8.281 6.367 4.995 2.649 3.850
20th minute Viscosity LR 0.5274 0.3349 0.419 0.6737 0.4653 0.5609 0.192 0.0964 0.137
AdaBoost 0.4603 0.3234 0.4708 0.5413 0.3999 0.5392 0.1349 0.0759 0.1349
KNN 0.3651 0.3206 0.3544 0.4322 0.4291 0.4425 0.0878 0.0847 0.0908
20th minute DYS-SBUA LR 295.426 175.120 206.942 443.270 280.868 293.600 294.733 174.427 206.249
AdaBoost 166.245 133.726 154.750 230.226 206.932 215.074 165.582 133.033 154.114
KNN 3.805 4.014 1.282 0.000 7.760 4.441 1.214 1.502 0.000
20th minute Viscosity–SBUA LR 31.228 16.284 18.076 48.240 20.562 24.596 30.549 15.626 17.387
AdaBoost 13.796 16.916 11.122 18.626 21.109 17.354 13.141 16.362 10.430
KNN 1.863 9.890 3.009 5.533 2.309 1.042 1.104 0.000 0.000

Prediction = x1*− 3⋅35576709e-01 + x2*6⋅98793065e-01 +

x3*7⋅84235199e-01 + x4*2⋅18195972e+10 + x5*3⋅00605680e+13 + rheometer measurement processes, and the results obtained using linear
x6*1⋅91729576e+13 + x7*1⋅78236443e+13 +x8*3⋅09186727e+13 + regression as the regression model, KNN as the machine learning model,
x9*− 1⋅73992208e+12 +x10* + − 49055824535714⋅76 (11) and AdaBoost as the ensemble learning method, are summarized below:

The results obtained from LR, AdaBoost and KNN methods using
• It was observed that an increase in the cement C3A content and
experimental data obtained from rheological and thixotropic measure­
metakaolin usage ratio leads to an increase in dynamic yield stress,
ments are presented in Table 12. Table 12 shows the training, validation
final viscosity, and structural build-up area values. It was determined
and test results for the MAE, RMSE, Logcosh metrics of the LR, AdaBoost
that the most dominant parameter affecting rheological values is the
and KNN methods prepared for the experiments. The training and
metakaolin utilization ratio.
validation columns show the results obtained by the method in the
• When the mixing process parameters were examined among them­
learning phase, while the test column shows the prediction success of the
selves, it was generally understood that the pre-shear rate was
method in the test phase. Table 12 presents 3 different error metrics. As
dominant over the duration and maximum shear rate parameters.
the error metric values get closer to 0, the prediction success of the
• It was observed that the effect of the C3A content on dynamic yield
method increases and as they get further away, the prediction success
stress and viscosity values becomes more pronounced with an in­
decreases. The graphical representation of the experimental and method
crease in the applied shear rate. However, the opposite trend is
(LR, AdaBoost, and KNN) results for the training, validation, and test
observed in structural build-up area values.
stages is presented in Table 13.
• An increase in mixing time and a decrease in the rate of increase in
Data obtained from 8 different experimental studies were modeled
shear rate per second led to higher values for dynamic yield stress,
using 3 different supervised machine learning algorithms. As a result of
viscosity, and structural recovery area. It was observed that an in­
the modeling, the best results were achieved with the KNN method. The
crease in duration and a decrease in the rate of increase in shear rate
top 3 results obtained with the KNN method are Viscosity, 20th min
per second made the influence of C3A content on the dynamic yield
Viscosity, and V-SBUA, respectively. Although the AdaBoost method
stress, viscosity, and 20-minute structural recovery area values more
achieved values close to KNN in some parameters, it obtained the
pronounced.
second-best result in modeling. The top 3 results obtained with the
• An increase in maximum shear rate resulted in an increase in initial
AdaBoost method are Viscosity, 20th min Viscosity, and Initial DYS,
shear stress-shear rate and viscosity-shear rate, while it led to a
respectively. LR method, on the other hand, usually ranked last in all
decrease in 20-minute values.
parameters, but it achieved values very close to the other models for
• The KNN method has yielded the best results in all experimental
Initial DYS, Viscosity, 20th min DYS, and 20th min Viscosity parameters.
modeling studies.
When evaluated in terms of metrics, Logcosh achieved the best train,
• AdaBoost is similar to KNN but requires more training data and lags
validation, and test values in all parameters. It was followed by MAE and
behind in results. As the amount of data increases, it is expected to
RMSE metric results. When the results for all three different metrics
catch up to or even surpass KNN.
were examined in all modeling studies, the success ranking of the met­
• LR has lower training times and achieves similar results to the other
rics was found to be Logcosh, MAE, RMSE.
models (AdaBoost and KNN) in certain experiments.
• When the modeling results are evaluated in terms of metrics, they are
4. Conclusion
ranked as Logcosh, MAE, and RMSE.

The results obtained within the scope of the study, which includes
the cement, metakaolin, and superplasticizer used, the applied

10
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 13
Modeling results graphs.
Train Validation Test

Initial DYS

Viscosity

Shear stress-SBUA

Viscosity-SBUA

(continued on next page)

11
H.G. Şahin et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134633

Table 13 (continued )
Train Validation Test

20th minute Shear stress

20th minute Viscosity

20th minute DYS-SBUA

20th minute Viscosity-SBUA

12
H.G. Şahin et al.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Bilgin Metin: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Mardani Ali: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Eser
Murat: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Biricik
Altun Öznur: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Şahin
Hatice Gizem: Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request. All data, models, and code
generated or used during the study appear in the submitted article.
Acknowledgments
The first author acknowledges the scholarship provided by the
TUBITAK 2211-A during her Ph.D. study. In addition, the authors would
like to acknowledge Polisan Construction Chemicals Company, Bursa
Concrete, Oyak Factory-Bolu Quality Control Laboratory, Kaolin In­
dustrial Minerals for their kind assistance in providing the cements and
metakaolins well as determining the technical properties of these
products, respectively.
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