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ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

13th KM Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore - 570 028
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
(ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21)
NOTES
SUBJECT: Transmission and Distribution
SUB CODE: 18EE43
SEMESTER: IV
Department of EEE,
ATME College of Engineering
MODULE 1
18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020
Module-1
Introduction to power system
A typical Transmission and Distribution Scheme

The flow of electrical power from the generating station to the consumer is called an electrical power
system or electrical supply system. It consists of the following important components :
1. Generating station 2. Transmission network 3. Distribution Network
All these important networks are connected with the help of conductors and various step up and step
down transformers. A typical transmission and distribution scheme is shown in the Fig. 1
Schematic Representation of a typical transmission distribution scheme
A scheme shows a generating station which is located too far away from cities and towns. It is
generating an electrical power at 11 Kv. It is required to increase this level for the transmission purpose.
Dept. of EEE,ATMECE, Mysuru. Page 1
Hence a step up transformer is used which steps up the voltage level to 220 Kv. This level may be 132 Kv,
220 Kv or more as per the requirement.
Then with the help of transmission lines and the towers, the power is transmitted at very long distances.
Design of the transmission lines is based on the factors like transmission voltage level, constants like
resistance, reactance of the lines, line performance, interference with the neighbouring circuits etc. Its
mechanical features are strength of the supports, sag calculations, tension etc. Transmission of power by the
overhead lines is very much cheaper. Similarly the repairs also can be carried out comparatively more
easily. The transmission is generally along with additional lines in parallel. These lines are called duplicate
lines. Thus two sets of three phase lines work in parallel. This ensures the continuity during maintenance
and also can be used to satisfy future demand. The power is then transmitted to the receiving station via
step down transformer. This transformer is 220/33 kv or 220/22 Kv transformer.
The power is then transmitted to the substations. A substation consists of a step down transformer of
rating 33 KV to 6.6 Kv or 3.3 KV. The transfer of power from receiving station to the substation is with the
help of conductors called feeders. This is called secondary transmission.
From the substations, power is distributed to the local distribution centers with the help of distributors.
Sometimes for bulk loads like factories and industries, the distributors transfer power directly. For the light
loads, there are distribution centers consisting of distribution transformers which step down the voltage
level to 230 V or 400 V. This is called primary distribution. In the crowded areas like cities, overhead
system of bare conductors is not practicable. In such cases insulated conductors are used on the form of
underground cables, to give supply to the consumers. These cables are called service mains. This is called
secondary distribution.
This is the complete flow of an electrical power from the generating station to the consumer permises.
Let us study the line diagram of such a typical scheme of transmission and distribution and discuss the
various components and voltage levels at the various stages in detail. The Fig. 2 shows the line diagram of a
typical transmission and distribution scheme.
Dept. of EEE, ATMECE, Mysuru. Page 2
Fig. 2 Line diagram of a typical transmission distribution scheme
At the generating station, an electrical power is generated with the help of three phase alternators
running in parallel. In the scheme shown, the voltage level is 11 KV but the voltage level may be 6.6 KV,
22 KV or 33 KV depending upon the capacity of the generating station. After the generating station, actual
transmission and distribution starts. The overall scheme can be divided into four sections which are,
1. Primary transmission : It is basically with the help of overhead transmission lines. For the economic
aspects, the voltage level is increased to 132 KV, 220 KV or more, with the help of step up transformer.
Hence this transmission is also called high voltage transmission. The primary transmission uses 3 phase 3
wire system.
2. Secondary Transmission : The primary transmission line continues via transmission towers till the
receiving stations. At the receiving stations, the voltage level is reduced to 22 KV or 33 KV using the step
down transformer. There can be more than one receiving stations. Then at reduced voltage level of 22 KV
or 33 KV, the power is then transmitted to various substations using overhead 3 phase 3 wire system. This
is secondary transmission. The conductors used for the secondary transmission are called feeders.
3. Primary Distribution : At the substation the voltage level is reduced to 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV or 11 KV with
the help of step down transformers. It uses three phase three wire underground system. And the power is
further transmitted to the local distribution centers. This is primary distribution, also called high voltage
distribution. For the large consumers like factories and industries, the power is directly transmitted to such
loads from a substation. Such bug loads have their own substations.
4. Secondary Distribution : At the local distribution centers, there are step down distribution transformers.
The voltage level of 6.6 KV, 11 KV is further reduced to 400 V using distribution transformers. Sometimes
it may be reduced to 230 V. The power is then transmitted using distribution, also called low voltage
distribution. This uses 3 phase 4 wire system. The voltage between any two lines is 400 V. while the
voltage between any of the three lines and a neutral is 230 V. The single phase lighting loads are supplied
using a line and neutral while loads like motors are supplied using three phase lines.
Components of Distribution
The distribution scheme consists of following important components :

1. Substation : Transmission lines bring the power upto the substations at a voltage level of 22 KV or 33
KV. At the substation the level is reduced to 3.3 KV or 6.6 KV. Then using feeders, The power is given to
local distribution centers.
2. Local distribution station : It consists of distribution transformer which steps down the voltage level
from 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV to 400 V or 230 V. Then it is distributed further using distributors. This is also called
distribution substation.
3. Feeders : These are the conductors which are of large current carrying capacitor. The feeders connect the
substation to the are where power is to be finally distributed to the consumers. No tapping are taken from
the feeders. The feeder current always remains constant.
4. Distributors : These are the conductors used to transfer power from distribution center to the consumers.
From the distributors, the tappings are taken for the supply to the consumers.
5. Service Mains : These are the small cables between the distributors and the actual consumers permises.
The interconnection of feeders, distributors and service mains is shown in the Fig. 3.
Fig. 3
There is no tapping on feeders. PQ, QR, RS and PS are the distributors which are supplied are supplied
by the feeder. The service mains are used to supply the consumers from the distributors. Tappings are taken
from the distributors.
n general two types of systems are used for the transmission.
1. Overhead system 2. Underground system
Overhead System
In this system, the transmission of electrical power is by using overhead transmission lines over long
distances. In such system, the appropriate spacing is provided between the conductors, at the supports as
well as at the intermediate points. This spacing provides insulation which avoids an electric discharge to
occur between the conductors. The transmission by overhead system is much cheaper than the underground
system. The overhead transmission lines are subjected to the faults occurring due to lightening, short
circuits, breakage of line etc. but overhead lines can be easily repaired compared to underground system. It
is also true that though such faults are rare, if occurred it is very difficult to find exact point of fault as
transmission lines are very long. In the overhead system, the insulation must be provided between the
conductor and supporting structure. Hence the maximum stress exists between conductor and earth.
Underground System
The cables are generally preferred in underground system. All the conductors must be insulated from
each other in the underground system. As voltage level is high, insulation required is more. Hence due to
insulation difficulties, the voltage level used in underground system is below 66 KV while the voltage level
used in overhead transmission lines can be as high as 400 KV. The maintenance cost of the underground
system is less compared to overhead system. In crowded areas, overhead system using bare conductors is
not practicable where underground system using cables is preferred. The line surges are suppressed by
using the cables hence cable must be used for the last part of the connection which can save transformers
and generators from the damage due to line surges.
In the underground system, the maximum stress exists on the insulation between the conductors.
Looking at the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, it can be conclude that high voltage
transmission is advantageous. Let us steady the effect of increased voltage level of transmission on
1. Volume of copper used for transmission
2. Efficiency of the line
3. The line voltage drop
Effect of High Voltage on Volume of Copper
Let a three phase a.c. system is used for the transmission. The various parameters are,
P = Power transmitted in KW
V = Line voltage in volts
cosΦ = Power factor of load
l = Length of line in meters
A = Area of cross-section of conductor in square meters
ρ = Resistivity of conductor material
R = Resistance per conductor in Ω
The resistance per conductor is given by,
The load current I can be obtained as,
The total copper losses are,
The volume of copper used is,

Vol = 3 A l
It can b seen from the equation (6) that the volume of copper required is inversely proportional to the
square of the transmission voltage and the power factor, for given P, W, ρ and l .
Thus greater is the transmission voltage level, lesser is the volume of copper required i.e. the weight of
copper used for the conductors. The conductor material required is less, for higher transmission voltage.
Effect of High Voltage on Line Efficiency.
The power input to the line cab be written as,
Pin = Pout + Losses
Now is Pout as considered above while the losses are given by the equation (4).
Let J = Current density of conductor in A/m2
... J = I/A
Using equation (2) in equation (9),
The line efficiency is given by,
Line efficiency η = Output/Input
Mathematically above equation can be approximately written, using Binomial theorem as,
So for constant values of ρ , l and J, the equation (12) shows that line efficiency is higher for higher
transmission voltages.
Effect of High Voltage on Line Drop

Line drop = I x R
Using equation (1),
1E43-Transmission & Distribution 2020
The equation (14) shows that higher is the transmission voltage level, lesser is the percentage line
drop.
Advantages of High Voltage Transmission
Summarizing the above discussion, the advantages of high voltage transmission can be stated as,
1. The line losses are inversely proportional to the square of voltage and power factor. So line losses are
less.
2. For constant losses, the volume of copper required is inversely proportional to the square of the voltage
and power factor. Hence the copper required is much less for high voltage transmission.
3. For constant current density, the line efficiency is very for high voltage transmission.
4. The percentage line drop is very small for the high voltage transmission.
It may be noted that along with the voltage level, the power factor also plays an important role. Higher
power factor also gives less losses, reduced volume of copper and increased line efficience. Hence
consumers are always recommanded to maintain high power factor values.
Disadvantages of High Voltage
Though high voltage transmission offers number of advantages, very high voltage transmission is not
practically possible. There is a limit to increase the level of transmission voltage. The high voltage
transmission has following limitations.
1. Higher the transmission voltage, higher is the insulation required which can cause problems in
connection with conductor supports and clearance between the conductors.
2. Higher insulation means high cost.
3. The cost of transformers, switchgear and other equipments is also high for high voltages.
4. Higher the voltage, sever is the corona effect.
Thus a compromise is necessary to select a transmission voltage. The insulation and other cost must be
compensated by reduction in cost due to copper saving.
Practical Transmission and distribution Voltage Levels
Considering the advantages and limitations of high voltage and economical aspects, the following
voltage levels are commonly used for the transmission and distribution.
1. For generation : 6.6 KV, 11 KV , 22 KV or 33 KV.
2. For primary transmission : 66 KV, 132 KV, 220 KV upto 400 KV.
3. For secondary transmission : 11 KV , 22 KV or 33 KV
4. For primary distribution : 6.6 KV or 11 KV.
5. For secondary distribution : 230 V and 400V
Types of conductors
When the conductors are used in transmission system for bulk power transfer, then they should fulfil
following requirements.
1. They should have low weight.
2. They should have high tensile and fatigue strength.
3. They must have high conductivity.
4. They should have low co-efficient of expansion, low corona loss.
5. They should have less resistance and low cost.
Thus base on conductivity, tensile strength, fatigue strength, corona loss, local conditions and cost,
conductors are selected for a particular line. The conductors used in practice are made up from the materials
such as copper, aluminium and their alloys.
The advantages of using aluminium conductors over copper conductors are given below.
1. They have low cost.
2. Less resistance and corona loss.
3. Less weight.
But aluminium has less tensile strength, high co-efficient of expansion and large area which restricts its
use alone as a conductor.
In order to increase the tensile strength of a conductor, one or more central conductors of different
materials are used. These materials give high tensile strength. The different types of aluminium conductors
used in power systems with full forms of their abbreviations are as given below.
AAC : - All aluminium conductor.
AAAC : - All aluminium alloy conductor.
ACSR : - Aluminium conductor with steel reinforcment.
ACAR : - Aluminium conductor with alloy reinforcement.
Normally the conductors are stranded as it posses greater flexibility and mechanical strength as
compared to single wires of same cross sectional area. In stranded conductors, a central wire is surrounded
by successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ... wires. The consecutive layers are spiralled in
opposite directions so as to avoid unwinding. This also makes outer radius of one layer coincide with inner
radius of the next.
The stranded conductors are electrically in parallel and spiralled together. Due to use of stranded
conductors the skin effect is reduced.
The conductor size is decided based on its current carrying ability and voltage level on which it is
working. The total number of conductors in a strand of n layers are given by
Total number of conductors = 1 + 3n (1 + n) = 3n2 + 3n + 1
Overall diameter of stranded conductor with n layer D = (1 + 2n) d
Here d is diameter of each strand. 7 strand conductor will have one central strand with 6 outer strands
each. The size of conductor is specified by its equivalent copper cross sectional area and the number of
strands with the diameter of each strand.
Now we will discuss in brief the commonly used conductors.
1.Hard Drawn Copper Conductor
The hard drawn copper conductors are used for overhead lines which provides high tensile strength.
These conductors have relatively higher conductivity, long life and high scrap value. The copper
conductors are used for distribution network where length of line is short and there are more tappings.
2 Steel Cored Copper Conductor (SCC)
The steel cored copper conductors are made by surrounding a steel core with on or more layers of
copper strands. Due to addition of steel core tensile strength of conductor is increased.
3 Cadmium Copper Conductor
With addition of cadmium there is increase in the tensile strength of copper at the cost of decrease in
the conductivity. Thus these conductors can be used for longer spans. As tensile strength is increased,
longer spans with same sag is possible. The other advantages include easiness in jointing, more resistance
to atmospheric corrosion, better resistance to wear and easy machinability. These conductors are carried by
smaller supports and are subjected to low wind and ice loadings due to their smaller diameter.
4.Copper Weld Condcutor
In this type of conductor, copper is welded on to a steel wire by hot rolling and cold drawing a billet of
steel coated with copper. The uniform thickness of copper is welded. The conductivity of this conductor
lies in the range of 30 to 60% of that of solid copper conductor having same diameter. These are used for
longer spans such as river crossings.
5.All Aluminium Conductor (AAC)
Due to increasing cost of copper, aluminium is used in transmission system. Electrolytically refined
aluminium is rolled and drawn hard for use as condcutor. For a specific resistance, cross sectional area of
aluminium condcutor is greater than that of copper while its weight is about 50% of that of copper
conductor. This makes transportation and erection of such conductors economical. Corona effect is reduced
due to increased diameter of conductor. These conductors are more used in distribution where transmission
lines are short and voltage are lower. There are chances of inter phase faults due to swing if these
conductors are employed in the areas where there are high winds. This is because aluminium conductors are
lighter, with large conductor area and more sag.
6 Aluminium Conductor with Steel Reinforcement (ACSR)
The mechanical strength that is obtained from conductor made up from all aluminium. This difficulty
can be overcome by adding steel core to the conductor. The cross section of this conductor is as shown in
the Fig
ACSR conductor
As shown in the Fig. 1 there are 7 steel strands which forms central core. This is surrounded by two
layers of around 30 aluminium strands. For a given resistance conductors of different strenghts can be made
by taking different properties of steel and aluminium areas. The steel core does not contribute to conduction
of current practically. The current carrying capacity and resistance of this conductor is dependent on
conductivity of aluminium.
The ACSR conductors are more commonly used as they have following advantages.
1. Due to high mechanical strength and tensile strength, the line span can be increased. The sag is small. So
shorter supports are required for line. It is also possible to have longer spans for a given sag. Due to smaller
supports, breakdown possibility is low. Insulators and other fittings needed are also less.
2.They have low corona loss.
3. Skin effect is less.
4. These conductors are inexpensive as compared to copper conductors having equal resistance without
reduction is efficiency, useful life span and durability.
The disadvantage with ACSR conductor is difficult to make splices and dead ends. There is possibility
of corrosion due to electromechanical action between aluminium and steel core. The service conditions
decide corrosion rate. This is higher in industrial and coastal areas.
The compacted ACSR conductor or smooth body ACSR conductor is made by pressing conventional
ACSR conductor through dies to flatten the aluminium strands into segmental shape. The spaces within the
strands are filled while diameter of conductor is reduced. This does not affect electrical and mechanical
properties of this conductor. Thus with same aluminium area, diameter of steel core is increased which
increases mechanical strength. These conductors can be used for larger span lengths. This is shown in the
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Compacted ACSR conductor
The expanded conductors are made by adding a plastic or fibrous material between steel core and
aluminium strands. This increases diameter of conductor which reduces corona loss and radio interference
at extra high voltages. This type of conductor is shown in the Fig.
The filler material such as paper separates the inner steel strands from outer aluminium strands.
Fig. Expanded conductor
7 All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC)

The conductor made from aluminium alloys are suitable in urban areas as they provide better tensile
strength and condcutivity. These alloys are known with different names in various countries. Some f these
alloys are costly as they are heat treated. One of the alloys of aluminium is known as silmalec which
contains 0.5% od silicon, 0.5 % of magnesium and rest of aluminium. Due to this there is improvement in
conductivity and mechanical strength.
8 ACAR Condcutor
In such conductor, the central core is made up from aluminium alloy which is surrounded by layers of
aluminium conductors. The conductivity is better and strength to weight ratio is equal to ACSR conductor
having same diameter. As compared to ACSR conductor, ACSR conductor is smaller in size and lower in
weight for the same electrical capacity.
9 Phosphor Bronze Conductor
This type of conductor is strong than copper conductor and may be used for longer line spans. The
conductivity of such conductor is low which can be improved by use of cadmium-copper core. Phosphor
bronze is found to be suitable for atmospheres containing harmful gases.
10 Alumoweld Conductor
In this type of conductor, aluminium is welded on a high strength steel wire. This is costlier as
compared to steel cored aluminium (SCA) or ACSR conductor. Around 75% conductor area is covered by
aluminium. This is used in earth wires.
11 Galvanized Steel Conductors
This type of conductor is suitable for large length line span or in rural areas where load requirement is
comparatively smaller. This type of conductor has high strength. The conductohas large resistance,
inductance and voltage drop. The disadvantage with this conductor is it has shorter life.
12 Thermal Resistant Aluminium Alloy conductor(TACSR)
TACSR Conductors are very similar in construction to a conventional ACSR conductor but the EC Grade
Aluminum wires are replaced with Hard Drawn Aluminum wires of Heat Resistant Aluminum Alloy
(generally known as TAL ) . TACSR can be safely operated continuously above 150oC enabling to pump
more current through the conductor. Where there is a need to transmit higher power but restrictions on
getting new power corridors approved, various Types of TAL conductors are one of the best creative
solution options to utilities. Ability of the Zirconium doped aluminum alloy to maintain its electrical and
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures makes these conductors a very cost effective solution in
refurbishing the existing lines with enhanced capacity.
Features:
High Current carrying capacity
Stable at elevated temperatures
Good mechanical properties
Economic design
Best suited for enhancing the existing line capacity where additional power corridors are not feasible.
13. Super Thermal Resistant Aluminium Alloy Conductor Invar Reinforced (STACIR or ZTAI)
Super thermal Alloy is manufactured from aluminium-Zirconium (Al-Zr)alloy rods.The arrangement is
shown in figure. The outer layer is made up of Super thermal Resistant aluminium alloy wires.
STACIR Conductor
These are concentrically arranged over inner core of aluminium clad INVAR (36% Ni in Steel.The current
capacity of this conductor is twice that of light aluminium conductor.The load capacity of the system can be
increased simply by replacing existing conductors by STACIR conductors without changing the steel
towers. Thus it is very cost effective and stable at higher temperatures.
14. Gap type Thermal Resistant Aluminium Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced (GTACSR)
It has a unique construction having a small gap between the steel core and super thermal resistant
aluminium alloy layer.
The central core is made up of extra high strength steel core.The conductor paer arranged around the core is
made up of thermal resistant aluminium alloy.
There is a gap between inner layer of aluminium alloy and the steel core which is filled with grease to avoid
the friction.The inner layer of aluminium alloy is trapezoidal in shape to maintain the gap.
The conductor offers excellent sag and current carrying characteristics. It can carry 1.6 times higher current
than ACSR conductor of same size. Its cost is low and construction period is short.To increase the existing
capacity, the existing conductors can be simply replaced by GTACSR conductors without changing the
towers. This construction allows low sag properties and good mechanical strength.
15. Gap type Super Thermal Resistant Aluminium Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced (GZTACSR)
The construction is similar to GTACSR but the outer aluminium conductors are made up of heat resistant
zirconium aluminium alloy. This makes the conductor well suited for the continous operation at elevated
temperature upto 2100C, without affecting its mechanical & electrical properties. Thus this conductor
provides very operation at high temperatures.
The various features are
1.Can carry two times higher current than ACSR conductor of same size.
2.Suitable for the continous operation at high temperatures.
3.Low sag at high temperatures.
4.Very good mechanical and electrical properties at high temperatures.
5.Low thermal knee point.
6.Economical for increasing the overall capacity of lines, simply by replacing existing lines without
changing the towers.
Fig.shows the comparison of current capacities of ACSR, GTACSR AND GZTASCR conductors of
various sizes.
2500
GZTACSR
2000
GTACSR
1500
Current capacity (A) ACSR

1000
500
200 400 600 800
Cross sectional area (mm )2
0
0
16.Bundled Conductors
For high voltage transmission more than 220KV,two or more conductors are used per phase in close
proximity but not touching each other.Such conductors are called bundled conductors.All such conductors
belonging to one phase are grouped are grouped together by a metallic structure called spacers.The spacers
are used to maintain constant distance between the conductors throughout the length, avoiding touching of
conductors amongst themselves.
Each conductor joined by the spacer belongs to the same phase.There are three such groups of conductors
in single circuit as shown in the fig. In double circuit transmission , there are six groups of conductors.
Advantages
1.Reduced reactance of the line due to increase in self geometric mean distance.
2. The maximum power transfer capability of the line increases.
3. There is increase in the surge impedance loading.
4.Increase in the capacity of the line.
5. Reduces the effect of corona and radio interference.
6. reduces voltage gradient in conductor surface.
7.The current carrying capacity of the line increases due to bundled conductors.
8.It increases effective surface area exposed to air hence it has better and efficient cooloing.
9.It has reduced influence of skin effect.
The only limitation is that bundled conductors experience greater wind loading than single conductors.
OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES-
Sag in Overhead Transmission Line and Its Calculation
Sag in overhead Transmission line conductor refers to the difference in level between the point of support
and the lowest point on the conductor.
As shown in the figure above, a Transmission line is supported at two points A and B of two different
Transmission Towers. It is assumed that points A and B are at the same level from the ground. Therefore as
per our definition of Sag, difference in level of point A or B and lowest point O represents the Sag
Sag in Transmission line is very important. While erecting an overhead Transmission Line, it should be
taken care that conductors are under safe tension. If the conductors are too much stretched between two
points of different Towers to save conductor material, then it may happen so that the tension is conductor
reaches unsafe value which will result conductor to break.
Therefore, in order to have safe tension in the conductor, they are not fully stretched rather a sufficient dip
or Sag is provided. The dip or Sag in Transmission line is so provided to maintain tension in the conductor
within the safe value in case of variation in tension in the conductor because of seasonal variation. Some
very basic but important aspects regarding Sag are as follows:
1) As shown in the figure above, if the point of support of conductor is at same level from the ground, the
shape of Sag is Catenary. Now we consider a case where the point of support of conductor are at same level

but the Sag is very less when compared with the span of conductor. Here span means the horizontal
distance between the points of support. In such case, the Sag-span curve is parabolic in nature.
2) The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially as shown in figure above. Thus the tension at
the lowest point of the conductor acts horizontally while at any other point we need to resolve the tangential
tension into vertical and horizontal component for analysis purpose. The horizontal component of tension
remains constant throughout the span of conductor.
Calculation of Sag:
As discussed earlier in this post, enough Sag shall be provided in overhead transmission line to keep the
tension within the safe limit. The tension is generally decided by many factors like wind speed, ice loading,
temperature variations etc. Normally the tension in conductor is kept one half of the ultimate tensile
strength of the conductor and therefore safety factor for the conductor is 2.
Case1: When the conductor supports are at equal level.
Let us consider an overhead line supported at two different towers which are at same level from ground.
The point of support are A and B as shown in figure below. O in the figure shows the lowest point on the
conductor. This lowest point O lies in between the two towers i.e. point O bisects the span equally.
Let,
L = Horizontal distance between the towers i.e. Span
W = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension in the conductor
Let us take any point P on the conductor. Assuming O as origin, the coordinate of point P will be (x,y).
Therefore, weight of section OP = Wx acting at distance of x/2 from origin O.
As this section OP is in equilibrium, hence net torque w.r.t point P shall be zero.
Torque due to Tension T = Torque due to weight Wx
Ty = Wx(x/2)
Therefore, y = Wx2 / 2T ……………………….(1)
For getting Sag, put x = L/2 in equation (1)
Sag = WL2/8T
Case2: When the conductor supports are at unequal level.
In hilly area, the supports for overhead transmission line conductor do not remain at the same level. Figure
below shows a conductor supported between two points A and B which are at different level. The lowest
point on the conductor is O.
Let,
L = Horizontal distance between the towers i.e. Span
H = Difference in level between the two supports
T = Tension in the conductor
X1 = Horizontal distance of point O from support A
X2 = Horizontal distance of point O from support B
W = Weight per unit length of conductor
From equation (1),
Sag S1 = WX12/2T
and Sag S2 = WX22/2T
Now,
S1 – S2 = (W/2T)[ X12 – X22]
= (W/2T)(X1 – X2)( X1 + X2)
But X1 + X2 = L …………………….(2)
So,
S1 – S2 = (WL/2T)(X1 – X2)
X1 – X2 = 2(S1 – S2)T / WL
X1 – X2 = 2HT / WL (As S1 – S2 = H)
X1 – X2 = 2HT / WL ………………..(3)
Solving equation (2) and (3) we get,
X1 = L/2 – TH/WL
X2 = L/2 + TH/WL

By putting the value of X1 and X2 in Sag equation, we can easily find the value of S1and S2.
The above equations for Sag are only valid in ideal situation. Ideal situation refers to a condition when no
wind is flowing and there is no any effect of ice loading. But in actual practise, there always exists a wind
pressure on the conductor and as far as the ice loading is concerned, it is mostly observed in cold countries.
In a country like India, ice loading on transmission line is rarely observed.
Effect of Wind and Ice Loading on Sag:
Coating of ice on conductor (it is assumed that ice coating is uniformly distributed on the surface of
conductor) increases the weigh of the conductor which acts in vertically downward direction. But the wind
exerts a pressure on the conductor surface which is considered horizontal for the sake of calculation.
As shown in figure above, net weight acting vertically downward is sum of weight of ice and weight of
conductor.
Therefore,
Here,
W = Weight of conductor per unit length
Wi = Weight of ice per unit length
Ww = Wind force per unit length
= Wind PressurexArea
= Wind Presuurex(2d+t)x1
Note the way of calculation of Area of conductor. What I did, I just stretched the conductor along the
diameter to make a rectangle as shown in figure below.
Thus from equation (1),

Sag = WtL2/2T
And the angle made by conductor from vertical = tanƟ

= Ww / (W+Wi)
Insulators
The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a way that currents from
conductors do not flow to earth through supports i.e., line conductors must be properly insulated from
supports. This is achieved by securing line conductors to supports with the help of insulators. The insulators
provide necessary insulation between line conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current
from conductors to earth. In general, the insulators should have the following desirable properties :
High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.
The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise the permittivity will
be lowered.

. It is stronger mechanically than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is less effected by changes of
temperature.
Types of Insulators
The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable extent upon the proper selection of
insulators. There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are pin type, suspension type,
strain insulator and shackle insulator.
1. Pin type insulators. The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in Fig. As the name suggests, the
pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the
insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed
wire of the same material as the conductor Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of
electric power at voltages upto 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become
too bulky and hence uneconomical.
Causes of insulator failure. Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The
latter type is pirmarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator. The electrical
breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture. In flashover, an arc occurs between
the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the *air gaps, following
shortest distance.
Fig. shows the arcing distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator. In case of flash-over, the insulator will
continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator. In case
of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the insulator. When such
breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due to excessive heat. In practice, sufficient
thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the line voltage.

It is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flash-over takes place before the insulator gets
punctured. For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10.
2 Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working voltage is
increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV. For high voltages (>33 kV), it
is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in Fig. . They consist of a number of porcelain
discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom
end of this string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc
is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the
working voltage. For instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on
the string.
Advantages
Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.
Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage,usually 11 kV. Depending upon
the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in series.

If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged disc can be
replaced by the sound one.
The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connectio cross arm is such that
insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are
minimum.
In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to supply the greater
demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of conductors. The additional insulation
required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension
arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors run below the
earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides partial protection from lightning.
Strain insulators. When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected
to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For low
voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However,
for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as
shown in Fig. The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane.
3.Shackle insulators. In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now a days,
they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal
position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. Fig.
shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire.
Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series through
metallic links. Fig. (i) shows 3-disc string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion of each disc is
inbetween two metal links. Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C as shown in Fig. (ii). This is known as
mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance alone, then charging current would
have been the same through all the discs and consequently voltage across each unit would have been the
same i.e., V/3 as shown in Fig. (ii). However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal
fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance,
charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string [See Fig. (iii)]. Therefore, voltage across
each disc will be different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum*
voltage. Thus referring to Fig.(iii), V3 will be much more than V2 or V1.
The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over a string of suspension
insulators :
The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself uniformly across the
individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards the cross-arm, the
voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured.
Therefore, means must be provided to equalise the potential across each unit. This is fully discussed in Art.
If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c., then voltage across each unit would be the same. It is
because insulator capacitances are ineffective for d.c.

String Efficiency
As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not uniformly distributed
across various units or discs. The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other
discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually expressed in terms of string
efficiency.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the
disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency i.e.,
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution along the string.
The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution. Thus 100%
string efficiency is an ideal case for which the volatge across each disc will be exactly the same. Although
it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should be made to improve it as close to this
value as possible.
The following points may be noted from the above mathematical analysis :
If K = 0·2 (Say), then from exp. (iv), we get, V2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This clearly shows that disc
nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it; the voltage across other discs decreasing
progressively as the cross-arm in approached.
The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential across the discs and lesser is the
string efficiency.
The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number of discs in the string.
Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the larger one.

Methods of Improving String Efficiency
It has been seen above that potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not uniform. The
maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest to the line conductor and decreases progressively as
the crossarm is approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed insulator (i.e. nearest to conductor)
breaks down or flash over takes place, the breakdown of other units will take place in succession. This
necessitates to equalise the potential across the various units of the string i.e. to improve the string
efficiency. The various methods for this purpose are :
By using longer cross-arms.
The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K i.e., ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual
capacitance. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage
distribution. The value of K can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance. In order to reduce shunt
capacitance, the distance of conductor from tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be used.
However, limitations of cost and strength of tower do not allow the use of very long cross-arms. In practice,
K = 0·1 is the limit that can be achieved by this method.
By grading the insulators. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that each has a
different capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. they are assembled in the string in such a
way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest
to conductor) is reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance, this method tends to
equalise the potential distribution across the units in the string. This method has the disadvantage that a
large number of different-sized insulators are required. However, good results can be obtained by

using standard insulators for most of the string and larger units for that near to the line conductor.
By using a guard ring.
The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by using a guard ring which is a metal ring
electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. The guard
ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in
such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i
will be uniform potential distribution across the units.
Important Points
While solving problems relating to string efficiency, the following points must be kept in mind:
The maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest to the conductror (i.e., line conductor).
The voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage i.e., Voltage across string =
Voltage between line and earth = Phase Voltage
Line Voltage = 3 √ Voltage across string
Question Bank
1. Draw the line diagram of a typical power supply scheme indicating the standard
voltages.
2. Write short note on advantages of HV transmission.
3. Write short note on H V D C transmission.
4. Write short note on feeders, distributors and service mains.
5. Write the comparison betn. Overhead and underground transmission system.
6. What are the advantages and limitations of high voltage a.c transmission?
Overhead Transmission Lines
1. Show that a transmission line conductor suspended between level support

assumes the shape of a catenory. Derive the expression for sag.
2. Explain what is sag and why it is inevitable in over head transmission lines?
What are the factors influencing it?
3. With usual notations derive an expression for maximum sag of a tranmn.
Line where the supports are at different levels?
4. Obtain the expression for sag in a freely suspended conductor when the supports are
at equal levels.
5. Explain the effects of sag in overhead trasmn. Line.
6. Obtain the expression for sag in a power conductor when the supports are at equal
levels, taking into the effect of wind and ice loading
7. Write short note on effect of ice load and wind effect on sag of transmn. Line.
8. From the first principles derive the expression for sag in a freely suspended
conductor when the supports are at unequal levels
Insulators
1 Explain the various tests conducted on insulators.
With usual notations, derive the general expression for the metal link of string to line
capacitance, when guard ring is used for the string of insulators.
3. What is string efficiency in the context of suspension insulators? Explain the
methods of improving the same.
4. Write short note on different types of O H line insulators.
5. Define string efficiency and hence calculate the mathematical expression for it.
6. Explain the methods of improving the string efficiency.
7. What are the insulators with O H Lines? Discuss the desirable properties of
insulators and name the types of insulators.

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ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

SUBJECT: Transmission and Distribution

SUB CODE: 18EE43

18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

A typical Transmission and Distribution Scheme

Schematic Representation of a typical transmission distribution scheme

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE, Mysuru. Page 1

18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

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18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

Fig. 2 Line diagram of a typical transmission distribution scheme

Dept. of EEE, ATMECE, Mysuru. Page 3

18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

The distribution scheme consists of following important components :

n general two types of systems are used for the transmission.

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18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

1. Overhead system 2. Underground system

18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

The resistance per conductor is given by,

The load current I can be obtained as,

The total copper losses are,

The volume of copper used is,

Let J = Current density of conductor in A/m2

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18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

Using equation (2) in equation (9),

The line efficiency is given by,

Line efficiency η = Output/Input

Effect of High Voltage on Line Drop

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Fig. 2 Compacted ACSR conductor

Fig. Expanded conductor

7 All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC)

18EE43-Transmission & Distribution 2020

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Current capacity (A) ACSR

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Sag in Overhead Transmission Line and Its Calculation

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