Roots of Psychology, Key

issues and controversies

MADEHA
Introduction to the Roots of Psychology
Welcome to the world of psychology, a discipline that seeks to understand the mysteries of the
human mind. From the ancient Greeks to modern-day researchers, humans have been
fascinated by the workings of the brain and the complexities of behavior. In this presentation,
we will explore the roots of psychology and the key issues and controversies that have shaped
the field.
As we delve into the history of psychology, we will discover how philosophers such as Plato,
Aristotle, and Descartes laid the groundwork for later thinkers, and how the scientific revolution
of the 17th century paved the way for the emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline. We
will also explore the major schools of thought in psychology, from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology to the biological perspective. Join us on this journey through the fascinating world of
psychology.
 INTRODUCTION
▪The study of the past is relevant for the present.

▪History has much to tell us about the world today, and early developments in the field of
psychology help us understand the nature of psychology in the twenty-first century.
WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY?
▪This course is being offered in your program.
Courses have been taught since 1911

▪Of all the sciences, psychology is unique in this regard.

 WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY?
❑Journals

❑Division 26 (APA)

❑Research center (The Archives of the History of American Psychology)

The Archives contains: more than 50,000 books, 15,000 photographs, 6,000 films, audio and
video tapes, hundreds of thousands of letters, manuscripts, lecture notes, testing apparatus, and
laboratory equipment.
 WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY?
▪There is no single form, approach, or definition of psychology on which all
psychologists agree. E.g., Cognitive functions, Unconscious forces, Overt behavior,
Physiological or biochemical processes.

▪Modern psychology includes many subject areas that seem to have little in common
beyond a broad interest in human nature and behavior, and an approach that
attempts in some general way to be scientific.

▪The only framework that binds these diverse areas and approaches and gives them
a coherent context is their history, the evolution over time of psychology as an
independent discipline.
GREEK
CONTRIBUTION
▪It was a monumental step in human thought when natural explanations were
offered instead of supernatural ones.
▪Such explanations, although understandably simple, were first offered by the early
Greeks.
▪Philosophy (literally, the love of knowledge or wisdom) began when natural
explanations (logos) replaced supernatural ones (mythos).
 THE FIRST PHILOSOPHERS
The first philosophers were called cosmologists because they sought to explain the origin, the
structure, and the processes governing the cosmos (universe).
 THALES (CA. 625–547 B.C.)
▪Often referred to as the first philosopher.

▪Emphasized natural explanations and minimized supernatural ones.

▪Searched for that one substance or element from which everything else is derived.

▪The Greeks called such a primary element or substance a physis, and those who sought it were
physicists.

▪Thales concluded that the physis was water because many things seem to be a form of water.

▪Thales also predicted eclipses, developed methods of navigation based on the stars and planets, and
applied geometric principles to the measurement of such things as the heights of buildings.

▪Thales started the critical tradition that was to characterize early Greek philosophy.
 HERACLITUS (CA. 540–480 B.C.)
▪Assumed fire to be the physis because in the presence of fire everything is
transformed into something else.

▪Believed that all things existed somewhere between polar opposites—for

example, night-day, life-death, winter-summer, up-down, heat-cold, sleeping-
waking.
▪For him, one end of the pole defined the other, and the two poles were
inseparable. Only through injustice can justice be known, and only through
health can illness be known.
 PYTHAGORAS (CA. 580–500 B.C.)
▪Was the first to employ the term philosophy and to refer to himself as a philosopher.

▪Postulated that the basic explanation for everything in the universe was found in numbers and
in numerical relationships.

▪Strings of a lyre must bear certain relationships with one another to produce pleasant,
harmonious sounds was, perhaps, psychology’s first psychophysical law.

▪The Pythagoreans thought illness resulted from a disruption of the body’s equilibrium, and
medical treatment consisted of attempts to restore that equilibrium.

▪The Pythagoreans assumed a dualistic universe: one part abstract, permanent, and intellectually
knowable, and the other empirical, changing, and known through the senses.
 PYTHAGORAS (CA. 580–500 B.C.)
▪Pythagoras postulated two worlds, one physical and one abstract.
▪Of the two, the abstract was considered the better.
▪Pythagoras also postulated a dualism in humans, claiming that, in addition to
the flesh of the body, we have reasoning powers that allow us to attain an
understanding of the abstract world.
▪Furthermore, reasoning is a function of the soul, which the Pythagoreans
believed to be immortal.
▪Pythagoras’ philosophy provides one of the first clear-cut mind-body dualisms
in the history of Western thought.
 EMPEDOCLES (CA. 490–430 B.C.)
▪Suggested four elements from which everything in the world is made: earth, fire, air, and water.

▪Humans, too, consist of these four elements, with earth forming the solid part of the body, water
accounting for the liquids in the body, air providing the breath of life, and fire providing our
reasoning ability.

▪Two causal powers of the universe: love and strife. Love is a force that attracts and mixes the
elements, and strife is a force that separates the elements.

▪When love dominates, we have an urge to establish a union with the world and with other people;
when strife dominates, we seek separation.

▪Empedocles was also the first philosopher to offer a theory of perception.

▪To the Pythagorean notion that health reflected a bodily equilibrium, Empedocles added the four
elements.

▪Health occurs when the four elements of the body are in proper balance; illness results when they
 ANAXAGORAS (CA. 500–428 B.C.)
▪Where mind is present, life exists.
▪For example, mind is present in humans and other living things but not in such things as stones
or rivers. Anaxagoras was, therefore, a vitalist.
 DEMOCRITUS (CA. 460–370 B.C.)
▪All things are made of tiny, indivisible parts called atoms.

▪The differences among things are explained by the shape, size, number, location, and arrangement
of atoms.

▪Because the behavior of atoms was thought to be lawful; deterministic.

▪It also exemplified physical monism (materialism) because everything was explained in terms of the
arrangement of atoms and there was no separate life force; that is, he denied vitalism.

▪Also incorporated elementism because no matter how complex something was, Democritus believed
it could be explained in terms of atoms and their activity.

▪Exemplified reductionism because he attempted to explain objects and events on one level
(observable phenomena) in terms of events on another level (atoms and their activity).
 DEMOCRITUS (CA. 460–370 B.C.)
▪Democritus placed thinking in the brain, emotion in the heart, and appetite in
the liver.
▪He discussed five senses—vision, hearing, smell, touch, and taste—and
suggested four primary colors— black, red, white, and green—from which all
colors were derived.
▪Because he believed that all bodily atoms scattered at death, he also believed
that there was no life after death.
▪His view was the first completely naturalistic view of the universe, devoid of any
supernatural considerations.
EARLY GREEK MEDICINE
 ALCMAEON (FL.CA.500B.C.)
▪Among the first to move away from temple medicine and toward more rational,
naturalistic medicine.
▪Equated health with a balance of such qualities as warm and cold, moist and
dry, and bitter and sweet. If one or more qualities dominates a person’s system,
sickness results.
▪Among the first (if not the first) to dissect human bodies.
▪The brain was connected to the sense organs.
▪For example, he dissected the eye and traced the optic nerve.
▪Concluded that sensation, perception, memory, thinking, and understanding
occurred in the brain.
 HIPPOCRATES (CA. 460–377 B.C.)
▪Proficiency in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of disease.

▪He kept detailed records that gave precise accounts of mumps,

epilepsy, hysteria, arthritis, and tuberculosis, to name only a few.
▪Hippocrates concluded that all disorders (both mental and physical)
were caused by natural factors such as inherited susceptibility to
disease, organic injury, and an imbalance of bodily fluids.

▪Hippocrates is often referred to as the father of medicine.

 HIPPOCRATES (CA. 460–377 B.C.)
▪The Hippocratics agreed with Empedocles that everything is made from four
elements—earth, air, fire, and water—and that humans, too, are made up of these
elements.
▪The Hippocratics also associated the four elements with four humors in the body.
They associated earth with black bile, air with yellow bile, fire with blood, and water
with phlegm.
▪Individuals for whom the humors are properly balanced are healthy; an imbalance
among the humors results in illness.
▪The Hippocratics strongly believed that the body has the ability to heal itself and
that it is the physician’s job to facilitate this natural healing. Thus, the “cures” the
Hippocratics recommended included rest, proper diet, exercise, fresh air, massage,
and baths.
 GALEN (CA. A.D. 130–200)
▪Associated the four humors of the body with four temperaments.
▪If one of the humors dominates, the person displays the characteristics
associated with that humor.
THE RELATIVITY OF TRUTH
▪One group of philosophers concluded that there is not just one truth but many.
▪They believed that anything is true if you can convince someone that it is true. Nothing, they
said, is inherently right or wrong, but believing makes it so.
 SOPHISTS
▪The Sophists were professional teachers of rhetoric and logic who believed that
effective communication determined whether an idea was accepted rather than
the idea’s validity.
▪Truth was considered relative, and therefore no single truth was thought to
exist.
 SOCRATES (CA. 470–399 B.C.)
▪Individual experience is important.
▪“Know thyself”.
▪Disagreed with the Sophists’ contention that no truth exists beyond personal
opinion.
▪Socrates used a method sometimes called inductive definition, which started
with an examination of instances of such concepts as beauty, love, justice, or
truth and then moved onto such questions as, What is it that all instances of
beauty have in common? In other words, Socrates asked what it is that makes
something beautiful, just, or true. In this way, he sought to discover general
concepts by examining isolated examples.
 SOCRATES (CA. 470–399 B.C.)
▪What Socrates sought was the essence of such things as beauty, justice, and
truth.
▪The essence of something is its basic nature, its identifying, enduring
characteristics.
▪To truly know something, according to Socrates, is to understand its essence.
▪For him, an essence was a universally acceptable definition of a concept— a
definition that was both accurate and acceptable to all interested parties.
▪The understanding of essences constituted knowledge, and the goal of life was
to gain knowledge. When one’s conduct is guided by knowledge, it is necessarily
moral. For example, if one knows what justice is, one acts justly.
▪Socratic method.
 PLATO (CA. 427–347 B.C.)
▪Plato wished to find something permanent, that could be the object of
knowledge.
▪According to Plato’s reminiscence theory of knowledge, all knowledge is innate
and can be attained only through introspection, which is the searching of one’s
inner experiences.
▪Plato’s philosophy did little to promote science and much to inhibit it.
▪Plato created a dualism that divided the human into a body, which was material
and imperfect, and a mind (soul), which contained pure knowledge.
 PLATO (CA. 427–347 B.C.)
▪The nature of the soul:
▪Three components: rational, courageous (emotional or spirited), and appetitive.
▪Rational component; immortal
▪Courageous and appetitive aspects of the soul were part of the body and thus
mortal.
▪The person whose rational soul dominates is not impulsive. His or her life is
dominated by moral principles and future goals, not the immediate satisfaction of
biological or emotional needs.
▪The supreme goal in life, according to Plato, should be to free the soul as much as
possible from the adulterations of the flesh.
 ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.)
▪Student of Plato.
▪Founder of the Lyceum.
▪Totally opposite with his teacher.
▪Teacher of Alexander the great.
▪Rejected dualism.
▪Human is a biological being.
▪Mind is a function of body processes and experiences.
▪Man is a social animal.
 ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.)
▪A soul is that which gives life; therefore, all living things possess a soul.
▪Three types of souls, and a living thing’s potential (purpose) is determined by what
type of a soul it possesses.
▪A vegetative (or nutritive) soul is possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the
assimilation of food, and reproduction.
▪A sensitive soul is possessed by animals but not plants. In addition to the vegetative
functions, organisms that possess a sensitive soul sense and respond to the
environment, experience pleasure and pain, and have a memory.
▪A rational soul is possessed only by humans. It provides all the functions of the other
two souls but also allows thinking or rational thought.
 ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.)
▪Explained memory and recall as the results of sense perception.
▪Remembering, for Aristotle, was a spontaneous recollection of something that
had been previously experienced.
▪Recall, however, involves an actual mental search for a past experience.
▪It was in conjunction with recall that Aristotle postulated what have been called
his laws of association.
 ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.)
▪Law of contiguity: when we think of something, we also tend to think of things
that were experienced along with it.
▪Law of similarity: when we think of something, we tend to think of things similar
to it.
▪Law of contrast: when we think of something, we also tend to think of things
that are its opposite.
▪Law of frequency: the more often experiences occur together, the stronger will
be their association.
Muslim Contributions
Islamic Psychology
Helping others is very much encouraged in Islam and
the work of therapist or counsellor is very beneficial to the whole society.

“…and he who relieved a Muslim from hardship Allah would relieve him from the hardships to which he would be put
on the Day of Resurrection…”
(Sahih Muslim, 32/6250)

Mental Healthcare
The Golden Age of Islam was unique in that treatment of mental disorders was carried out in hospitals.

Psychiatric hospitals were constructed in Baghdad in 705 and Cairo in 805. Islamic scholars were instrumental in
equating mental illness with physical ailments, understanding that mind and body shared a tangible link.

This led to many advances in the study of the mind, with the setting up of hospitals and the recognition by
Islamic physicians of a range of mental ailments.
 AL-KINDI (803-873)

As an Islamic psychologist,
Al-Kindi was a pioneer in experimental psychology.

He was the first to use the method of experiment in psychology,

which led to his discovery that sensation is proportionate to the stimulus.

He was also the earliest to realize the therapeutic value of music and
attempted to cure a quadriplegic boy using music therapy.
He also dealt with psychology in several other treatises: On Sleep and Dreams (a treatise on
dream interpretation), First Philosophy, and Eradication of Sorrow.

In the latter, he described sorrow as

"a spiritual (Nafsani) grief caused by loss of loved ones or personal belongings, or by failure in obtaining what
one lusts after" and then added:

"If causes of pain are discernable, the cures can be found."

He recommended that "if we do not tolerate losing or dislike being deprived of what is dear to us, then we should
seek after riches in the world of the intellect. In it we should treasure our precious and cherished gains where they
can never be dispossessed…for that which is owned by our senses could easily be taken away from us.

" He also stated that "sorrow is not within us we bring it upon ourselves."

He developed cognitive methods to combat depression and discussed the intellectual operations of human
beings.
Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850-934)

Al Balkhi was a physician and psychologist.

Born in 850 CE in Balkh, Khorasan (in modern day

Afghanistan)

He wrote the medical and psychological work, Masalih al-

Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul).
Mental health and mental illness

In Islamic psychology, the concepts of mental health and "mental hygiene" were introduced by Abu Zayd
al-Balkhi, who often related it to spiritual health.

In his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul), he was the first to successfully
discuss diseases related to both the body and the soul.

He used the term al-Tibb al-Ruhani to describe spiritual and psychological health, and the term
Tibb al-Qalb to describe mental medicine.

He criticized many medical doctors in his time for placing too much emphasis on physical illnesses and
neglecting the psychological or mental illnesses of patients, and argued that "since man’s construction is
from both his soul and his body, therefore, human existence cannot be healthy without the ishtibak
[interweaving or entangling] of soul and body.
Cognitive and medical psychology and cognitive therapy

Abu Zayd al-Balkhi was the first to differentiate

between neurosis and psychosis, and the first to classify neurotic disorders and pioneer cognitive therapy in order
to treat each of these classified disorders. He classified neurosis into

Four emotional disorders:

1. fear and anxiety,
2. anger and aggression,
3. sadness and depression, and
4. obsession.

He further classified three types of depression:

normal depression or sadness (huzn),
endogenous depression originating from within the body, and reactive clinical depression originating
from outside the body.
He also wrote that a healthy individual should always keep
healthy thoughts and feelings in his mind in the case of
unexpected emotional outbursts in the same way drugs and
First Aid medicine are kept nearby for unexpected physical
emergencies.

He stated that a balance between the mind and body is required

for good health and that an imbalance between the two can
cause sickness.

Al-Balkhi also introduced the concept of reciprocal

inhibition (al-ilaj bi al-did), which was re-introduced
over a thousand years later by Joseph Wolpe in 1969.
Psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine

The Muslim physician Abu Zayd al-Balkhi was a pioneer of psychotherapy,

psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine.

He recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or
"balanced or imbalanced", and
that mental illness can have both psychological and/or physiological causes.

He wrote that

Imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other physical illnesses, while

Imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other mental symptoms.
"He further argued that "if the body gets sick, the nafs [psyche] loses much of its
cognitive and comprehensive ability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of life" and
that "if the nafs gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually
develop a physical illness.
"Al-Balkhi traced back his ideas on mental health to verses of the Qur'an
and hadiths attributed to Muhammad, such as:
"In their hearts is a disease."Qur'an 2:10
"Truly, in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is corrupt the body is corrupt,
and when it is sound the body is sound. Truly, it is the qalb [heart]."
Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Iman
"Verily Allah does not consider your appearances or your wealth in
(appraising you) but He considers your hearts and your deeds." Musnad
Ahmad ibn Hanbal, no. 8707
He recognized two types of depression:

one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be

treated psychologically through both
external methods (such as persuasive talking, preaching and advising) and internal methods
(such as the "development of inner thoughts and cognitions which help the person get rid of
his depressive condition"); and

the other caused by unknown reasons such as a

"sudden affliction of sorrow and distress, which persists all the time, preventing the afflicted
person from any physical activity or from showing any happiness or enjoying any of the
pleasures" which may be caused by physiological reasons (such as impurity of the blood) and
can be treated through physical medicine.

He also wrote comparisons between physical disorders with mental disorders, and showed
how psychosomatic disorders can be caused by certain interactions between them.
AL-FARABI (872-950)
In psychology,
al-Farabi's Social Psychology and
Model City were the first treatises to deal with social psychology.
He stated that
"an isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other
individuals."
He wrote that it is the
"innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to
perform."
He concluded that in order to "achieve what he can of that perfection, every
man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them.

His work on the Cause of Dreams, which appeared as chapter 24 of his Book of
Opinions of the people of the Ideal City, was a treatise on dreams, in which he
was the first to distinguish between dream interpretation and the nature and
causes of dreams.

According to him man is composed of two principles : Body and soul. His

theory of human nature is dualistic.

Body and soul have no essential connections with each other.

IBN SINA (980-1037)
Ibn Sina was born in 980 C.E. in the village of Afshana
near Bukhara.
In Muslim psychology and the neurosciences, Ibn e
Sina was a pioneer of neuropsychiatry. He first
described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions,
including hallucination, insomnia, mania,
nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy,
paralysis, stroke, vertigo, tremor.
Ibn e Sina was also a pioneer in psychophysiology and
psychosomatic medicine.
Avicenna also proposed that humans have seven inner senses to complement the outer senses. In the long
history of psychology, this was one of the first attempts to try to understand the way that the mind and
reasoning operate.

Common Sense: This sense collates the information gathered by the external senses.
Retentive Imagination: This sense remembers the information gathered by the common sense.
Compositive Animal Imagination:
This sense allows all animals to learn what they should avoid and what they should actively seek in their
natural environment.
Compositive Human Imagination: This sense helps humans to learn what to avoid and what to seek in
the world around them.
Estimative Power: This is the ability to make innate judgments about the surrounding environment and
determine what is dangerous and what is beneficial. For example, an innate and instinctual fear of
predators would fall under this sense.
Memory: The memory is responsible for remembering all of the information developed by the other
senses.
Processing: This is the ability to use all of the information and is the highest of the seven internal senses.
He recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed
a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of
the word association test attributed to Carl Jung.

Ibn Sina noted the close relationship between emotions and the physical condition and felt that music
had a definite physical and psychological effect on patients.

Of the many psychological disorders that he described in the Qanun, one is of unusual
interest: love sickness!

Ibn Sina is reputed to have diagnosed this condition in a Prince in Jurjan who lay sick and whose
malady had baffled local doctors.

Ibn Sina noted a fluttering in the Prince's pulse when the address and name of his beloved were
mentioned.

The great doctor had a simple remedy: unite the sufferer with the beloved.
 IMAM GHAZALI (1058-1111)

In Islamic psychology, al-Ghazali discussed the concept of the self and the causes of its
misery and happiness.

He described the self using four terms: Qalb (heart),

Ruh (spirit), Nafs (soul) and
'Aql (intellect).

He stated that "the self has an inherent yearning for an ideal,

which it strives to realize and it is endowed with qualities to help
realize it."
He further stated that the self has motor and sensory motives for fulfilling its
bodily needs.

He wrote that the motor motives comprise of propensities and impulses, and
further divided the propensities into two types: appetite and anger.

He wrote that appetite urges hunger, thirst, and sexual craving, while

anger takes the form of rage, indignation and revenge.

He further wrote that impulse resides in the muscles, nerves, and tissues, and
moves the organs to "fulfill the propensities."
Al-Ghazali was one of the first to divide the sensory motives (apprehension) into five external
senses (hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch) and

five internal senses:

1. common sense (Hiss Mushtarik) which synthesizes sensuous impressions carried to the
brain while giving meaning to them;

2. imagination (Takhayyul) which enables someone to retain mental images from experience;

3. reflection (Tafakkur) which brings together relevant thoughts and associates or dissociates
them as it considers fit but has no power to create anything new which is not already present in
the mind;

4. recollection (Tadhakkur) which remembers the outer form of objects in memory and
recollects the meaning; and

5. the memory (Hafiza) where impressions received through the senses are stored.
He wrote that, while the external senses occur through specific organs, the
internal senses are located in different regions of the brain, and discovered that
the memory is located in the hinder lobe, imagination is located in the frontal
lobe, and reflection is located in the middle folds of the brain.

He stated that these inner senses allow people to predict future situations
based on what they learn from past experiences.
In The Revival of Religious Sciences, he writes that the five internal
senses are found in both humans and animals.

In Mizan al Amal, however, he later states that animals "do not possess a well-
developed reflective power" and argues that animals mostly think in terms of
"pictorial ideas in a simple way and are incapable of complex association and
dissociation of abstract ideas involved in reflection."

He writes that "the self carries two additional qualities, which distinguishes man
from animals enabling man to attain spiritual perfection", which are 'Aql
(intellect) and Irada (will).

He argues that the intellect is

"the fundamental rational faculty, which enables man to
generalize and form concepts and gain knowledge."
He also argues that human will and animal will are both different.

He writes that human will is "conditioned by the intellect" while animal

will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" and that "all these powers
control and regulate the body."

He further writes that the Qalb (heart) "controls and rules over them" and that it has six
powers:
appetite, anger, impulse,
apprehension, intellect, and will.

He states that humans have all six of these traits,

while animals only have three (appetite, anger, and impulse).
This was in contrast to other ancient and medieval thinkers such as Aristotle, Ibn e
Sina, Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas who all believed that animals cannot become
angry.
Al-Ghazali writes that knowledge can either be innate or acquired.

He divides acquired knowledge into phenomenal (material world) and spiritual

(related to God and soul), and divides acquired knowledge into imitation, logical
reasoning, contemplation and intuition.

He also argues that there are four elements in human nature: the
sage (intellect and reason),
the pig (lust and gluttony), the dog
(anger), and
the devil (brutality).

He argues that the latter three elements are in conflict with the former element
and that "different people have such powers in different proportions."
Al-Ghazali divides the Nafs into three categories based on the Qur’an:

Nafs Ammarah (12:53) which "exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates
to do evil",

Nafs Lawammah (75:2) which is "the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong", and

Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27) which is "a self that reaches the ultimate peace."

As an analogy between psychology and politics, he compares the soul to that of a king running a
kingdom, arguing that the bodily organs are like the artisans and workers, intellect is like a wise vizier,
desire is like a wicked servant, and anger is like the police force.

He argues that a king can correctly run the state of affairs by turning to the wise vizier, turns away from
the wicked servant, and regulating the workers and the police; and that in the same way, the soul is
balanced if it
"keeps anger under control and makes the intellect dominate desire."
" He argues that for a soul to reach perfection, it needs to evolve through several stages:
sensuous (like a moth which has no memory), imaginative (lower
animal),
instinctive (higher animal),
rational ("transcends animal stage and apprehends objects beyond the scope of his senses") and
divine ("apprehends reality of spiritual things").

He stated that there are two types of diseases: physical and spiritual.
He considered the latter to be more dangerous, resulting from "ignorance and deviation from God",
and listed the spiritual diseases as:
self-centeredness; addiction to wealth, fame and social status;
and ignorance, cowardice, cruelty, lust,
waswas (doubt), malevolence, calumny, envy, deception, and greed.

To overcome these spiritual weaknesses, al-Ghazali suggested the therapy of opposites ("use of
imagination in pursuing the opposite"),
such as ignorance & learning, or hate & love.
He described the personality as an
"integration of spiritual and bodily forces" and believed that "closeness to God is
equivalent to normality whereas distance from God leads to abnormality."

Al-Ghazali argued that human beings occupy a position

"midway between animals and angels and his distinguishing quality is knowledge."

He argues that a human can either rise to

"the level of the angels with the help of knowledge" or fall to
"the levels of animals by letting his anger and lust dominate him."

He also argued that Ilm al-Batin (esotericism) is fard (incumbent) and advised Tazkiya Nafs (self-
purification).

He also noted that "good conduct can only develop from within and does not need total destruction
of natural propensities".
ASHRAF ALI THANVI (1873-1943)
‘Physician of the Muslims’ [Hakim al-ummat] and ‘Reformer of the
Nation’ [Mujaddid al-Millat],

Thanvi is a reformer of the masses, an exemplary spiritual guide [shaykh], a successful

author, a spiritual jurist, an intellectual sage, and a fortifier of Islamic tradition.

The most famous books of Ashraf Ali Thanvi include the famous “Behishti Zaiver”
and “Tarbiyyat-ul-Shalik”

His views are identified by the three titles:

(a)Personality Theory
(b)Causes and Classification of Disease
(c)Treatment or Therapies
(a) Personality Theory:

According to Thanvi, a child is born with innocent nature. He learns good and bad

things from his environment.

Three types of “Nafs” are developed in his personality:

(I) Nafs Ammara (turning to evil),

(ii)Nafs Lavvama (cursing after sin) and

(iii)Nafs Mutmainna (following divines).

(b) Causes and Classification of Diseases:
Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi explains the causes of mental diseases as follows:

Causes:
When a human being becomes detached from religion and goes away from God it makes him worthless.
This also removes distinction between good and bad; greed and material gain becomes all-important goal
of one’s life in the world.
This worldly gain and greed expose one to mental diseases.

According to the Maulana, there are two forces within a human being: constructive force and
destructive force.

He lays great emphasis on training of the child so as to strike balance between the two forces.

In the early days, parents especially mother plays greater role while bringing up the child on right lines.

Wrong training spoils him making him prone to mental diseases.

Kinds of Mental Diseases:

Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi divided the mental diseases two categories: Organic and functional
disturbances or diseases.

The organic diseases may be cured by medicines but the functional or psychological diseases are
to be cured by individual and group therapies.

In the individual therapy, the disturbed individual is made to understand his own self-known as right
path.

Maulana Thanvi cured thousands of persons suffering from organic and functional disturbances
through his therapy.

He simply provided the reading material and inspired the individuals to develop an insight to
communicate with Allah directly.

For the group therapy, Maulana Thanvi invited his patients to his “Khanqah” to stay with other
members of the group and assigned them different responsibilities. As they lived together in a group,
they were trained and guided to live a normal life.
(c) Thanvi’s Therapy Approaches:
Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi believed in individual potentialities and qualities of human beings. Before
asking an individual to come down for therapy or treatment, he made it absolutely clear that his
therapeutic techniques do not lead to the following:

Miracle and “Kashf”

Guarantee for forgiveness on the day of judgment Promise of material gain
or better prospects in life Automatic cure through counselor’s attention
Possibility of action without will
Promise or surely for inner experiences

Maulana Thanvi emphasized the importance of the patient’s own will and effort in the cure of disease
or illness.

The counselor (pir) only assists the patient to understand causes of the disease and overcome
adverse factors while organizing his own self.

The patient should have full faith and confidence in the counselor and do as advised.
Kinds of Therapies:
Ashraf Ali Thanvi divided his therapies into two kinds:
(I) Reading therapy,
(ii) Communication therapy

(I) Reading Therapy:

Reading therapy is individual therapy.
At the start of treatment session, Ashraf Thanvi asked his patient to write down his problem believing
that a strong psychological link existed between the patient and the therapist. This association was
developed through an exchange of letters. The patient must be conscious of his anxiety and explain his
trouble in writing.

The therapist believed that some individuals needed direct guidance and counseling. After reading the
contents of patient’s letter, he put some questions to satisfy and prepare his (patient) for treatment.

More often that not, Maulana Thanvi provided reading material out of religious scholar’s books to his
patients. He never failed to let those read and received verses of the Holy Quran.
Reading therapy depends upon the faint in ALLAH.
Based on Muslim Philosophy, the reading therapy believes that man is a whole unit. He has definite purpose of life.
His primary concern is fulfilling this aim.

All directed towards definite goals of life.

These are to purify one’s soul and seek His pleasure and gratification.

(II) Communication Therapy:

In this therapy, Maulana Thanvi patients to his Khanqah “Imdadia” where people always gathered together. The
Maulana used to sermonize on certain topic which the patients had to listen intently and act upon as advised.

He thought sermon was the best spiritual group therapy. The patients uttered again and
again what they listened.
Remaining near to the therapist was important for effective treatment. This way of treatment applied to those
who fully believe in religion.
Belief relates to purity of though, uprightness of character, nearness to ALLAH and commitment.
The Philosophical Roots of Psychology
The roots of psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosophers,
who were among the first to explore questions about the nature of the mind
and human behavior. Plato, for example, believed that the mind was a separate
entity from the body and that knowledge was innate, while Aristotle emphasized
the importance of empirical observation and experience in understanding the
world around us.
Later thinkers such as Descartes built upon these ideas, developing theories
about the relationship between the mind and the body and the role of
perception and sensation in shaping our experiences. These philosophical
foundations laid the groundwork for the development of psychology as a
scientific discipline, and their influence can still be seen in the theories and
research methods used by psychologists today.
 Philosophical influences in Psychology
Mechanism : The doctrine that natural processes are mechanically determined and capable of
explanation by the laws of physics and chemistry.

Clockwork universe
Determinism : The doctrine that acts are determined by past events.

Reductionism : The doctrine that explains phenomena on one level (such as complex ideas) in
terms of phenomena on another level (such as simple ideas)
 Beginnings of Modern Science
Empiricism : The pursuit of knowledge through the observation of nature
and the attribution of all knowledge to experience.
RENE´ DESCARTES: applied scientific knowledge to practical concerns
Reflex action theory : The idea that an external object (a stimulus) can bring
about an involuntary response.

the mind and body interaction

 The doctrine of ideas
He suggested that the mind produces two kinds of ideas:
1) Derived ideas arise from the direct application of an external stimulus,
such as the sound of a bell or the sight of a tree.
2) Innate ideas are not produced by objects in the external world impinging
on the senses but develop instead out of the mind or consciousness.
Although the potential existence of innate ideas is independent of sensory
experiences, they may be realized in the presence of appropriate
experience
His contributions
The mechanistic conception of the body
• The theory of reflex action
• The mind-body interaction
• The localization of mental functions in the
brain
• The doctrine of innate idea
 Philosophical Foundations of the New Psychology:
Positivism, Materialism, and Empiricism
Positivism: The doctrine that recognizes only natural phenomena or facts
that are objectively observable
Materialism : The doctrine that considers the facts of the universe to be
sufficiently explained in physical terms by the existence and nature of
matter.
Empiricism : They argued that all knowledge is derived from sensory
experience. the mind grows through the progressive accumulation of
of sensory experiences.
These became the philosophical foundations of the new science of
psychology.
 John lock
How the mind acquires knowledge?
He was concerned primarily with cognitive functioning; that is, the ways in which the mind
acquires its knowledge

Sensation and reflection two kinds of experiences,

one deriving from sensation and the other from reflection. The ideas that derive from
sensation—from direct sensory input from physical objects in the environment—are simple
sense impressions. These sense impressions operate on the mind, and the mind itself also
operates on the sensations, reflecting on them to form ideas.
Simple ideas and complex ideas
Simple ideas: are elemental ideas that arise from sensation
and reflection.
complex ideas: are derived ideas that are compounded of
simple ideas and thus can be analyzed or reduced to their
simpler components
 The theory of association
Association: The notion that knowledge results from linking or
associating simple ideas to form complex ideas.
 Primary and secondary qualities
Primary qualities : Primary qualities are characteristics such as size and shape that exist
in an object whether or not we perceive them.
Secondary qualities: are characteristics such as color and odor that exist in our
perception of the object.
 George Berkeley
Mentalism: The doctrine that all knowledge is a function of mental
phenomena and dependent on the perceiving or experiencing person.
Perception is subjective- that is , within ourselves- it does not mirror
the external world.
He was of the view that there is an association of sensations
 David Hartley
fundamental law of association is contiguity, by which he attempted
to explain the processes of memory, reasoning, emotion, and
voluntary and involuntary action. Ideas or sensations that occur
together, simultaneously or successively, become associated so that
the occurrence of one is connected with the occurrence of the other.
Repetition: The notion that the more frequently two ideas occur
together, the more readily they will be associate.
 James Mill
Viewed mind as a machine
Believed that the mind had no creative function because association is a totally
automatic , passive process.
The sensations that occur in a certain order will be reproduced mechanically as ideas,
and these ideas occur in the same order as their corresponding sensations.
Association is mechanical , and the resulting ideas are merely the accumulation or sum
of the individual mental elements.
 John Stuart Mill
Creative synthesis: The notion that complex ideas formed from
simple ideas take on new qualities; the combination of the mental
elements creates something greater than or different from the
sum of the original
elements.
Contributions of Empiricism to Psychology
The primary role of the process of sensation
• The analysis of conscious experience into elements
The synthesis of elements into complex mental experiences through the process
of association
• The focus on conscious processes
Physiological influences in Psychology
 Developments in early Physiology
Physiology became an experimentally oriented discipline during the 1830s, primarily under
the influence of the German physiologist Johannes Müller
He advocated the influence of experimental method.
Müller is also noteworthy in physiology and psychology for his theory of the specific energies
of nerves.
He proposed that the stimulation of a particular nerve always leads to
a characteristic sensation, because each sensory nerve has its own specific energy. This idea
stimulated a great deal of research aimed at localizing functions within the nervous system
and pinpointing sensory receptor mechanisms on the periphery of the organism.
 Research on brain functions : mapping
from the inside
Mapping of the brain functions is to determine which specific part of the brain
determines which cognitive functions.
Flourens: concluded that the cerebrum controls higher mental processes,
parts of the midbrain control visual and auditory reflexes, the cerebellum
controls coordination, and the medulla governs heartbeat, respiration, and
other vital functions.
Extirpation method. the researcher attempts to determine the function of a
given part of the brain by removing or destroying it and observing the
resulting changes in the animal’s behavior.
Research on brain functions : mapping
from the outside
Gall : associated behaviors with characteristics of the skull
Lead to the development of Phrenology the relationship between
skulls features and mental faculties.
Gall and Spurzheim viewed that brain is the center of high mental
activity
Function is localized
The beginning of Experimental Psychology
Herman Von Helmholtz
Helmholtz’s investigations of the speed of the neural
impulse and his research on vision and hearing.
 Ernst Weber
he applied physiology’s experimental methods to problems of a psychological nature. Weber
explored new fields, notably cutaneous (skin) senses and muscular sensations.
Two-Point Thresholds
The threshold at which two points of stimulation can be distinguished
Just Noticeable Differences
the smallest difference between weights that could be detected.
Gustav Theodor Fechner
Absolute threshold:
The point of sensitivity below which no sensations can be
detected and above which sensations can be experienced.
Differential threshold:
The point of sensitivity at which the least amount of change
in a stimulus gives rise to a change in sensation.
The Scientific Revolution and Psychology
The scientific revolution of the 17th century was a time of great change and innovation
in many fields, including psychology. Prior to this period, psychology was largely
considered a philosophical discipline, focused on understanding the nature of the mind
and consciousness. However, with the rise of empirical science and the development of
new research methods, psychology began to emerge as a distinct scientific discipline.
One of the key figures in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline was
Wilhelm Wundt, who is often referred to as the "father of experimental psychology."
Wundt believed that psychology should be studied using rigorous scientific methods,
and he established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in
Germany in 1879. Through his work, Wundt helped to establish psychology as a
legitimate scientific field, paving the way for future generations of researchers and
practitioners.
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
For our study of the history of psychology, where do we start?

How we define psychology.

Fifth century BC, when Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers---
>concern psychologists today

memory, learning, motivation, thought, perception, and abnormal

behavior.
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
How should we distinguish between modern psychology?

▪less to do with the kinds of questions asked about human nature

than with the methods

▪approach taken and the techniques employed

▪mark the emergence of psychology as a separate, primarily scientific
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

▪last quarter of the nineteenth century, philosophers studied human

nature by speculating, intuiting, and generalizing based on their own
experience.
▪major transformation occurred when philosophers began to apply the
tools and methods already successful in the biological and physical
sciences
▪precise and objective ways
▪Continuing development of tools, techniques, and methods to achieve
this increased precision and objectivity
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

▪nineteenth century, the time when psychology became an independent

discipline

▪physical and biological sciences could be applied to the study of mental

phenomena
 THE DATA OF HISTORY: RECONSTRUCTING PSYCHOLOGY’S PAST
Historiography:

▪principles, methods, and philosophical issues

▪to describe and understand the development of psychology.

▪Historians face several problems that psychologists do not share.

▪In psychology, the data can be verified

▪the data of history cannot be reconstructed or replicated.

 THE DATA OF HISTORY: RECONSTRUCTING PSYCHOLOGY’S PAST
▪Fragments, descriptions written by participants or witnesses, letters and diaries,
photographs and pieces of laboratory equipment, interviews, and other official
accounts.

▪It is from these sources, these data fragments

 THE DATA OF HISTORY: RECONSTRUCTING PSYCHOLOGY’S PAST

Lost or Suppressed Data:

▪The historical record is incomplete

▪John B. Watson: systematically burned his letters, manuscripts, and research notes.

▪Papers of Hermann Ebbinghaus & handwritten diaries of Gustav Fechner.

▪An Italian mathematician stole more than 70 letters written by Rene Descartes.

▪Letters--selected to present a favourable impression of Jung and his work.

▪Sigmund Freud→example
 THE DATA OF HISTORY: RECONSTRUCTING PSYCHOLOGY’S PAST
Data Distorted in Translation:
▪Here the data are available, but they have been altered in some way, perhaps
through faulty translation from one language to another
▪through distortions introduced deliberately or carelessly by a participant or
observer recording the relevant events.
▪For example, Id for Es (it), Ego for Ich (I), Superego for Uber-Ich (above-I).
▪Einfall; Free association - means an intrusion or an invasion.

Self-Serving Data:

B.F Skinner; Frued

 CONTEXTUAL FORCES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Zeitgeist: The intellectual and cultural climate or spirit of the times.

▪Economic Opportunity

▪The World Wars

▪Prejudice and Discrimination

◦ Discrimination against women

◦ Discrimination based on ethnic origin

 CONCEPTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC HISTORY
Personalistic Theory:

▪The view that progress and change in scientific

history are attributable to the ideas of unique
individuals.
▪Progress and change are attributable directly
to the will and charisma of unique persons who
alone redirected the course of history.
▪The person makes the times.
▪Darwin, Einstein.
 CONCEPTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC HISTORY
Naturalistic theory:
▪The view that progress and change in scientific history are attributable to the Zeitgeist,
which makes a culture receptive to some ideas but not to others.
▪The times make the person, or at least make possible the recognition and acceptance of
what that person has to say.
▪The inhibiting or delaying effect of the Zeitgeist.
▪The concept of the conditioned response was suggested by the Scottish scientist Robert
Whytt in 1763.
 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN THE EVOLUTION OF
MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
❑Structuralism

❑Functionalism

❑Behaviorism

❑Gestalt psychology

❑Psychoanalysis

❑Humanistic psychology

❑Cognitive psychology
 CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS
❑Evolutionary psychology,

❑Cognitive neuroscience, and

❑Positive psychology.
Behaviorism and the Rise of Experimental
Psychology
Behaviorism emerged as a dominant school of thought in psychology during the early
20th century, with researchers such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner leading the way.
Behaviorists believed that psychology should focus on observable behavior, rather than
subjective experiences or mental processes. This led to the development of new
research methods, such as operant conditioning and the use of animal subjects, which
allowed researchers to study behavior in a more controlled and systematic way.
One of the key contributions of behaviorism was its emphasis on experimental
psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychological theories should be tested through
rigorous experimentation, rather than relying on introspection or philosophical
speculation. This led to the development of new research designs and statistical
methods, which allowed researchers to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on
empirical evidence. Today, behaviorism remains an important perspective in psychology,
and its influence can be seen in areas such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied
behavior analysis.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
The psychodynamic perspective in psychology emphasizes the role of unconscious
processes and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior. This
perspective was developed primarily by Sigmund Freud, who believed that human
behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts and desires that are often repressed or
denied. According to Freud, these unconscious forces can manifest themselves in a
variety of ways, including dreams, slips of the tongue, and other forms of 'parapraxis'.
Another important figure in the development of the psychodynamic perspective was
Carl Jung, who expanded on Freud's ideas and developed his own theories of the
collective unconscious and archetypes. Jung believed that there are universal symbols
and patterns of behavior that are shared across cultures, and that these can be
accessed through dreams, myths, and other forms of symbolic expression. Both Freud
and Jung have had a lasting impact on the field of psychology, and their ideas continue
to be studied and debated by researchers and practitioners around the world.
The Cognitive Revolution
In the mid-20th century, a group of psychologists began to challenge the
dominant behaviorist paradigm that had dominated psychology for decades.
They argued that behaviorism, with its focus on observable behavior and
stimulus-response associations, was too limited to fully explain human cognition
and perception.
This movement, known as the cognitive revolution, emphasized the importance
of mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving in shaping
behavior. It also led to the development of new theories and research methods,
including the study of information processing and computer models of
cognition.
The Biological Perspective
The biological perspective in psychology emphasizes the importance of understanding
the role of biology in shaping behavior and mental processes. This perspective is based
on the idea that all behavior has a biological basis, and that studying the brain and
nervous system is essential for understanding human behavior.
Two key researchers who contributed to the development of the biological perspective
are Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke. Broca discovered an area of the brain now known as
Broca's area, which is responsible for producing speech. Wernicke, on the other hand,
discovered an area of the brain now known as Wernicke's area, which is responsible for
understanding language. These discoveries helped to establish the idea that specific
areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions, and laid the foundation for
further research into brain function and behavior.
The Evolutionary Perspective
The evolutionary perspective in psychology is based on the idea that human
behavior and cognition have been shaped by natural selection over the course
of evolution. This perspective has led to new insights into topics such as mate
selection, social behavior, and decision-making.
One key contribution of evolutionary theory to psychology is the concept of
inclusive fitness, which suggests that individuals can increase their genetic
fitness not only by reproducing themselves, but also by helping close relatives to
survive and reproduce. This idea has been used to explain phenomena such as
altruism and kin selection.
The Sociocultural Perspective
The sociocultural perspective in psychology emphasizes the role of culture and
society in shaping human behavior. This perspective recognizes that individuals
are not just products of their biology and genetics, but also of their environment
and social context.
Through this lens, researchers have gained new insights into topics such as
language acquisition, gender roles, and cultural norms. For example, studies
have shown that children from different cultures may develop language skills at
different rates, and that gender roles can vary widely across societies. By
understanding these cultural differences, psychologists can better understand
the complexities of human behavior.
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over the relative importance of nature and nurture in shaping
human behavior has been a central issue in psychology for decades. Some
psychologists argue that genetics and biology play a dominant role in
determining behavior, while others emphasize the importance of environmental
factors such as upbringing and socialization.
While there is no clear consensus on this issue, many psychologists now take a
more nuanced approach, recognizing that both nature and nurture play
important roles in shaping human behavior. For example, research has shown
that genetic factors may predispose individuals to certain behaviors, but that
environmental factors can also influence whether or not those behaviors are
expressed.
Free Will vs. Determinism
The debate over free will versus determinism has been a longstanding issue in
psychology. Some believe that human behavior is entirely determined by factors
such as genetics and environment, while others argue that individuals have the
ability to make choices and exercise their own free will.
One perspective on this issue is that of determinism, which suggests that all
events, including human behavior, are ultimately determined by prior causes.
This view holds that individuals have no real control over their actions, as
everything they do is predetermined by factors outside of their control. On the
other hand, proponents of free will argue that individuals have the ability to
make choices and act independently of external influences.
The Mind-Body Problem
The mind-body problem is one of the most fundamental issues in philosophy
and psychology. It concerns the relationship between mental processes, such as
thoughts and emotions, and physical processes, such as brain activity and bodily
sensations.
There are several different perspectives on this issue, ranging from dualism,
which posits that the mind and body are separate entities, to monism, which
suggests that they are two aspects of the same thing. Other perspectives include
materialism, idealism, and neutral monism. Each of these perspectives has its
own strengths and weaknesses, and the debate over the nature of the mind-
body relationship is likely to continue for many years to come.
The Nature of Consciousness
Consciousness is a topic that has fascinated philosophers and scientists for centuries. In
psychology, there are several theories of consciousness that attempt to explain how our
subjective experience of the world arises from the activity of the brain. One prominent
theory is the global workspace model, which suggests that consciousness arises when
information is integrated and made available to multiple brain regions. Another theory
is the integrated information theory, which proposes that consciousness arises when
information is highly integrated and differentiated within the brain. These theories have
been studied using a variety of research methods, including neuroimaging and
behavioral experiments.
Despite decades of research, the nature of consciousness remains one of the most
elusive and mysterious topics in psychology. However, recent advances in neuroscience
and technology are providing new insights into this fascinating area of study.
The Ethics of Psychological Research
As researchers, it is our responsibility to conduct studies that are both scientifically rigorous and
ethically sound. This means taking steps to ensure that the rights and well-being of study
participants are protected at all times. One way we do this is by obtaining informed consent
from participants before they take part in a study. This means explaining the nature of the study,
its potential risks and benefits, and allowing participants to make an informed decision about
whether or not to participate.
Another important consideration is maintaining confidentiality and privacy. Participants have the
right to expect that their personal information will be kept confidential and that their privacy
will be respected. Researchers must take steps to ensure that participant data is stored securely
and that only authorized personnel have access to it.
Finally, it is important to minimize any potential harm to participants. This means carefully
considering the risks and benefits of a study and taking steps to minimize any potential negative
consequences. If a study has the potential to cause harm, researchers must weigh the potential
benefits against the potential risks and ensure that the study is designed in such a way as to
minimize any potential harm.
The Replication Crisis in Psychology
The replication crisis in psychology has brought to light the issue of scientific
research being conducted without enough transparency and rigor. Many studies
in the field have failed to be replicated, leading to doubts about their validity
and reliability. This has led to a reevaluation of research practices and a renewed
emphasis on transparency and reproducibility.
Researchers are now being encouraged to share their data and methods openly,
allowing others to replicate their findings and verify their results. This not only
helps to ensure the accuracy of research but also promotes collaboration and
innovation within the field. By addressing the replication crisis head-on,
psychologists are working to improve the quality and credibility of their
research, ultimately benefiting both the field and society as a whole.
The Role of Culture in Psychology
Culture plays a critical role in shaping our beliefs, values, and behaviors. As such,
it is essential to consider cultural factors when studying human psychology.
Researchers are increasingly recognizing the importance of developing culturally
sensitive approaches to the discipline, which take into account the unique
perspectives and experiences of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.
One example of this is the development of culturally adapted interventions for
mental health issues. For instance, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been
adapted to be more effective for individuals from different cultural backgrounds,
by incorporating cultural beliefs and practices into the treatment approach. This
has led to improved outcomes and greater acceptance of psychological
interventions among diverse populations.
The Future of Psychology
As we look to the future of psychology, it is clear that new technologies and research
methods will play an increasingly important role in shaping the field. One area of
particular interest is the use of virtual reality and other immersive technologies to study
human behavior and cognition. With these tools, researchers can create realistic
simulations of real-world situations and environments, allowing them to better
understand how people think, feel, and behave in different contexts.
Another area of innovation is the use of big data and machine learning to analyze large
datasets and identify patterns and trends in human behavior. By leveraging these tools,
researchers can gain insights into complex social, psychological, and biological
phenomena that were previously difficult to study using traditional methods. This has
the potential to revolutionize our understanding of human behavior and lead to new
breakthroughs in the field of psychology.
Controversies in Psychology: Nature vs.
Nurture
The debate over the relative importance of nature and nurture in shaping
human behavior has been a controversial issue within the field of psychology for
decades. Some argue that genetics play a dominant role in determining our
traits and behaviors, while others contend that environmental factors such as
upbringing and socialization are more influential.
This controversy has led to heated debates and disagreements among
psychologists, with some arguing that the focus on nature vs. nurture is
misguided and that a more holistic approach to understanding human behavior
is needed. Despite the ongoing debate, research continues to shed light on the
complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping who
we are.
Controversies in Psychology: Replication
and Research Practices
The replication crisis in psychology has been a major point of controversy in
recent years. Many studies that were once thought to be reliable have failed to
replicate, raising questions about the validity of much of the research in the
field.
Researchers are working to address this issue by implementing new research
practices and increasing transparency in their methods. This includes pre-
registering study protocols, sharing data, and conducting larger-scale studies to
increase statistical power. While these changes may slow down the pace of
research, they are ultimately necessary to ensure that the findings produced by
psychologists are accurate and reliable.
Controversies in Psychology: The Role of
Culture
The role of culture in psychology is a controversial and often debated topic.
Some argue that culture plays a significant role in shaping human behavior and
cognition, while others believe that individual differences are more important.
This debate has led to disagreements about the validity and generalizability of
psychological research across cultures.
One perspective on the role of culture in psychology is that it is a crucial factor in
understanding human behavior and mental processes. Proponents of this view
argue that cultural norms and values shape individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and
behaviors, and that ignoring these factors can lead to biased or incomplete
conclusions. Others argue that individual differences such as personality traits
and genetics play a greater role in determining behavior than cultural factors do.
Important Points: Roots of Psychology
The roots of psychology can be traced back to the ancient philosophers, such as
Plato and Aristotle, who were among the first to explore questions about the
nature of the mind and human behavior. Later thinkers, such as Descartes,
Locke, and Hume, continued this tradition of philosophical inquiry, laying the
groundwork for the emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline.
Understanding the historical and philosophical foundations of psychology is
essential for anyone seeking to study or practice in the field. By examining the
ideas and theories of past thinkers, we gain insight into the evolution of
psychological thought and the ways in which different schools of thought have
shaped our understanding of human behavior and cognition.
Key Takeaways: Key Issues and
Controversies
Throughout this presentation, we have explored some of the key issues and
controversies that have shaped the field of psychology. One of the most prominent
debates is the nature vs. nurture controversy, which centers on the relative importance
of genetic and environmental factors in shaping human behavior. While this debate has
raged for centuries, recent research has shown that both nature and nurture play
important roles in determining our behavior.
Another major controversy in psychology is the replication crisis, which has highlighted
the need for greater transparency and rigor in research practices. This crisis has led to a
renewed emphasis on reproducibility and scientific integrity, and has spurred
researchers to develop new methods for ensuring that their findings are accurate and
reliable. Finally, we have explored the role of culture in psychology, and how different
perspectives on this issue have led to disagreement and debate within the field. As we
move forward, it is clear that ongoing dialogue and discussion will be crucial for
advancing our understanding of the complex and fascinating world of psychology.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the roots of psychology can be traced back to ancient philosophers such
as Plato and Aristotle, and have evolved over time through various schools of thought
including behaviorism, psychodynamics, cognitive psychology, and more. The field of
psychology has been shaped by ongoing debates and controversies surrounding issues
such as nature vs. nurture, free will vs. determinism, and the role of culture in shaping
human behavior. Despite these debates, it is clear that psychology has made significant
contributions to our understanding of the human mind and behavior, and will continue
to do so through ongoing research and discussion.
It is important to recognize the historical and philosophical foundations of psychology in
order to fully appreciate the complexity of the discipline and the ongoing debates and
controversies within it. By continuing to engage in rigorous research and discussion,
psychologists can work towards a better understanding of the human mind and
behavior, and contribute to the development of new theories and approaches to the
field.