WRITING OVERVIEW

TEST FORMAT
The writing test consists of 2 tasks with the total time of 40 minutes.
In the first task, you have to write an email of around 80-100 words to your friend to give information,
ask for permission, tell a story or make an appointment, etc.
In the second task, you have to write an essay of about 200 words presenting the advantages and
disadvantages of something.

MARKING CRITERIA
Your writing competence is rated on 4 criteria as follows together with some advice given on how to
meet each criterion:

Task Coherence and Lexical Grammatical

achievement Cohesion (CC) Resource (LR) Range and
(TA) Accuracy (GRA)

How to how well you how well is your how good is your how good is your
interpret answer the text structured vocabulary grammar
the criteria question

How to To increase score To increase score To increase score To increase score

meet the for TA, you for CC, you for LR, you for GRA, you
criteria should: should: should: should:
 present the  manage  use a wide  use a wide range
information paragraphing range of of grammatical
accurately vocabulary structures and
 make sure that
tenses
 answer all parts each paragraph  use less
of the task has a central common lexical  manage
idea items punctuation
 provide a clear
overview  use linking  avoid errors in  avoid errors in
words and spelling and sentences
 include the
cohesive word formation
prompts in the
email (Task 1) devices
 give a clear
position (Task
2)

* Each of these criteria receives a score from 0 to 10 points. An arithmetic mean is calculated to
determine the writing total score.
 MODULE 1: SENTENCE WRITING

Classified by its structure, a sentence can be of four types: simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences and compound-complex sentences.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES
- A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb.
- It expresses a single complete thought that can stand on its own.
Examples:
1. The baby cried for food.
^ There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
2. Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.
^ A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case,
there are two verbs “completed” and “turned in.” However, the sentence expresses one complete
thought and therefore is a simple sentence.
3. Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.
^ Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both verbs
share the same subjects and express one complete thought.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES
- A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a
sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought.
- Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences.
- These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so –
FANBOYS for short).
Examples:
1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
^ Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences. “The shoplifter had stolen clothes”
can stand alone and so can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a compound
sentence.
2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
^ This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two individual clauses.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCES
- A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A
dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does not
express a complete thought.
- A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Examples:
 1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
^ The independent clause is “Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before it
is dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The
Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought.
2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male accomplishments.
^ The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are given.” The first part of the sentence
“opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that expresses
a complete thought. The following “that privilege male accomplishments” is a relative clause that
describes which types of societies.
3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies.
^ The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History 210” because if removed, the
rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. “Who taught Art History 210” is an
adjective clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.

4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
- A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for lunch, and
they went to the movies.
^ If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a
compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.
2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the murderer was
sent to jail.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER: A summary to help you remember the four types of sentences

Type of sentence Independent clauses Subordinate clauses

Simple One None

Compound Two or more None

Complex One One or more

Compound-Complex Two or more One or more

PRACTICE:
Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-complex.
Please underline dependent clauses where it applies.

1. Vampires Dairies is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week’s notes.
3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary.
5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the kitchen
appliances.
7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music.
8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet Sarah did
most of the work.
9. She smiled sweetly, and he grinned shyly.
10. Mary and Tom agreed to meet after school.
11. I had a poor background, and the subject was quite difficult; however, the teacher explained the
concepts very clearly.
12. Because the store was closed, we returned home. Complex
13. The old prospector was discouraged; however, when I suggested giving up, he was indignant.
14. Although my friends were lost for a while, they eventually found the restaurant that you
recommended.
15. The runner, who had trained for many months, won the race easily.
 MODULE 2: EMAIL WRITING

Email is a system of sending written messages electronically from one computer to another. Email is
an abbreviation of ‘electronic mail’. (Collins)
1. INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING AN EMAIL
In this part of the test, you are given an email from an English friend or relative, and you are asked
to respond to it in about 100 words. This email contains annotations which help you identify
exactly what you need to respond to.
As regards the topics, they are usually not very difficult, as you are expected to write at an
intermediate level about topics you are familiar with: sports, hobbies, TV programmes, weather,
your town / city, best friend etc. Here is a sample email:

You must answer this question. Write your answer in about

100 words on the answer sheet.

Read this email from your English-speaking friend Sandy

and the notes you have made.

From: Sandy
Subject: Your visit!

Hi,
Me too I’m so excited that you’re coming to stay with me for a week!

On your first evening here, there’s a rock concert in our town.

Would you like to go to the concert or would you prefer us to Say which
relax at home?
No, I prefer
Because Also, shall we go climbing in the mountains while you’re here?

Let me know if you have any questions. Ask

See you soon Sandy…
Sandy

Write your email to Sandy using all the notes

As you can see in the example above, we have received an email from a person so-called Sandy,
who is a friend of ours. In addition, we have made some annotations, which are the points we need
to address in your email:
 Me too!
 Say which I prefer
 No, because…
 Ask Sandy…
2. EMAIL STRUCTURE
The first thing you need to know is the different parts of an email, and these are:
 Greetings: we greet the other person (i.e. say “hi” or “hello”)
  Opening paragraph: we react to the other person’s news and ask them how they are feeling
and whatever else you feel is appropriate.
 Main paragraph 1: in this paragraph we deal with the first important point, which we can
identify in the instructions.
 Main paragraph 2: if there is a different point to deal with, this paragraph will do so.
(We might have more main paragraphs, depending on the task.)
 Closing paragraph: in this paragraph we “start” to say goodbye by wishing the other person
well and asking them to reply to your email.
 Goodbye: we use a short expression to say goodbye.
 Signature: we sign the email with our name.
3. SAMPLE EMAIL
Let’s take a look at the following example of the email where we can see an answer to the sample task
we saw above:

Greeting Hi Sandy,

Opening p Thanks a lot for writing back. I’m also really excited about visiting you!

On my first evening, I’d like to relax at home. I will probably be very tired
Main p.1 from the trip, so I need to rest and get ready for the other days. Is that okay?

Main p.2 As for climbing, I’m afraid I can’t. I forgot to tell you, but I hurt my knee last
week, so I can’t do sport now.

Main p.3 How about visiting some art galleries in your town? If you want, we could
go. You know I love art! What do you think?

Closing p. Well, I have to go now, but please let me know what you think.

Farewell Take care,

Luis
Signature

In the example above, the different parts of an email are well defined. It’s important that the
writing is visually appealing, apart from having good grammar and vocabulary. This means that
the paragraphs should be well defined, with a space in between, and that you should know when
to break lines. This is especially important after greetings, after opening and closing paragraphs,
and after saying goodbye. This will make your text visually appealing, as it will look like a real
email.

4. EXPRESSIONS TO USE IN AN EMAIL

In this section, we are going to focus on different expressions to use in the different parts of the
email. While the main paragraphs will vary completely depending on the topic of the writing, most
of the other parts in the email can be practised and memorized almost completely. Let’s take a
look:
4.1. GREETINGS
In order to start the email, we can used different expressions, which are really typical and easy to
remember. We have 3 basic ways to greet in this kind of writing, which is usually for a friend or
family member:
 Hi John,
 Hello John,
 Dear John,
Note: Notice how “Hi” is less formal than “Hello” or “Dear”. Also, don’t forget to write a
comma (,) right after greeting your friend or relative. After greeting the addressee (i.e. the person
who will read the email), you must start the opening paragraph in a new line.
4.2. OPENING PARAGRAPH
The opening paragraph is the place to react to your friend’s or relative’s email. In order to do so,
you can use a number of different expressions. Here we have some examples:
 It’s nice / great / good to hear from you.
 It’s nice / great / good to read your email.
 I’m glad to hear your news.
 I’m excited about … (your news.)
 It’s great to hear that…
 I’m sorry to hear that…
 I’m really sorry to read your news.
 Thanks a lot for writing!
 It was good to receive your email.
 Thank you very much for your email.
Also, it’s a good idea to ask your friend or relative how they are feeling, which you can do like
this:
 Hope you are doing well.
 How’s it going?
 How are you (doing)?
 How are things (going)?
You can also add some information that you think is relevant or necessary, but don’t expand this
paragraph very much, because the important information must go in the main paragraphs.
4.3. MAIN PARAGRAPHS
For the main paragraphs, there aren’t any fixed expressions which you must use, as it depends
mostly on what you have to write about. However, you should try to make use of connectors and
appropriate punctuation. So let’s take a look at common useful connectors and the
punctuation we use them with:
 …and…: to connect two similar things or ideas.
I love reading and listening to music.
My favourite meal is fish and chips.
 …, but…: to connect two contrasting ideas.
I love watching TV, but I don’t have a favourite show.
I am reading a book, but I don’t remember the title.
 However,…: to connect contrasting ideas.
Last month, I went to the cinema. However, I didn’t enjoy the movie.
I am a very big fan of this author. However, I haven’t read his last novel.
 Moreover,…: to add more information about something.
 … because…: to justify an opinion or idea.
My mum is the perfect cook because she knows a lot of recipes and has plenty of experience.
Moreover, she experiments with different ingredients all the time.
  Because of that,…: to justify an opinion, fact or idea.
My mum likes to cook using new ingredients all the time. Because of that, she creates
original dishes every month.
 As for…/ Regarding…: to switch to a new topic. For instance, you can use this connector to
start the second main paragraph.
As for/Regarding why I like this cookery show, I think because it’s a great way to see new
recipes.
 Time linkers: then, after that, yesterday, this morning, last summer, etc.
Last night, I watched a very good action film.
With many connectors, we typically use a comma (,) after it when we start a sentence (e.g.:
However, Last night, Moreover, etc.).
4.4. CLOSING PARAGRAPH
As we mentioned earlier, a closing paragraph in this Writing part 3 is used to start saying goodbye
to the addressee and to ask for a response to your email. So we can use the following expressions:
 Well, it’s time to say goodbye.
 Anyway, I have to go now.
 Well, it’s time to go.
 Anyway, gotta go.
 I really hope to hear from you soon.
 I’m looking forward to hearing from you.
 I hope you write back soon.
 Make sure you write back soon.
Also, if you still have to write more words, you can add a question for a subsequent email. This
question should be related to the topic of your piece of writing.
4.5. SAYING GOODBYE
There are many ways in English to close an informal email. The most frequent used ones are the
following:
 Best wishes,
 Best,
 Sincerely,
 Take care,
 All my love,
 Love,
 Lots of love,
 See you soon,
 Regards,
Notice how there is a comma (,) after each of the phrases. Also, after writing any of these
sentences, make sure you write your name on a different line. And write your name without a
full stop!

WRITING PRACTICE
Now that we know what expressions we should be using in our writing, we are going to take a look
at another task and then practice your writing:
Read this email from your English-speaking college classmate Alex and the notes you have
made. Write your email to Alex using all the notes.
From: Alex
 Subject: College science presentation
Hi,
It’s great that we are going to work together on the college science presentation. Do you think
we should choose the rainforest as our topic?
No, but…
We only have two weeks to prepare, so can we start tomorrow? Where can we go to prepare
the presentation? My cousins are staying at my house at the moment, so we can’t work there
because it’s too noisy.
Sorry… Suggest…
We can give our presentation to the class either in the morning or the afternoon. Which would
you prefer?
Let me know
Tell Alex
Alex
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Sample answer:
Hi, Alex
I’m very glad to work with you. I think we shouldn’t choose the rainforest as our topic because
I’m not good at this topic. I would like to prepare the science presentation about deserts. In my
opinion, it will be interesting.
Sorry, but my parents have gone to another town and I must look after my little brother so we
can’t start to prepare tomorrow. What about starting in 2 days?
We can prepare the presentation in my house because no one will disturb us.
I would prefer to give our presentation to the class in the afternoon as this is the most
convenient time.
Best wishes
Grette

TOP 5 TIPS FOR WRITING AN EMAIL

1. Learn and memorize a set of expressions. Make sure you already know a set of expressions to
use in your greetings, opening and closing paragraphs, and to say goodbye. This will save you a lot
of time while doing a task, and you will avoid making silly mistakes as you will already know the
expressions by heart.
2. Write a well-structured and visually-appealing email. One of the things the examiners pay
attention to is the organization of your piece writing, so make sure not to write a messy email.
Also, remember that punctuation matters, so be sure to separate your sentences with stops and
commas and don’t write excessively long sentences.
3. Brainstorm, write, read and edit. Before starting to write your email, brainstorm a couple of
things and write down some ideas. This can include vocabulary related to the topic. For example, if
you have to write about TV shows, you can write down things like “contestants”, “cookery show”,
“prize”, etc. Then, write your email. After that, read it and look for possible mistakes or
opportunities for improvement (e.g.: adding descriptive adjectives, rephrasing sentences, etc.).
4. Read carefully and identify the task. Don’t start writing right away. Make sure you read the
task carefully and that you identify exactly what you are being asked. Sometimes, we don’t pay
attention to the instructions and we end up writing about something different. This will mean
losing points, in a very silly way.
5. Experiment at home, be conservative in the exam. Homework is the best chance to be
creative and experiment different ways to express yourself. So make sure you try your hardest to
keep improving when you write at home. On the other hand, when you’re doing an exam, don’t
risk trying out new words or expressions, as you may be making a terrible mistake. So be safe in
your exam and stick to what you already knows works.
FURTHER PRACTICE
Read this email from your English teacher Miss Jones and the notes you have made. Write your
email to Miss Jones using all the notes.

From: Miss Jones

To: All students
Subject: Visitor to English class
Dear students,
I’m planning to invite a well-known person to come into our English
class and give a talk.
I’d like to invite either a scientist or an actor. Which would be better?
I hope that each student will have a question to ask this person –
what would you like to ask?
We want our visitor to enjoy the day with us – what do you think we
can do to entertain the visitor after the talk?
I’m looking forward to receiving your ideas!
Miss Jones

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Read this email from your English-speaking friend Grace and the notes you have made. Write
your email to Grace using all the notes.

From: Grace
To: Nick
Subject: Family dinner
Hi Nick,
We’re having a family dinner for my mum’s birthday next week
My brothers and I are each going to cook a course. Do you think I
should make the starter, the main course or the dessert?
Where can I find some good recipes?
Have you ever made anything for your family? What did you make?
Was it a success?
Love
Grace

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 MODULE 3: PARAGRAPH WRITING

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single
topic.
Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be organized into
paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and
end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of
brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or
process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into
categories; or describe causes and effects.

1. PARAGRAPH FORMAT
- Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. You
can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting,
or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating
your meaning to your reader.

The hamburger model illustrates the

structure of a paragraph.
+ Introduction: the first section of a
paragraph; should include the topic
sentence and any other sentences at the
beginning of the paragraph that give
background information or provide a
transition.

+ Body: follows the introduction by

developing supporting details which
discuss the controlling idea, using facts,
arguments, analysis, examples, and
other information.

+ Conclusion: the final section

presented via the closing sentence;
summarizes the connections between
the information discussed in the body of
the paragraph and the paragraph’s
controlling idea.
 The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph, the topic
sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help readers keep the paragraph’s main
point in mind.

MY HOMETOWN IS FAMOUS FOR SEVERAL AMAZING NATURAL

FEATURES. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and
beautiful. On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow
trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn
the leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Also, on
the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very
steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there
are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. There are no trees
around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen from many
miles away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two
hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old. THESE THREE
LANDMARKS ARE TRULY AMAZING AND MAKE MY HOMETOWN A
FAMOUS PLACE.

2. HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH

2.1. INTRODUCTION - TOPIC SENTENCE
- A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. Sometimes referred to as a focus
sentence, the topic sentence helps organize the paragraph by summarizing the information in the
paragraph. In formal writing, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph
(although it doesn't have to be).
- A topic sentence tells readers what the rest of the paragraph is about. All sentences after it have to
give more information about that sentence, prove it by offering facts about it, or describe it in more
detail. For example, if the topic sentence concerns the types of endangered species that live in the
ocean, then every sentence after that needs to expound on that subject.
- Topic sentences also need to relate back to the thesis of the essay. The thesis statement is like a
road map that will tell the reader or listener where you are going with this information or how you
are treating it.
- Every topic sentence will have a topic and a controlling idea. The controlling idea shows the
direction the paragraph will take.
Example:
1. There are many reasons why pollution in ABC Town is the worst in the world.
^ The topic is "pollution in ABC Town is the worst in the world" and the controlling idea is "many
reasons."
2. To be an effective CEO requires certain characteristics.
^ The topic is "To be an effective CEO" and the controlling idea is "certain characteristics."
3. There are many possible contributing factors to global warming.
^ The topic is "global warming" and the controlling idea is "contributing factors."
- A carefully thought out topic sentence has two functions. First, it helps you, the author, to stay
focused. Second, a clearly stated topic and controlling idea will give readers the tools they need to
clearly understand what you have to say.
 - Remember that topic sentences set the tone for the paragraph and should relate back to the thesis
or the main idea of the paper.
PRACTICE: Write a topic sentence for each of the following topics
1. How do people benefit from reading?
2. What do people usually use the Internet for?
3. Why do many young people want to work for multinational companies?

2.2. BODY - SUPPORTING IDEAS AND SUPPORTING SENTENCES

- A supporting idea is an idea with information that supports a main idea or claim.
- Supporting ideas give a reader details to understand a main idea, or evidence to show why a claim
is true or correct. You will find supporting ideas in the middle of a paragraph – after the topic
sentence, and before a concluding sentence or transition.
- A paragraph usually has around 2 – 4 supporting ideas.
Example:

Topic sentence: Schools should start later in the day.

This is a claim that needs to be supported by facts (or perhaps opinions) in order to convince the
reader to accept the claim. Here are some possible supporting ideas:
1. By starting later, school buses can avoid the traffic of rush hour, which saves time and
reduces the likelihood of accidents.
2. Studies have shown that teenagers need more sleep than both younger children and adults
because their rapidly changing bodies need more time resting in order to develop properly.
3. Starting later will give students time to eat a healthy breakfast, which has been proven to
improve school performance.
^ These supporting ideas each give evidence that help the reader agree with your claim. Again, you
would not use all three of these supporting ideas together. Choosing the best supporting ideas
depends on what you are trying to achieve in the paragraph.
- A supporting idea is usually followed by several supporting sentences to illustrate the point
presented in the supporting ideas. The information in the supporting sentences depends on the type
of support needed. Normally, they include one of the following as their main parts: (1)
Descriptions or details; (2) Facts or Figures and (3) Examples.
Example:
Schools should start later in the day (topic sentence). Firstly, by starting later, school buses can
avoid the traffic of rush hour, which saves time and reduces the likelihood of accidents
(Supporting idea). As most companies and offices simultaneously open at 8.00 a.m., people all
need to leave home at around the same time. A big number of people participating in the traffic
means streets usually become overcrowded, as a result traffic congestion and accidents become
far more likely (Supporting sentences).
PRACTICE: Write 2 or 3 supporting ideas for each of the three topics presented in (1). For
each supporting idea, find 2 or 3 details to further explain it.
2.3. CONCLUSION – CONCLUDING SENTENCES
- A concluding sentence sums up the information that is presented in a paragraph. It reiterates the
main point developed by the body sentences and signals the readers that this is the end of the
paragraph.
- The purpose of a concluding sentence is to summarize the argument you just made in your
preceding paragraph. In a single paragraph response, the concluding sentence is essential. It should
tie the whole paragraph together without simply rephrasing the topic sentence. In an essay,
concluding sentences serve a number of different, but equally important purposes.
- To signal the conclusion, linking words or phrases like therefore, thus, resulting, hence, in brief,
to sum up, on the whole and in the end, etc. are very often used.
- It should be noted that the concluding sentence is like a sort of topic sentence in reverse. It should
close the paragraph rather than opens up a new topic for discussion. The concluding sentence can
sometimes include the final thought of the writer towards the subject matter.
Example:
There are several serious health hazards directly linked to smoking. The link between smoking and
cancer is well-known. As well smoking is linked to other lung diseases like emphysema and
bronchitis. Smokers also have a greater risk of heart disease later in life. This is evidenced in recent
court cases in the USA where smokers have been awarded damages from tobacco companies.
Furthermore, there is substantial research that even passive smoking can have long term effects on
heath. Clearly, smoking is a dangerous habit and should be avoided.
- The concluding sentence connects the topic sentence and supporting ideas. It reiterates that
smoking is not good for health and gives the final thought of the writer that smoking should be
banned for its harm to people’s health.
PRACTICE: Write the concluding sentences for each of the topics in (1).

2.4. JOIN THINGS TOGETHER

COHERENCE
- In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but
there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into
the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old
information and new information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
- Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its
length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for
example, you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where the original
paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only
one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or
combine it with another paragraph.

COHESION
- Creating cohesion means ‘tying’ your words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs together, to
create a text where the relationships between these elements is clear and logical to the reader,
giving the text ‘flow’. You can create cohesion at all these levels (word, phrase, sentence and
paragraph) in order to direct readers’ attention to the development of your argument.
- Cohesion can be created by various ways, including repetition (use a particular word or phrase
across different sentences or paragraphs), synonym (use a word or phrase in a later sentence which
has the same or similar meaning to a keyword in the first sentence) and pronouns (use a pronoun
to refer back to a phrase already used). But a very direct way of emphasizing the inherent logic of a
paragraph is through the use of linking words and phrases which mark transitions within and
between sentences.
- Below are some useful transitions:
+ To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too
+ To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
+ To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
+ To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet
+ To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on
the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up
+ To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier,
finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then,
thereafter, until, when, while
+ To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby,
opposite, to the left (north, etc.)
+ To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this
reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus
+ To emphasize: Above all, more/most importantly
+ To show order: Afterwards, at the same time, before, firstly, secondly, formerly, lastly,
finally, later, meanwhile, next, now, presently, today, yesterday, last week, next year,
subsequently, then, until, ultimately, while, historically, in the end, eventually
+ To show attitude: Naturally, of course, certainly, strangely enough, surprisingly, fortunately,
unfortunately, admittedly, undoubtedly
+ To give explanation: In other words, that is to say
PRACTICE:
Choose the appropriate transition word or expression to complete each sentence. Add capital
letters where necessary.

Likewise furthermore as a result in other words

By the year 2000, the population distribution had shifted a great deal. Many more people had
moved to urban and suburban areas and 1_____________, the rural population was much
smaller. 2_____________, the suburban population had grown since 1950. The urban
population had 3_____________ increased. 4_____________, there were now fewer people
living in the countryside and more living in the cities and suburbs.

Then unlike such as what’s more

I know you will have a good time at the party. 5_____________ most parties we go to, at this
one I plan to have live music. 6_____________, the band I have hired plays your favorite kind
of music. My sister-in-law is planning to prepare some really good dishes 7_____________
seafood soup and roast beef. Come early so that you can enjoy the food, and 8_____________
you can dance all night!

In addition but above all in other words

Physical education classes help children develop in numerous ways. Academics strengthen
children’s minds, 9_____________ physical education strengthens their bodies.
10_____________, it contributes to their good health. 11_____________, physical education
classes help children learn about winning and losing. This is an important life skill.
12_____________, in physical education classes, children have the opportunity to learn about
teamwork. This might be one of life’s most important skills.