PUNCAK ALAM CAMPUS

FACULTY OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT

HM425
BSc IN GASTRONOMY

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

……………………………………

PREPARED BY:
……………………..

PREPARED FOR :
ASSOC. PROF. DR. FADZILAH MOHD SHARIFF

FACULTY OF HOTEL AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT

UiTM PUNCAK ALAM
 TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study.............................................................................................3-4

1.2 Problem Statement.......................................................................................................5-6

1.3 Objective of the Study.....................................................................................................7

1.4 Research Question..........................................................................................................7

1.5 Research Framework......................................................................................................8

1.6 Hypothesis......................................................................................................................8

1.7 Definition of Terms.........................................................................................................9

1.8 Significant of the Study.................................................................................................10

1.9 Limitation of the Study.................................................................................................10

1.10 Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................11

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Endemic Phase Scenario..........................................................................................12-13

2.2 Changes in Food Habits...........................................................................................13-15

2.3 Dietary Pattern.........................................................................................................15-17

2.4 Food Preference.......................................................................................................17-19

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design...........................................................................................................20

3.2 Research Paradigm..................................................................................................20-21

3.3 Research Approach..................................................................................................23-24

3.4 Population, Sampling & Unit of Analysis................................................................24-26

3.5 Instrument...............................................................................................................27-29

3.6 Pilot Test.......................................................................................................................30

3.7 Data Collection Method................................................................................................30

3.8 Plan for Data Analysis...................................................................................................31

REFERENCE....................................................................................................................

2
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Chapter Overview

This chapter presents an overall view of the current study. It explains the overview about

what the pandemic had change in terms of food habits even during endemic phase,

highlighting changes in food attitude and food product choices as well as the significance of

this research towards from the academic and practical aspects. Other than that, problem

statement, research objectives, research question and hypothesis, scope of the studies and

studies limitation are also explained in this chapter.

1.1 Background of the Study

The threat of Coronavirus disease (Covid-19) had been recognizes by whole world

(Amir et al., 2020) and it had profound that the pandemic had affected many facets of daily

life across the world (Shaun et al., 2020). On March 2020, Covid-19 had been declared as

global pandemic by World Health Organization (2020). During the pandemic, almost 213

countries had showed a severe implications over countries economy, health system and social

(Lancet, 2020). Malaysia had entered their endemic phases on 1 st April 2022 and most of the

economy sector and restriction are lift off to allow Malaysian to return to near-normal life

after 2 years of restriction brought by the Movement Control order (MCO) to battle the

Covid-19 pandemic (Tan et al., 2022).

Even Malaysia are now are moving towards endemic phases, meaning it is more

predictable and manageable, many scientists believe it is still too soon to behave like the

pandemic is over (Klobucista, 2022). World Health Organization (2022), had stated that

Covid-19 cases had increases with close to 3 million cases in 6 weeks period from month of

3
June and July 2022 with hospitalization rates due to Covid-19 have doubled in the same

period whole world. The United Nation News (2022) had also emphasize that although there

are no longer any limitations and life has returned to much of as it was before the pandemic,

recorded cases are rising in nearly 70 countries across all continents. This means that

increasing transmission and current drop in testing had resulting in more death and higher

probability of new virus variant during this endemic phases (Kabuye, 2022).

A large body of literature majority during the pandemic, had demonstrated that large

disaster such as COVID-19 pandemic has disrupt people food system (Galanakis, 2020),

individuals’ food purchasing behavior and how eating pattern and everyday behavior is

conducted (Di Renzzo et al., 2020). As the Covid-19 virus still lingering in the communities

and threatening the livelihood of the people, there are possibilities of a people that are still

living in fear of the viruses and unable to shift from their previous food consumption pattern

during the pandemic phases. Psychology studies had found that breaking up with destructive

eating behaviors is hard to do and very complicated especially when the brain is set in

survival mode (Anderson, 2017). A phenomenon known as pandemic lockdown fatigue

which is a level of exhaustion or “burnout” that is mostly brought by the COVID-19 new

normality during the pandemic phases had set people brain into survival mode and giving

long-term effects in various aspects of life especially dietary pattern (Gill et al., 2022) until to

these days.

The trend in the pandemic period had saw the Malaysian to cut less their shopping

trips, stock up on processed food and non-processed food as well as increases of high calorie

food intake that may cause harm to them (Tan et al., 2022). All these habits are probably hard

to change as the brains had processed that it is the safest way to consume food so that they

will not get infected by the COVID-19 (Gill et al., 2022) and still becoming their habits even

the phases had been changed to endemic.

4
5
1.2 Problem Statement

The past Covid-19 pandemic has caused substantial changes in people eating habits

due to the several consecutive months of physical and social isolation (Lombardo et al.,

2021). During the isolation period, Malaysians were pushed to cut back on their shopping

excursions, stock up on processed and unprocessed foods, and consume more high-calorie

foods that might be harmful to them (Tan et al., 2022). All these behaviors are probably

difficult to break because their minds have been programmed to believe that doing so is the

best way to eat to avoid contracting COVID-19 (Gill et al., 2022), and they have continued to

develop despite the shift in phase to endemic. Endemic phases should improve Malaysian

eating habits as there is no more restriction towards grocery shopping trips, availability of the

products on the shelves is improving and the vaccination rate among Malaysian had made it

much safer to be outside nowadays (Salim, 2022).

However, some Malaysians are still practicing the same habits of eating from the

pandemic phases because of the uncertainty of the COVID-19 conditions (Webster. 2022),

the cases and death that are still rising to these days (WHO, 2022). Moreover, most of the

studies are focusing on eating habits pre and during pandemics and studies regarding eating

habits in endemic phases are still lacking and not been fully understood especially in

developing countries (Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., 2021) like Malaysia.

The consumption rate of the people from previous pandemic lockdown period had not

been updated and observed as most of the data are from pandemic period whereby most of

the countries saw an increase trend of food consumption by eating more than 5 times a day

(Di Renzo et al., 2021) which is hard to change (Anderson, 2017) and may not improve in

this endemic phase. The increased consumption of sugary products and comfort food with

regular snacking habits (Gallo et al., 2020) may cause eating disorder problems and obese (El

Ansari et al., 2011).

6
 Additionally, psychological, and emotional reactions to the recent death and cases of

Covid-19 may raise the chance of establishing problematic eating habits (Wang et al., 2020)

is commonly recognized that having bad emotions may make someone overeat, an attitude

known as emotional eating (Evers et al., 2018) that changes their dietary habits. Feeling of

fear and anxiety towards death from Covid-19 infections had made people seek comfort

towards food especially towards snack and canned food (Focus Malaysia, 2021).

Therefore, this study aimed to provide how the endemic phase had affected Malaysian

changes in food habits and preference of the food products. Understanding this relationship

may help the people to be more responsible about what they are consuming and certainly

improve their quality of life.

7
1.3 Objective of the Study
Based on the limitations within the existing study, the objectives of this research are as
below: -
RO1: To examine the relationship between the dietary pattern and food habits changes in

endemic phases.

RO2: To analyze the relationship between the food preference and food habits changes in

endemic phases.

1.4 Research Question

The following research questions guided the study:

RQ1: What is the effect of dietary pattern on food habits changes in endemic phases?

RQ2: To what extend does food preference influence food habit changes in endemic phases?

1.5 Research Framework

Dietary Pattern
Consumption H1
rate
Emotion state
Food Habit
Changes
Food Preference
Priority
Categories H2

IV DV

Figure 1:1. A Proposed Study Framework of the Hypothesized Relationship between Dietary
Pattern, and Food Selection towards Food Habit changes during endemic phase

8
1.6 Hypothesis

H1: There is a relationship between dietary pattern and food habit changes during endemic

phases.

H1a: There is a relationship between consumption rate and food habit changes during

endemic phases.

H2a: There is a relationship between emotion state and food habit changes during

endemic phases.

H2: There is a relationship between food preference and food habit changes during endemic

phases.

H2a: There is a relationship between priority and food habit changes during endemic

phases.

H2b: There is a relationship between food categories and food habit changes during

the endemic phases.

9
1.7 Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of this study, the following terms are defined in the context of this

research.

Category.

A food category that prioritizes by the people for consumption and affecting their eating

habits

Consumption rate.

The frequency and quantity of food eaten durin is g certain amount of time.

Covid-19.

An infectious disease that affects the respiratory system and can produce severe symptoms.

Covid-19 is also caused by the Coronavirus SARS-COV-2 of the genus Beta-coronavirus that

affects the organs.

Dietary pattern.

The quantities, proportions, variety, or combination of different foods, drinks, and nutrients

in diets, and the frequency with which they are habitually consumed.

Emotional.

A strong feeling aroused mental state, or intense state of drive or unrest directed toward a

definite object and evidenced in both behavior and in psychologic changes.

Endemic.

A COVID-19 period after the pre and during pandemic. Is the last phase in pandemic time

frame and almost to normal situations.

Food habit.

Refers to why and how people eat, which foods they eat, and with whom they eat, as well as

the ways people obtain, store, use, and discard food.

Priority.

10
A food thing that is regarded as more important compared to other food options.

1.8 Significant of the Study

Practical

This research may help people in understanding the reason behind their food habit and be

more responsible about what they are eating and to promote healthier eating habits and

improve their quality of life.

Academic

This study may help the students and future researchers as a reference and information on

how the Covid-19 pandemic had affecting food habits and how it changes the habits in the

endemic context. Moreover, this study can guide future students and researcher from another

perspective to be add on in the body of knowledge.

1.9 Limitation of the Study

The study will be conducted through online questionnaire using convenience sampling thus

may cause inability to generalize the result of the survey to the population. More study needs

to be conducted to measure other variables such as physical activities, nutritional intake, and

religious perspective. Furthermore, the data will be collected after the lockdown had lifted

and may lead to bias due to memory recall especially when the participant need to recognize

their eating patterns during pandemic to indicate that they have different dietary pattern and

preference towards their food habits. The research will not be looking into some of the

significant aspects such as smoking behaviors, sleep quality, waist circumference, weight,

and height whereby these studies will be focusing towards evaluating the dietary pattern and

preference of the participants. Moreover, Malaysia is a big country so collecting data outside

of peninsular Malaysia may causes limitation as the technology and internet access at the area

are still limited.

11
12
1.10 Chapter Summary

Chapter 1 is highlighting the effect of COVID-19 on food habits and why it is still relevance

to study about it in the endemic phases. This chapter explained how author explored the why

it is hard to change certain habits as well as what triggers people to change their habits of

consumption. In the background, the author summarized the study scope generally and how

the problem statement provided a relevant understanding about what lack in the current

studies and why it needed to be studies. The question guided the research study by providing

broader view regarding the subject of study and why it is significant to know and understand

the changes so that improvement can be made.

13
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Chapter Overview

This chapter provides an overview of past studies about the subject under research. The

researcher focuses to identify the changes in food habits during the endemic phases. The

researcher explains the variables for this research by reviewing previous studies and

analyzing them. Additionally, the process of reviewing the past literature also results in

finding gap and answering the researcher question.

2.1 Endemic Phases Scenario

Most of the economy sector and restrictions were lifted on 1 st April 2022, marking the

beginning of Malaysia’s endemic phases (Ahmad et al., 2022). This came after 2 years of

restrictions brought on by the Movement Control Order (MCO), which was implemented to

combat the COVID-19 pandemic (Tan et al., 2022). According to the Abdullah (2022), this

phase provides people with the opportunity to learn how to adopt and live with public health

measures that are least disruptive to daily life. However, it does not mean that the virus does

not pose threat to the people (Kabuye, 2022). WHO (2022) had recorded that almost 3

million cases globally in 3-month period in the endemic period with increase in

hospitalization and death rate.

Increases of cases and death during this endemic had cause some people to develop a

‘coronaphobia’ which is a fear of contracting COVID-19 (Arora et al., 2020). This fear is

affecting the daily life functioning of the people and increase the likelihood of maintaining

the same current lifestyle especially food habits (Wang et al., 2020). According to Hirschman

(2022) in his studies, about 76% of Malaysian are still scared contracting the COVID-19 in

July 2022 compared to 68% of Malaysian in January 2022 which is 3 months before endemic

14
phase started and Malaysian still expects increases of cases and infections because of the

Omicron variant (Hirschman, 2022) thus strongly indicate the possibilities of Malaysian

maintaining the previous pandemic dietary pattern and food selection (Tan et al., 2022) same

like globally which majority of it is negatively impacting their food habits (Bhutani et al.,

2020; Bracale & Vaccaro, 2020; Di Renzo et al., 2020). Previous studies are looking into

different variables and aspects but most of them are studying into consumption pattern,

snacking attitudes, and selection of the product consumed and purchased.

The studies regarding changes of food habits, dietary pattern and food preference

affected by COVID-19 majorly are focusing on pre-pandemic and pandemic phases which we

saw a lot of changes are happening globally (Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., 2021) which can be

divided into favorable and unfavorable dietary habits (Bennet et al., 2021). These 2 will be

explain further in next sub-topics. However, because most of the countries just entered the

endemic phases (Melimopoulos, 2022) and not a lot of studies regarding food habits in the

endemic phases has been conducted or published. This study gap was mentioned by some of

the previous researchers (Di Renzo et al., 2020; Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., 2021; Gallo et al.,

2020; Bracale & Vaccaro, 2020) whereby different period and phases of COVID-19 may

change people food habits as different pattern of eating and food selection that available

during the phases.

2.2 Changes in Food Habit

Wang et al., (2021) had found out that social isolation brought on by COVID-19 has

changed people habits and altering eating patterns. This finding was elaborated more by

Bennet et al. (2021) whereby the changes are categorized into 2 which in favorable changes

and unfavorable changes towards eating habits. Allabadi et al. (2020) looking into dietary

pattern in Palestine found that there are favorable increases towards the consumption of fruits

15
and vegetables. The same results were shown in studies by other several researchers

(Allabadi et al., 2020; Di Renzo et al., 2020; Ruiz-Roso et al., 2020) where increase

consumption of fresh produce was found in their respective countries. This could be because

of the promotion made by WHO regarding the importance of consuming fresh produce to

boost immune systems to fight the pandemics in case the people got infected (Bennet et al.,

2021). This favorable changes in food habits are also associated with the increases of home

cooking attitudes (Di Renzo et al., 2020) whereby numerous reasons has made home cooking

become popular during COVID-19. Fewer options to dine out, more time spent with family,

and safety concerns (Di Renzo et al., 2020) has made cooking at home popular in certain

countries. Home cooking has made the people to become more in control on what food

ingredients should be consumed, and made people feel healthier (Robinson & Segal, 2022)

However, there are still several other researchers found a different result whereby the

changes are more unfavorable towards consumption of fresh foods in certain countries

(Matsungo et al., 2020; Mehta et al., 2020; Mitchell et al., 2020). Similar findings were made

by Deschasaux-Tanguy et al. (2020) who discovered that 27.4% of participants reported

buying fewer fresh foods in pandemic period compared to during pandemic because of

having less access to grocery shops or goods. Majority of the respondents by the studies

stated the reason they purchase instant or processed food more often compared to fresh

ingredients because it last longer and can reduce their shopping trips (Martinez-de-Quel et al.,

2021). This unfavorable situation had made Martinez-de-Quel et al. (2021) and Bennet et al.

(2021) to come to conclusion that COVID-19 pandemic had affecting people selection of

foods and influenced their food habits. However, the studies conducted by all the previous

researchers are focusing during pandemic whereby during the pandemic phase, lack of

availability of certain produce and shops, reduced shopping trips and emotional condition of

the peoples might drive them to choose certain products that they perceived more important

16
after comparing the risk and necessities (Al-Awwad et al., 2021). With declaration of the

endemic phase in majority of the countries, the gap of studies mentioned by all previous

studies regarding preference of food during different phases are worth to be observed as most

of the business are open, product availability improved, and no more restrictions are

implemented (Mishra et al et al., 2020).

Di Renzo et al., (2021) in his study in Italy had found that people eat less healthy not

because of the food but rather the consumption rate of eating whereby peoples in Italy are

eating more than 5 times a day during their quarantine period at home causes by the excessive

purchase of food during their shopping trips to the market. Same results are found by

Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., (2021) in Brazil when there were 27% increases of food

consumption at time when Brazilians at home (25% during breakfast, 30% for lunch and

dinner, 21% for quick snack). In Malaysia however, study conducted by Jailani et al. (2021),

stated that Malaysian are recommended to consume maximum 5 servings daily depending on

their energy usage and body weight which is 3000 kcal maximum, and it was found out that

about 85% of Malaysian are following the Malaysian Dietary Guidelines recommendation

when consuming foods. Even the meal numbers of Malaysian are following the guidelines,

majority of the people are consuming less healthy food such as high in carbs and sugar as

well as fried items (Ahmad et al., 2021). This difference had also been agued by Arora and

Grey (2020) that even thou the population are following dietary guidelines; it does not mean

that the populations are consuming healthily. Thus, it is worth to investigate this pattern of

consumption in Malaysia and from endemic context.

2.3 Dietary Pattern

During the COVID-19 pandemic, dietary changes have been linked to increased

energy and macronutrient consumption (Lopez-Moreno et al., 2020). Due to the social nature

17
of humans, prolonged social isolation can cause psychological stress, which can result in a

greater calorie consumption to help manage worry and dread (Hamizad et al., 2022). Thus,

may create demands towards processed food and fast-food ordered from delivery platforms

(Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., 2021). In a study of 820 teenagers (10 to 19 years old) from Italy,

Spain, Chile, Colombia, and Brazil, it was discovered that isolation in Covid-19 had

significant impact on eating patterns and causes them to eat more than they should (Ruiz-

Roso et al., 2020). Most of the developed and developing countries that have access towards

food delivery platforms saw increases usage of delivery platforms to order their food (Bracale

& Vaccaro, 2021) and promoting more food consumption because of the convenience that

this food delivery platforms had to offer (Jayaraj et al., 2021). Even thou this trend are

showed during COVID-19, these habits are probably hard to be changed as the brain are

already accustomed with the dietary pattern (Anderson, 2017) after 2 years period of

lockdown and this has not been investigated in the endemic phases.

Increased time at home during the pandemic has also led to excessive consumption of

food which were related to social, emotion, or food cravings, commonly known as “comfort

food” to help in reducing stress (Hamzaid et al., 2022). “Comfort food” is normally high in

simple carbohydrates which aid to reduce stress by inducing high serotonin production, thus

positively impacts one’s emotions (Bakaloudi et al., 2021). Snacks that high in sugar and salt

such as desserts, candy, chips, and popcorns are rich in calories and poor in nutrients (Wang

et al., 2021) are becoming a choice for emotional eating to reduce the feelings of stress and

anxiety (Di Renzo et al., 2021). This finding had also been further proven by Zachary et al.

(2020), whereby it was discovered that people utilized snacking as a coping technique to deal

with their elevated anxiety levels when on emotional unstable situations. Considering this

study, it may be helpful to encourage various methods of stress release, such snacking of

18
fruits, when counselling demographic groups on how to maintain long-term good lifestyle

patterns.

Gallo et al., (2020) had also found that increases towards frequent snacking and the

energy density of eaten snacks are mostly towards female. This probably related to most

women are responsible household task and groceries shopping (Ferreira-Rodrigues et al.,

2021). With the buildup duties from household chores and work from home activities, their

emotional condition may be affected thus affecting their food habits. Li et al., (2021) does

support the statement when the study in China showed the pandemic risk status has causes

worried from the Chinese and detrimentally impacting China food consumption and pattern

especially towards woman. However, in a study led by Pellegrini et al. (2020), which did not

focus on gender but rather only obese participants, 32.7% of the participants reported an

increase in their daily snack consumption during the pandemic phase. In contrast, only 18.9%

of the participants in the study led by Scarmozzino et al. (2020), whose population was not

restricted to obese people, reported an increase in consumption. This scenario would suggest

that it was more difficult for an obese woman to regulate their snacking during the epidemic.

Most of the studies conducted are focusing during pandemic and lockdown periods

(Bennet et al., 2021). Lack of studies about food habits in endemic phases are seen and can be

associated from lack of literature to be reviewed currently. However, most of the previous

researchers does mentioned that updated study regarding their findings may help people to

understand better as people habits and pattern may change over time especially when the

setting of the studies is different either the places or timeline (Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., 2021;

Hakim et al., 2021; Di Renzo et al., 2020)

2.4 Food Preference

19
 Before the pandemic, a study conducted by Tey et al., (2008) showed that Malaysia is

consuming more rice compared to other food items. Urbans adult consumed substantially

more sugar and seafood than those from rural regions, who consumed much more cooked rice

daily. It is different compared to previous researcher from other region and countries that

found out female consumed more sugary items compared to men. Ferreira-Rodrigues et al.,

(2021) in his studies found that Brazilians consumer are prioritizing the meat and vegetables

whereby Malaysian are prioritizing seafood and rice in their meals (Tey et al., 2008).

Different settings and period in Malaysia may cause changes towards the above studies when

included the pandemic context of the food preference. Calderon (2021) ranks of food

preference for Malaysian had showed a selection that, carbohydrates are dominating the ranks

of from 40 food that are loved by Malaysian, only 15 was protein, vegetables, and fruits. The

protein item in the ranks consist of chicken and beef. This indicates that there are changes in

Malaysian food consumption and studies regarding priority of food preference among

Malaysian need to be observed to find Malaysian trend of consumtpion during this post-

pandemic.

It is obvious that people's nutrition quality is declining because of previous

confinement, and they are more likely to pick food that is more palatable, less expensive, and

potentially unclean, which can have negative effects on the immune system (Ismail et al.,

2020). Although there may be an opportunity to improve nutritional practices during

lockdown, research has indicated that individuals are going toward unhealthy eating habits as

they consumed fewer fruits and vegetables and gained weight, which may raise the possibility

of getting nutritional burdens (Deschasaux-Tanguy et al., 2020) which may affect them in

long-terms. Fruits are rarely offered with everyday meals in Malaysia, rice is traditionally the

major staple cuisine eaten with fried veggies and mostly chicken or beef (Ahmad et al.,

20
2021). This probably because of the environment influence in Malaysia like Gustat et al.

(2017) claimed that an individual's food environment has an impact on their food selection.

Previous studies done by Wei et al. (2022) in Malaysia also showed that grain goods

(86.4%), animal products (77%), and sweet drinks (67.1%) were the most frequently eaten

food items each day throughout the lockdown. Over 70% of individuals did not eat

vegetables and fruits every day, and nearly half (43.2%) drank sugary drinks more than once

every day. The consumption of fast food, rapid meals, sweets, and salty snacks ranged from a

few times per week to a few times per day for more than half of the respondents (Wei et al.,

2022). These results were consistent with earlier research in Italy by Pellegrini et al. (2020),

which found that unhealthy food selection including sweets, snacks, frozen or canned meals

were the most eaten food items during the lockdown, while fruits and vegetables were the

least. This may be because to restrictions and social exclusion, which have gradually

increased feelings of loneliness, boredom, anxiety, and despair. These emotions may have a

substantial impact on one's lifestyle and eating habits (Wang et al., 2020). However, a study

carried out by Celorio-Sarda et al. (2021) in Spain revealed a trend towards practicing healthy

diet during the COVID-19 pandemic among students taking Food Science courses. There was

reduced consumption of unhealthy foods - fast food, unhealthy snacks, candies, cookies,

cakes, and pastries, with increased consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables, nutritious

snacks, and water during the pandemic (Celorio-Sarda et al., 2021). This showed that people

that knows about food are more aware on what they eat and prioritize more healthy selection

of food (Wei et al., 2021).

Numerous researchers had investigated COVID-19's dietary patterns and food

preferences, which had garnered a lot of interest in western nations (Palmer et al., 2021).

However, few studies had been conducted on endemic phases, particularly in Malaysia

(Wong & Cheng, 2021). To close information gaps and provide the government, public

21
health stakeholders, and higher education sector with the baseline data they need to properly

plan and implement nutrition policies for Malaysians, particularly when pandemics strike

again, it is essential to investigate the changes of food habits, dietary patterns, and food

preferences of Malaysians in endemic contexts. This study aimed to assess the changes of

food habits, dietary pattern, and food preference of Malaysian during the endemic phases.

22
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Chapter Overview

This chapter outlines the research methodology of this study. It briefly explains the

methodology and procedures that will be used in attaining the information to conduct this

study. The discussion in this chapter includes research design, population, sample,

instrument, data collection and data analysis method. This chapter will identify how data is

collected and analyze to answer the research question and objective.

3.1 Research Design

To undertake research and to handle the information, researchers are expected to

carefully select and appropriate underlying assumption of conducting research or paradigm, a

research methodology, and a set of methods for collecting and analyzing the data. A number

of authors suggest procedures for selecting a research design. Sarantakos (1998), for

example, proposes three related steps which is select an appropriate paradigm, select a

methodology, and then select a set of methods. Guided by the procedures referred to above,

this study has been designed in three steps including selection of a research paradigm,

selection of an approach, and selection of a methodology.

3.2 Research Paradigm

It is vital to consider a few underlying assumptions about how to perceive and acquire

knowledge before deciding on research approach. Livari et al. (1998) have developed a now

widely accepted paradigmatic framework which propose four major paradigmatic

assumptions:

● Ontology refers to the structure and properties of what is assumed to exist.

23
 ● Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge and how knowledge can be

obtained.

● Research methodology refers to the procedures or research

● methods that are used to acquire knowledge.

● Ethics refers to assumptions about the responsibility of a researcher for the

consequences of his or her research approach and its results.

Myers (1997) proposed three categories: positivist, interpretivist and critical. Each are

based on underlying beliefs about how knowledge can be attained and knows are called

epistemological assumptions. It is arguable whether these three paradigms should be used

separately or together. Livari et al. (1998) however, make a distinction between positivism

and anti-positivism.

With regards to the relationship between dietary pattern and food preference that changes

food habits during endemic phases, this research aims to investigate general rules about the

social phenomena. Thus, this study can be seen as a positivist study. The positivist

researchers view the social world as the world of social phenomena. In other words, it is

assume that social reality such as attitudes, belief, satisfaction, and behaviors can be

objectively measured using traditional scientific methods by independent observers. As a

result, this study typically uses quantitative measurement and statistical analysis. According

to Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991), for this research to be considered as positivist, there is

evidence of formal propositions, quantifiable measured of variables, hypothesis testing and

the drawing of inference about a phenomenon from the sample to stated populations.

24
3.3 Research Approach

According to Jerome (Myers, 2013), a research design is a plan for gathering data in a

study proposal. Therefore, the quantitative research methodology will be used for this

investigation. Data gathering and analysis in quantitative research require calculations and

numbers. Research findings from quantitative studies are displayed in tables, graph, and

charts (Mohajan, 2020). Among many possible methods for an academic study, the primary

research method online survey was chosen (Dudovskiy, 2011). According to Statistical

Research Department in 2022, online surveys are the most popular quantitative data

collection tool. In the global market research sector, as of 2020, surveys were by far the most

popular traditional quantitative approaches. In the survey, 89% of the respondents said that

among their top 3 strategies, they usually used online survey as their tools to measure the

respondent responses. In addition, 9% of respondent said they only occasionally used online

surveys. One of the reason this study will be conducted using a quantitative approach is

because surveys enable the researcher to quickly collect the data. Survey will be made using

google form and data collected will be recorded using google sheets to be analyze after the

data collection. Secondary data in the literature review will be used to proof the significance

of the variables and guide in questionnaire adaption. However, primary data will still be

collected to conduct the study.

3.4 Research Methodology

The purpose of the study is to test the hypothesis and examine the hypothetical relationships

among some of the important behaviors brought by COVID-19 and manage to change the

food habits. In hypothesis testing research, the hypothetical relationships are tested to obtain

25
an answer to the hypothesis. Sekaran and Bougie (2010) stated that rigor of methodology

enhances when scholars shift from an exploratory study to a hypothesis testing study. In this

study, the researcher is interested in delineating the main critical factors that are associated

with changes of food habits, so the type of current investigation is correlation in nature. A

correlation relationship specifies that two variables or concepts move at the same time. A

correlation study is employed when the researchers concern turn to the relationship between

the variables or concepts.

After reaching the conclusion on the purpose of this research and the type of

investigations, the next step is to make decision method to be employed. Where the research

framework demonstrates a broad understanding of the constructs, the research objective is

expected to be framed as research hypothesis. Therefore, the researcher is more concerned

with the association among the constructs and will utilize the hypothesis-testing methods like

structured survey. The current research is carried out to predict what COVID-19 had changed

in terms of food habits of the people. As a result, the hypothesis testing research method will

be chosen for this study.

The research will be conducted in which data will be collected just once maybe over a

period of months, week, or days to meet the research objective. Thus, this study is a cross-

sectional study in which data will only be collected once and during the endemic phases.

3.4 Population, Sampling and Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis refers to “the level of aggregation of the data collected during the

subsequent data analysis stage” (Cavana wt al., 2001). In this study, the unit of analysis is the

individual with Malaysian citizenship and living in Malaysia. In other words, the unit of

analysis is individual. This study will be focusing on finding the relationship between dietary

pattern and food preference that leads to changes of food habits. The target respondents in the

26
study will be adult population in Malaysia that age above 18 years old that notice their

changes of food habit.

To better understand the suggested population, it is critical to gather the respondents

most valid and credible responses (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979). Therefore, the respondents will

be chosen based on the following criteria:

1. Malaysian

2. Notice the changes of their food habit

3. Willing to provide their socio-demographic information (citizenship, gender, age,

occupation, education level and income).

This study will be conducted by analyzing the literature from previous researcher to find the

gap of the studies and collect a primary data by using online poll to carry out this study. As a

result, the data will be gathered using non-probability sampling method with the initial group

of respondents will be invited to take the online survey (Dragan & Isaic-Maniu, 2013). The

study will use the convenience sampling technique to develop a pool of volunteers that

willing to participate and available.

As Malaysia population is estimated at 32.7 million with its adult population at 22.2

million (worldpopulationreview.com, 2021), the sample size needs to be determine. Sample

size needed are determined using G*Power version 3.1.9.6. Information regarding test family,

statistical test will be conducted, type of power analysis and input parameter was provided

into G*Power software to get the sample size needed for the study. After the analysis is

conducted, it is determined that sample size for this study will be conducted with minimum of

128 respondent to represent the Malaysian population in general. Below is the G*Power

analysis conducted to determine the sample size:

27
28
3.5 Instruments

The online questionnaire will be prepared using Google Forms and will be divided

into four sections to collect data related to the socio-demographic profile, changes in food

habit, dietary pattern, and food preference. The questionnaire will be adapted from Ferreira-

Rodrigues et al., (2021) as it is simple, clear, and easy for respondent to understand. The

questionnaire was also adapted by Ferreira-Rodrigues et al., (2021) from previous studies

(Pacheco et al., 2019; Fami et al., 2019), eating motivation survey by Phan and Chamber

(2016) and motivations regarding food insecurity (Puddephatt et al., 2020) guiding his

questionnaire. All the researchers’ questionnaires above will be adapted from Malaysian

perception and in post-pandemic context.

Before the survey started, a question regarding whether they notice about their

changes in their food habit will be asked. It is a “yes” or “no” question and if the respondent

said “no”, that will be the end of questions, but the data still will be collected to know

whether Malaysian are noticing about their changes on their food habit or not. The first

component of the instruments is about the socio-demographic characteristics of the

respondents, including their gender, age group, occupation, and level of education. The

respondent’s food habit changes during endemic will be evaluated in the second section.

They need to state whether they noticed the difference in their eating patterns because of the

pandemic and after movement control was lifted. The third will be about their food dietary

pattern after the pandemic and fourth section will be about their food preference and priority.

To determine how well the respondents agree with the statement, a Likert scale evaluation

will be used (Nocella et al., 2014).

29
3.6.1 Respondent demographic

❖ Men
Gender

❖ Women

3.6.2 Changes in food habit (5-point Likert

❖ 18 - 25 years old

Scale)
Age group ❖ 26 - 35 years old

❖ 36 - 45 years old

❖ 46 – 55 years old

❖ Over 56 years old

❖ Student

Occupation ❖ Government sector

❖ Private sector

❖ Self-employed

❖ Retired

❖ Unemployed

❖ Elementary school

Level of education ❖ Secondary school

❖ Diploma

❖ Undergraduate

❖ Post-graduate

❖ Doctorate

30
1. I noticed an increase of the amount of food eaten in

general

2. I noticed an increase of homemade foods

consumption/preparation

3. I noticed a reduction of the frequency of going to markets

and supermarkets

4. I noticed changes related to the categories of food

purchased and consumed

5. I intensified my food hygiene practices

6. I noticed an increase of the food purchased volume

7. I noticed an increase of fresh food consumption

8. I noticed an increase of local foods consumption

9. I noticed an increase of meals order per delivery

10. I noticed an increase of processed foods consumption

11. I am being more careful when selecting my food

suppliers

12. I noticed a reduction of processed foods consumptions

13. I noticed a reduction of delivery meals orders

14. I have used online food purchasing platforms more often

15. I noticed a reduction of the amount of food eaten in

general

16. I noticed a reduction of fresh food consumption

17. I noticed a reduction of the volume of food purchased

18. I noticed a reduction of homemade foods consumption /

preparation

31
3.6.3 Dietary Pattern (5-point Likert Scale) 3.6.4 Food Preference (5-point Likert

1. I notice a change in my food consumption Scale)

2. I am consuming a greater quantity of food in general

3. My diet is less healthy

4. I am consuming more processed products

5. I am consuming fresher products

6. My sugar consumption has increased considerably

7. My alcoholic beverage consumption increased

8. My coffee consumption increased

9. I believe that my emotional state has influenced my eating

habits

32
1. Gourmet Products

2. Fresh foods

3. Processed foods

4. Nuts

5. Alcoholic beverages

6. Frozen foods

7. Sweets

8. Chocolate

9. Coffee

10. Bakery products

11. Fruit and vegetables

12. Grains and cereals

13. Dairies (Milk and eggs)

14. Meat products

33
3.6 Pilot Test

To identify any potential issues with the questionnaire items, omissions, and other

difficulties that may affect the respondents, a pilot study will be carried out first by 30

respondents. Opinions and feedbacks regarding the question will be asked to get in depth

regarding the instruments difficulties and whether it is understandable by the respondent. Any

modification, removal or addition towards the instruments may be implemented to improve

the instruments in order the achieve the purpose and objective of the research.

The Concise Oxford Thesaurus defines a pilot study as an experimental, exploratory, test,

preliminary, trial, or try out examination. A pilot study is a test run for more extensive

methodological approach (Feinleib, 2001). The test is typically employed to assess the

applicability of methodologies, procedure, inquiries, and interviews, as well as how they

function collectively in a certain circumstance. Doody and Doody (2015) claim that a pilot

test also discovered practical and moral issues that may jeopardies the main inquiry. A small-

scale pilot study will be carried out to test the questionnaire, the feasibility of the research

design, the data collection technique, and associated procedure including the statistical and

analytical tools used.

3.7 Data Collection Method

In this study, data will be collected from primary source and secondary source. The

primary source is collected through Google Forms and distributed via WhatsApp, email and

social media platforms (Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter). The secondary data will be

collected for literature review and help give an understanding on definitions and what is the

connection between the variables and the dimensions. The secondary data will also be used to

find gap in the studies from previous researchers. The primary data will be collected to proof

the findings and understand the relationship between the variable.

34
3.8 Plan for data analysis

The data analysis will be performed using SIBM PSS Statistic 2022 (version 28). To

evaluate the key changes in their eating habits, a descriptive analysis will be conducted.

Moreover, the independence Chi-square test will be used to confirm the link between

variables. The Chi-square per cell test (z-test adjusted by Bonferroni’s method) will be used

to observe the difference that occur (Sharpe, 2019). The level of significance adopted is ≤

0.05.

Consumer responses to the habit scales will be statistically evaluated using Factor

Analysis to obtain the data (means and standard deviation) from the respondents (FA). It will

be carried out using PCA as the Extraction technique. The variables will be regarded as

relevant if their eigenvalues are greater than 1. Additionally, habits with communalities

relater than 0.3 will be put into the equation. It will eliminated if the variables with

communalities are under 0.30. and analysis will be proceed again using SPSS.

35