DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 2 : MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The pressure variation in the atmosphere is usually due to the changes in density and
elevation. Even when the atmosphere is at rest (the air is very still), there are variations of
density from point to point. When there is air movement, there will be even greater variation
in pressure (since it is not static anymore). The pressure variation in the atmosphere is very
complicated because the atmosphere is not static. It is important to measure the
atmospheric pressure as, it effects the measurement of pressure in fluids. For most
engineering purposes, the atmospheric pressure is taken as I bar, which is equal to
approximately 100 000 Pa. The total pressure in the liquid can be expressed either as
absolute or gauge pressure depending on how the atmospheric pressure is treated.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAUGE PRESSURE

For fluid of constant density, the pressure variation is given by equation (2.11)
P = -ρgz + constant (2.11)
In liquid, the elevation is usually measured in terms of the depth, h, which is the distance
measured from the free surface (downwards). The equation is now written as;
P = ρgz + constant (2.12)
When h = 0, the pressure, p, will be equal to the pressure at the surface which is equal to
the atmospheric pressure. This is denoted by Patm. Thus, we can write Equation (2.12) as;
P = ρgh + Patm (2.13)
For practical purposes, the atmospheric pressure, Patm, is taken as the datum. The pressure
measured above this pressure is called the gauge pressure. Equation (2.13) is now
rewritten as;
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
P = Pgauge + Patm (2.14)
Where;
Pgauge = gauge pressure = ρgh
If the datum is taken as zero, then the equation can be written as:
P = ρgh (2.15)
This is the gauge pressure and is simply written as P instead of Pgauge. The pressure in a
liquid is usually taken as gauge pressure.

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, POLITEKNIK SULTAN AZLAN SHAH Page
 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Example 2.1
Determine the gauge and absolute pressure at a depth of 10m in a tank filled with water.
The atmospheric pressure is 100kN/m2.

Solution:
The gauge pressure is:
P = ρgh = 1000(9.81)(10) = 98100 N/m2 = 98.1kN/m2.
The absolute pressure is:
P = Pgauge + Patm
= 98.1 + 100 = 198.1kN/m2 = 198.1kPa

PRESSURE HEAD

The gauge pressure at any point in a static liquid of constant density can be measured by
the depth, h, of a column of the fluid that would produce the pressure. Referring to Figure
2.3, the pressure at point B is;
P = ρgh
The pressure head is given by
h = P/ρg
The unit for head h is m, mm or cm. It has a dimension of length. Pressure head should be
stated with the density of the fluid given or the name of the fluid.

Patm

Density, ρ

.
B --------

Pressure, P

Figure 2.3: Pressure and head

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 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Example 2.2
A container is filled with a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200kN/m2.
What is the head in terms of water (density of 1000 kg/m3)?
What is the head in terms of mercury (relative density = 13.6)
If the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa, what is the absolute pressure in the container?

Solution:
h = P/ρg = 200 x 103/(1000 x 9.81)
= 20.39 m of water
h = P/ρHgg = 200 x 103/(136000 x 9.81)
= 1.50 m of mercury
P = Pgauge + Patm = 200 + 100 = 300kPa

Example 2.3
Determine the pressure at a point in a liquid if the head is 60mm of mercury.

Solution:
From Equation (2.14) the pressure is;
P = ρgh = 13600(9.81)(0.06) = 8005 Pa = 8.005 kPa

Example 2.4
A container is filled with oil of specific gravity 0.85. Determine the pressure at a depth of
2.5m. What is the head in mm of water?

Solution:
P = ρoilgh = (0.85 x 1000)(9.81)(2.5) = 20850 Pa = 20.85kPa
The head in mm of water is given by;
h = P/ρwg = 20850/(1000 x 9.81) = 2.125 m of water

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, POLITEKNIK SULTAN AZLAN SHAH Page
 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
Fluid pressures can be determined by various means and devices depending on the types of
fluids. Some of the common devices used are barometers, piezometers and manometers.

Barometers
Barometers are used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The simplest barometer would
consist of a long test tube placed in an open container consisting of mercury as shown in
Figure 2.4. The tube should be more than 760mm long (since the atmospheric pressure at
sea level is equivalent to 760mm head of mercury). The tube should have one end closed
and this end is placed at the top while the open end is placed at the bottom.
Vacuum

P h
A B

Figure 2.4: Simple barometer

With the mercury filling the tube, the tube is then raised higher than 760mm above the
mercury level in the open container while maintaining the mercury in the tube. A vacuum will
be created at the top. The pressure in the tube at point B should be the same as the
pressure at point A (atmospheric) at the surface in the open container. This is because they
are at the same elevation. But, the pressure at B is equal to that caused by the mercury
column of height h.

Thus, the atmospheric pressure is equal to;

Patm = ρHggh
The level in the tube is generally about 760mm at sea level. This can be used to calculate
the atmospheric pressure. Thus:
Patm = ρHggh = 13600(9.81)(0.76) = 101 400 Pa = 101.4kPa

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 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Piezometers
Piezometers are used to measure the pressure of liquids in containers or conduits which are
under high pressure. A piezometer consists of a tube attached to the wall of the container or
conduit. Due to the pressure in the liquid (which is usually higher than the atmospheric
pressure) the liquid would rise up in the tube. The height to which the liquid rises will give
the head in the liquid and can be converted to pressure. Figure 2.5 shows a typical
piezometer.

Pressure at A = ρgh1

75mm

A
X

Figure 2.5: A piezometer

In Figure 2.5, the pressure of oil (density 850 kg/m3) in the conduit is;
Poil = ρoilgh = 850(9.81)(0.075) = 625.4 Pa @ N

Manometers
Manometers are also used to measure fluid pressure.
A manometer makes use of two or more liquids with different specific gravity.
The choice of manometer fluid depends on the pressure range to be measured.
If high pressures are to be measured, then fluid with high density such as mercury will be
used. However on the other hand, if the pressure to be measured is small then, lighter liquid
such as oil will be used.
The tube connecting the fluid is usually bent and not straight. Sometimes there are more
than one bend.
Multiple bends enable the manometer to measure higher pressures.
Manometers can also be used to measure the difference in pressure between two containers
or conduits. This type of manometer is called a differential manometer.

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 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

There are the types of manometer :

 Simple manometer
 Differential manometer
 Inverted differential manometer

Simple Manometer
A simple manometer is a tube bent in U-shape.
One end of which is attached to the gauge point and the other is open to the atmosphere as
shown in (Figure 2.6).
The liquid used in the bent tube or simple manometer is generally mercury which is 13.6
times heavier than water.
Hence, it is also suitable for measuring high pressure.
Now consider a simple manometer connected to a pipe containing a light liquid under high
pressure.
The high pressure in the pipe will force the heavy liquid, in the left-hand limb of the U-tube,
to move downward.
This downward movement of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb will cause a
corresponding rise of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb.
The horizontal surface, at which the heavy and light liquid meet in the left-hand limb is know
as a common surface or datum line.
Let P-Q be the datum line, as shown in Figure 2.6. h1 = Height of the liquid in the left-hand
P atm limb above the common surface in cm.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the
ρa right-hand limb above the common
surface in cm.
PA = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in
terms of head of water in cm.
ωP = Specific weight of the light liquid.
A Y SQ = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
x The pressure in the left-hand limb and the
right-hand limb above the datum line is
Z equal.

Pressure, PB at B = Pressure, PC at C
P Q

ρr

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 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.6 : A simple U-tube manometer

Pp = P Q
Pp = PA + ρagz
PQ = Patm + ρrgy
PA + ρagz = Patm + ρrgy
PA - PB = Patm + ρrgy - ρagz

Differential manometer

ρa

B
x
A
x

Z Y

h
P Q

ρr
Figure 2.7: A differential manometer

Pp = P Q
Pp = PA + ρagz
PQ = PB + ρrgh + ρag(y-h)
PA + ρagz = PB + ρrgh + ρag(y-h)
PA - PB = ρrgh + ρag(y-h) - ρagz

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 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Inverted differential manometer

ρr

P Q

Z Y
A
x
B
x
ρa

Pp = P Q
Pp = PA - ρagz - ρrgh
PQ = PB - ρag(y)
PA - ρagz - ρrgh = PB - ρag(y)
PA - PB = ρagz - ρrgh - ρag(y)

Example 1
The mercury manometer, shown on the next page, is used to measure the pressure
difference between two conduits A and B. Determine the pressure difference if the conduits
are filled with water.

0.5m

0.6m 1.5m

A
x Mercury

B
x
Water
Water

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, POLITEKNIK SULTAN AZLAN SHAH Page
 DCC5143-FLUID MECHANICS MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE CHAPTER 2

Solution:
Starting from A, the pressure at B is calculated by adding to, or subtracting from the
pressure at A. If the elevation increases, the pressure is subtracted and if the elevation
decreases, the pressure is added. Note that the pressure at C is the same whether in the
water or in the mercury section. This is because the pressure at any point cannot have
different values. The same argument holds for point D.
PB = PA – ρwg(Zc-ZA) – ρHgg(ZD-ZC) + ρwg(ZD-ZB)
P B - PA = - (1000)(9.81)(0.6) – (13600)(9.81)(0.5) + (1000)(9.81)(1.5)
= - 57880 Pa @ - 57.88 kPa

Example 2
Conduits A and B, shown below, are filled with air at a density of 1.5 kg/m 3. If the pressure
at A is 50kPa, what is the pressure at B?

Air

B
x
A
x

400mm 500mm
200mm
C D

Mercury

Solution:
This problem is similar to example 2.5. Since the pressure at A is known, the pressure at B
can be calculated by adding or subtracting the pressure differences between the points.
PB = PA + ρairg(ZA-ZC) – ρHgg(ZD-ZC) - ρairg(ZB-ZD)
PB = 5000 + (1.5)(9.81)(0.4) – (13600)(9.81)(0.2) - (1.5)(9.81)(0.5)
= 23315.3 Pa @ 23.32 kPa

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, POLITEKNIK SULTAN AZLAN SHAH Page