Evapotranspiration- evaporation from water bodies and soil
masses together with transpiration from vegetation.
Evaporation- is the process in which a liquid change to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point
through the transfer of heat energy.
The rate of evaporation is dependent on
 The vapor pressures at the water surface and air
above
 Air and water temperatures
 Wind speed
 Atmospheric pressure
 Quality of water
 Size of the water body
Vapor Pressure- Rate of evaporation is proportional to the
difference between the saturation vapor pressure (SVP) at
the water temperature, (ew ) and the actual vapor pressure in
the air (ea)
John Dalton’s law of Evaporation
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑪(𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂)
Where: EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day)
C = constant ew = in mmHg ea = in mmHg
Evaporation continues till ew = ea. if ew > ea
condensation takes place.
Temperature- the rate of evaporation increases with
an increase in the water temperature.
Wind- Wind helps to remove the evaporated water
vapor from the zone of evaporation, thereby creating
greater scope for evaporation.
Atmospheric Pressure- Other factors remaining the
same decrease in atmospheric pressure (as in high
altitudes areas) increases the evaporation rate.
Soluble Salts- When a solute is dissolved in water, the
vapor pressure of the solution is less than that of pure
water and hence it causes a reduction in the rate of
evaporation. Under identical conditions evaporation
from sea water is about 2-3% less than that from
fresh water.
Heat Storage in water bodies- Deep water bodies
have more heat storage capacity than shallow water
bodies. The effect of heat storage is to change the
seasonal evaporation rates and the annual
evaporation remains unaltered.
Evaporimeters
 Estimation of evaporation is of importance in
many hydrologic problem associated with
planning and operation of reservoirs and
irrigation systems.
 The amount of water evaporated from a water
surface is estimated by the following methods.
- Using evaporimeter data
- Empirical evaporation equations
- Analytical methods.
Types of Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters- are water-containing pans which are
exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of water by
evaporation measured in them at regular intervals.
Meteorological data, such as humidity, wind
movement, air and water temperatures and
precipitation are also noted along with evaporation
measurement.
1. Class A Evaporation Pan
- A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255m
- Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm.
- The pan is made of unpainted GI Sheet.
- The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height
15cm above ground level to allow free air circulation
below the pan.
- Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of
water in a stilling well with a hook gauge.
2. ISI Standard Pan
- A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm.
- The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick,
tinned inside and painted white outside.
- The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of
width 1225mm and height 100mm above ground level
to allow free air circulation below the pan.
- A fixed-point gauge indicates the level of water
Colorado Sunken Pan  920mm square pan made of
unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the
ground within 100mm of the top  Main advantage of
this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation
characteristics are similar to that of a lake 
Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to
install, extra care is needed to keep the surrounding
area free from tall grass, dust, etc.
US Geological Survey Floating Pan
A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep.  Evaporation Station Analytical Methods of Evaporation 1. Water – budget
Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of  Arid zones – one station every 30,000 km2 method 2. Energy – balance method 3. Mass – transfer
method
size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in a lake with a view  Humid temperate climates – one station for every
to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water 50,000 km2 , and
 Water level in the pan is maintained at the same  Cold regions – one station for every 100,000 km2
level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of 75mm. 
Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce
surging in the pan due to wave action 
Disadvantages – High cost of installation and
maintenance, difficulty in making measurements.

Pan Coefficient Cp  Pan Coefficient – Evaporation Pan

are not exactly models of large reservoirs and the
following drawbacks: i. They differ in the heat –
storing capacity and heat transfer from the sides and
bottom. ii. The height of the rim in an evaporation pan
affects the wind action over the surface.

iii. The heat – transfer characteristics of the pan

material is different from that of the reservoir.
 Thus, a coefficient in introduced as
𝐿𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Where:
Cp = pan coefficient
Methods to reduce evaporation losses
1. Reduction of surface area – as the area increases the
rate if evaporation also increases
2. Mechanical covers – permanent roods over the
reservoir, temporary roods and floating roof such as rafts
and light – weight floating particles
3. Chemical films – application of cetyl alcohol
(hexadecanol) and stearyl alcohol (octadecanol)