Itihasa

Itihasa (Sanskrit: इतिहास, lit. 'traditional accounts of past events')[1] refers to the collection of written
descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana.
The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of the Lunar
dynasty in the form of embedded tales. The Puranas narrate universal history – the books discuss in depth
the topics of cosmogony, myth, legend and history. The Ramayana contains the story of Rama and is
incidentally related to the legends of the Solar dynasty. A story is considered to be itihasa only when the
author of the story has himself witnessed or is part of the story. Vyasa, who wrote the Mahabharata, is
himself a character in the story. Similarly, Valmiki, who wrote the Ramayana, was also a character in the
story. Many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the Itihasa.[2] The
tradition of itihāsa is generally understood to be developed by the bardic tradition of Sūtas and Cāraṇas
whose duties consisted of composing royal eulogies.[3]

Etymology
The Sanskrit term itihāsa (इतिहास) was derived from the phrase iti ha āsa इति ह आस, which means "so
indeed it was".

Hindu tradition

Cosmogony
According to the Hindu texts, time is cyclic. The history of mankind is divided into four ages—Satya Yuga,
Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga—collectively forming one Maha Yuga. Seventy-one Maha Yugas
form a Manvantara ("age of Manu"), a period of time over which a "Manu" presides. For the duration of his
period, each Manu is the archetypal first man, the progenitor of humanity, and also the first king and
lawgiver. Along with a Manu, every Manvantara also has its own set of Indra, gods and the seven sages.
Fourteen Manus reign in Kalpa, (a single day in the life of) Brahma), an equivalent of 1,000 Maha Yugas, at
the end of which, the creation is destroyed and is followed by a Pralaya (dissolution) of equal length. The
creation starts again, in the next Kalpa in an endless cycle of creations and dissolutions.

The traditions relate that the present Kalpa is called Varaha. Out of the fourteen manvantaras in this Kalpa,
six have passed. The current Manvantara is called Vaivasvata after the Manu who presides over it. It is to
Vaivasvata Manu that the royal genealogies of the Itihasa trace their origin. It was in the Chakshusha
manvantara, which immediately preceded the present manvantara, that king Prithu, the great grandson of
Chakshusha Manu, leveled the earth, built cities and villages and developed agriculture, trade, pasture and
cattle-breeding. This cycle ended after only eight more generations with the Great Flood.

The Satya Yuga

The Great Flood at the end of Chakshusa manvantara wipes away all life forms. Only Vaivasvata Manu is
saved by Lord Vishnu, in the avatar of a fish, Matsya to repopulate the earth in the next cycle.[4][5][6] All
royal lines in the present cycle are traced in the itihasas from Manu Vaivasvata's sons and his only daughter
Ila. Ikshvaku, the eldest son of Manu, establishes the Solar Line (from Vivasvan, the sun-god, the father of
Vaivasvata Manu) at Ayodhya in Kosala. Iksvaku's younger son Nimi migrates a little further east and
founds the house of Videha. Its capital Mithila is established by his son Mithi,[7] also called Janaka which
later becomes the generic name for the kings of Videha.

The lunar line is established at about the same time, at Pratisthana (identified with a suburb of modern day
Allahabad) in Madhyadesha (the doab between Ganga and Yamuna rivers) by Pururavas, the son of Ila and
Budha, the illegitimate child of Soma, the moon-god.[8] The tale of his love for the nymph Urvasi is a tale
that has caught the Indian imagination for generations. It is the subject of a famous classical work by
Kalidasa called Vikramorvasiyam. While Ayus, the elder son of Pururavas ascends the throne after him, his
younger brother, Amavasu founds another dynasty that reigned over a kingdom, centred around
Kanyakubja (modern Kannauj).[9]

The lunar line again splits into two after the reign of Ayus, the eldest son of Pururavas. Nahusa, the eldest
son of Ayus, succeeds him, but obtains the position of Indra in the heaven but is banished from there when
he lusts after Sachi, the wife of Indra.[10] Ksatravrddha, another son of Ayus, establishes the dynasty of
Kashi (Varanasi). His descendants were called Kaseyas.[9]

Nahusa's son and successor Yayati was a renowned conqueror and was reckoned as a cakravartin. He had
two sons named Yadu and Turvasu from Devayani, the daughter of Sukra, the preceptor of asuras. He also
had three other sons, Druhyu, Anu and Puru from Sarmistha, the daughter of asura king Vrsaparva. Yayati
installs Puru, the youngest. but the most dutiful son as his successor in the ancestral sovereignty in
Pratisthana.[11] The elder sons obtain the outlying areas. From the sons of Yayati, descend the five famous
royal lines of the Yadavas, the Turvasus, the Druhyus, the Anavas and the Pauravas, together called the
Pancha Jana or the Five Tribes.[12]

Immediately after Yadu, the Yadava dynasty is bifurcated – the main line continued by Krosti and the
independent line of Haihayas led by Sahasrajit. The Yadava branch first develops a great principality under
king Sasabindu, who becomes a cakravrtin. King Mandhata, the son of Yuvansva,[13] the king of Ayodhya
marries his daughter Bindumati and rises to eminence. He follows in the footsteps of his father-in-law,
extends his sway very widely and becomes a cakravrtin himself.[14] His son Purukutsa marries Narmada,
the river goddess. Another son, also a famous king, called Mucukunda builds and fortifies a town on the
bank of that river; it was Mahismati.

Soon thereafter, the Druhyu king Gandhara retires to the northwest (modern Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) and
establishes the kingdom of Gandhara there. His descendants scatter into the regions beyond India and
establish many mleccha principalities.[15] Later, the Anavas divide into two branches under Usinara and
Titiksu. The sons of Usinara establish separate tribes of the Yaudheyas, Ambasthas, Navarastras, Krimilas
and Sivis in eastern Punjab. Sivi, the son of Usinara and the originator of the Sivis in Sivapura, is celebrated
in the Indian mythology for his generosity. His sons set up the kingdoms of Vrsadarbhas, Madrakas,
Kaikayas and Sauviras, and occupy the whole Punjab. The other branch of the Anavas under Titiksu
moved east and founded the principalities of Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Suhma and Pundra.[15]
The Haihaya king Krtavirya had the Bhargavas as his priests and enriched them. His kinsmen tried to
recover the wealth but the Bhargavas resisted. The Haihayas then maltreated them due to which they fled to
different countries.[16] Gadhi was then king of Kanyakubja and had a daughter Satyavati. The Bhargava rsi
Rcika marries her and begets a son Jamadagni. About the same time Gadhi has a son Visvamitra.[9][17]

In the solar line, Trayyaruna, a near contemporary of Gadhi and Krtavirya, ruled the kingdom of Ayodhya
at this time. On the counsel of his priest Vasistha, he exiles his son Satyavrata, also called Trisanku. After
Trayyaruna, Vasistha refuses to perform Trisanku's consecration.[18] A little later, Visvamitra of Kanyakubja
tries to obtain the wishing cow Nandini of Vasistha. A fierce combat follows between the two, in which
Visvamitra is defeated. Convinced of the superiority of brahmins, he resolves to become a brahmarsi and
relinquishes his throne.[19] When engaged in austerities, Visvamitra is befriended by Trisanku. He then
champions Trisanku's cause, performs his royal consecration and on his death elevates him in his living
body to heaven.[20]

The rivalry of Visvamitra and Vasistha continues even during the reign of Hariscandra, Trisanku's son.
Hariscandra had a son Rohita, whom he had vowed to sacrifice to Varuna. He postponed the sacrifice for
many years due to which he is afflicted with dropsy. Rohita, on Vasistha's advice, to propitiate Varuna, buys
Ajigarta's son Sunahsepa (who is Visvamitra's grandnephew) as sacrificial victim in his stead. When about
to be killed, Sunahsepa chants the varunamantra, taught to him by Visvamitra. Varuna appears, grants the
boy his freedom and the king a cure from the disease. Visvamitra then adopts the boy as his chief son with
the name Devarata.[21][22] A number of Visvamitra's sons, who protest against the status given to Devarata,
are cursed by their angry father to become outcastes. They become the ancestors of Dasyu tribes, such as
the Andhras, Mutibas, Pulindas, etc.[23][24] Visvamitra, subsequently, obtains the position of a
brahmarsi.[25]

In the Haihaya line, Krtavirya was succeeded by his son Arjuna Kartavirya, who was a mighty king. After a
long reign he has dissension with Jamadagni. As a result, Parasurama, the son of Jamadagni by Renuka, the
daughter of a minor Iksvaku king, kills Kartavirya Arjuna, whereupon Kartavirya's son's kill Jamadagni. In
revenge, Parasurama resolves to slaughter the entire class of warriors (kshatriyas), and so far succeeds that
only five survive to continue the great dynasties.[26]

After Kartavirya, the Haihayas divided into five collateral tribes – the Talajanghas, the Vitihotras, the
Avantyas, Tudikeras and Jatas. They attack Ayodhya and drive king Bahu from the throne.[27] They also
attack, defeat and drive the Kasi king Divodasa from Varanasi. Pratardana, the son of Divodasa subdues the
Vitihotras and recovers the throne.[28] A little later, Bahu begets a son Sagara, and Sagara defeats all those
enemies, regains his kingdom and destroys the Haihaya power for good.[27]

Sagara had sixty thousand sons who insult Kapila rsi and are, in turn, reduced to ashes by him. Therefore,
Sagara is succeeded by his grandson Amsuman on the throne of Ayodhya.[29] With the reign of Sagara, the
Satya Yuga comes to an end.

The Treta Yuga

Bhagiratha, the great grandson of Sagara brings down the divine river Ganges to earth to expiate the sins of
the sons of Sagara.[30] Rtuparna is the next prominent king in the dynasty made famous by his association
with Nala, the king of Nisadas. Nala married Damayanti, the daughter of Bhima, the Yadava king of
Vidarbha. The delightful story of their marriage and the unhappy sequel of his subsequent temporary loss of
his kingdom and destitution through gambling, is in the Mahabharata told to Yudhishthira suffering in
similar circumstances.[31]

After a long eclipse (corresponding to the ascendency of the solar dynasty under Mandhata), the Paurava
line is revived by Dusyanta, a near contemporary of Bhagiratha. He marries Sakuntala, the daughter of
Visvamitra and begets Bharata.[32] Bharata is crowned as a cakravartin and later gives his name to the
dynasty, to the great fratricidal war between the Kauravas and Pandavas, and to India itself (i.e.
Bharatavarsa). His fifth successor Hastin shifts the capital to a place in the upper doab and calls it
Hastinapura, after himself.[33]

Soon after Hastin, the Bharata dynasty is divided into four separate lines – the most well-known being the
main Paurava line and the Pancala line. The Pancala king Divodasa is celebrated as the destroyer of 99 forts
of the dasyu Sambara.[34] His sister was Ahalya, the wife of Gautama. She was deceived by Indra and
expelled into the forest by her husband on account of her infidelity.[35]

The solar line once again ascends under the benevolent kingship of Raghu, Aja and Dasharatha.[36] The
story of Rama, Dasharatha's son, forms the subject of the poem Ramayana by Valmiki. The intrigues of his
stepmother Kaikeyi result in the exile of Rama, his wife Sita and his brother Laksmana to the forest. In the
forest, Sita is abducted by Ravana, the king of raksasas and imprisoned in Lanka, his capital. Rama forms
an alliance with the monkeys and the bears of the forest and lays a siege of Lanka. Ravana is ultimately
defeated and slain by Rama. He then returns to Ayodhya with his wife Sita and ascends the throne.

With Rama's disappearance, the Treta Yuga comes to a close and the Dvapara Yuga commences. After
Rama the solar dynasty goes into permanent decline.

The Dvapara Yuga

The Yadava line is once again split into two separate lines after the reign of Bhima, the son of Satvat by his
sons Andhaka and Vrsni, who style their dynasties after their respective names. Ugrasena, the father of
Kamsa was an Andhaka while Vasudeva Anakadundubhi, the father of Krishna was a Vrsni.

The Pancala Bharata dynasty under its king Srnjaya now rises to prominence. His son Cyavana-Pijavana
was a great warrior and the latter's son, Sudas, annexed several kingdoms. A confederacy of the kings of the
Pauravas, the Yadavas, the Sivis, the Druhyus, the Matsyas, the Turvasus and others, is formed against
Sudas, who defeats them in a great battle near the river Parusni. This is called the Battle of the Ten
Kings.[37] The bulk of hymns (Book II-IX) represents only 5 to 6 generations of kings (and of
contemporary poets) of this dynasty.[38]

The Paurava line continues through Ajamidha, the son of Hasti. In his line, king Samvarana was defeated
and exiled to the forests on the bank of river Sindhu by the Pancalas. Pargiter identifies this Pancala king as
Sudas but the exact relationship between the dynasties, chronological and political, is not recorded. Later,
Samvarana reobtains his capital from the Pancalas and marries Tapati, a daughter of the Sun.[39] The
playwright Kulasekhara (c. 900AD) has immortalized their story in his play Tapatisamvarana. Their son
was Kuru and his descendants were called Kauravas. The line continues through Kuru's second son Jahnu.
Vasu, a descendant of Kuru conquers the Yadava kingdom of Cedi, and establishes himself there. His eldest
son, Brhadratha founds Girivraja in Magadha as his capital. His son Jarasandha extends his power up to
Mathura (ruled by Andhaka king, Kamsa, who acknowledged him as overlord) in the north and Vidarbha in
the south. Kamsa was a tyrant. He had imprisoned his father and usurped the throne. His nephew Krishna
kills him and restores the old king to his throne. This rouses Jarasandha's wrath and he attacks Mathura.
Krishna along with the Andhakas and Vrsnis migrate to the West coast and build a new capital Dvaravati
(Dvaraka) in Saurastra. Krishna then abducts Rukmini, the princess of Vidarbha, defeating her brother and
marries her.[40] In later life, Krishna becomes the friend of the Pandavas.

The next famous king in the Kaurava line is Pratipa. His son, Santanu supersedes his elder brother Devapi
to the throne, whereupon no rain falls for twelve years. Devapi then acts as a Hotr (chief priest) and
performs sacrifice for his brother and obtains rain.[41]

Santanu's grandsons were Dhrtarastra and Pandu. The former being blind, the latter ascends the throne.
Dhrtarastra has many sons of whom Duryodhana is the eldest; and Pandu has five sons, Yudhishthira,
Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. The sons of Dhrtarastra belonging to the elder branch were called
Kauravas and Pandu's sons, the Pandavas. The question of succession to the throne results in a feud
between the two families culminating in the appalling slaughter in the Bharata War. All the old kshatriya
dynasties of India, it is said, took part in the great battle, fighting on one side or the other. In the battle,
which lasts for eighteen days, the ruses of Krishna enable the hard pressed Pandavas to win. The
Mahabharata narrates the story of this feud in detail.

Subsequently, the Yadavas are themselves engulfed in civil war, and Krishna withdraws to the life of an
ascetic in the forest. Here he is accidentally shot and killed by a hunter.[42] His grandson is re-established at
Indraprastha by the Pandavas. Soon the Pandavas themselves crown Pariksita, the grandson of Arjuna on
the throne of Hastinapura and retire to the forest. The Dvapara Yuga closes with the departure of Krishna.

The Kali Yuga

Pariksita, on a hunting expedition, disrespects rsi Samika and is in turn, cursed by his son Srngin to die from
snake Taksaka’s poison within seven days. Taksaka buys off Kasyapa, the only person who has an antidote
to the poison. At the end of seven days, Pariksit dies from Taksaka's bite.[43] His son Janamejaya, who was
a minor then, later hears his father's death from his ministers, and resolves on revenge. He organizes a rite
(sarpasatra) to destroy all snakes. The snakes enter the sacrificial fire by the power of the rite.[44] Astika, (a
half snake from his mother's side) who was begotten to save them,[45] enters the rite and wins a boon of his
choice by singing the praises of Janamejaya. He demands the proceedings be halted. Janamejaya cannot
refuse and concludes the rite.[46] It is during this rite that Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa narrates the
Mahabharata to Janamejaya.[47]

Nicaksu, sixth in line from Pariksita, transfers his capital from Hastinapura to Kausambi in Vasta as the
former city is ravaged by a flood of the Ganges.[48] The line continues for many generations till Udayana,
the famous king of Vatsa (and a contemporary of Buddha) who carries off Vasavadatta, the princess of
Avanti. Their tale is celebrated first by Gunadhya in his novel Brhatkatha and later by Bhasa and Shudraka
in their dramas Svapnavasavadatta and Vinavasavadatta, respectively.

In Magadha, the descendants of Brhadratha and Jarasandha retain the throne till they are replaced by the
Sisunaga dynasty, which among others include the famous kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. Mahapadma
Nanda usurps the throne from the last king of the Sisunaga line. He overthrows all old kshatriya dynasties -
the Iksvakus, the Pancalas, the Kaseyas, the Haihayas, the Kalingas, the Asmakas, the Kurus, the Maithilas,
the Surasenas and the Vitihotras – and subdues the whole central India. The Puranas, hence, call him the
'destroyer of all kshatriyas' and 'monarch of the whole earth which was under his sole sway'.[49] After the
sisunaga dynasty Magadha rule was carry on by the Maurya Dynasty .

According to the Mahabharata, the Kali Yuga will close with the coming of Kalki, at which point the Satya
Yuga will recommence.[50]

Conclusion
This lengthy history of kings and sages is rounded off by the bards with a hint of cynicism regarding the
ephemeral nature of fame:[51]

The valiant Prthu traversed the universe, every where triumphant over his foes; yet he was blown
away, like the light down of the Simal tree, before the blast of time. He who was Kartavirya
subdued innumerable enemies, and conquered the seven zones of the earth; but now he is only
the topic of a theme, a subject for affirmation and contradiction. Fie upon the empire of the sons
of Raghu, who triumphed over Dasanana (Ravana), and extended their sway to the ends of the
earth; for was it not consumed in an instant by the frown of the destroyer? Mandhatr, the emperor
of the universe, is embodied only in a legend; and what pious man who hears it will ever be so
unwise as to cherish the desire of possession in his soul? Bhagiratha, Sagara, Kakutstha,
Dasanana, Rama, Lakshmana, Yudhishthira, and others, have been. Is it so? Have they ever really
existed? Where are they now? we know not! The powerful kings who now are, or who will be,
as I have related them to you, or any others who are unspecified, are all subject to the same fate,
and the present and the future will perish and be forgotten, like their predecessors. Aware of this
truth, a wise man will never be influenced by the principle of individual appropriation; and
regarding them as only transient and temporal possessions, he will not consider children and
posterity, lands and property, or whatever else is personal, to be his own.

Jaina tradition
The Jainas have their own version of traditional history, brought into line with their legends of the 24 Jinas
who from time to time have refounded their religion on earth. Rama, whom the Jainas call Padma, appears
as a divine hero and a Baladeva, in a variant version of his life, whilst Krsna is similarly a Vasudeva (and
his brother Balarama, a Baladeva). There are nine each of these Baladeva and Vasudeva heroes, and their
nine enemies (Prativasudevas), including Ravana and Jarasandha. With the Jinas and the twelve universal
emperors cakravartins this makes up the sixty-three ‘great men’ of their tradition. The emperors include
Bharata and Sagara, and Brahmadeva or Brahmadatta who is familiar also to the Buddhists, but the others
are not familiar elsewhere. Three of them, including Santi, became Jinas also. The Jaina traditions seem to
draw in part on ancient sources independent of those of the brahmanas, as do the Buddhists also, and are
not merely corruptions of Brahmanical traditions. It is noticeable that their legends are much more schematic
and regular than the others.

Buddhist tradition
The Buddhists preserve another Sixty-three Salaka Purusas
different version of the Tirthankara Chakravartin Baladeva/Vasudeva/Prati-Vasudeva
traditional history. According to
Rsabha (Adi) Bharata
them, in the beginning of the
cosmic cycle mankind lived on Ajita Sagara
an immaterial plane where there Sambhava
was no need of food and Abhinandana
clothing and no private property,
Sumati
family, government or laws.
Then gradually the process of Padmaprabha
cosmic decay sets in and Suparsva
mankind becomes earthbound Candraprabha
and feel the need of food and
Suvidhi/Puspadanta
shelter. As men lose their
primeval glory distinctions of Sitala Vijaya/Triprstha/Asvagriva
class (varna) arise and they enter Sreyamsa Acala/Dviprstha/Taraka
into agreements with one Vasupujya Dharma/Svayambhu/Madhu
another, accepting the
Vimala Suprabha/Purusottama/Madhusudana
institutions of private property
and the family. With this theft, Ananta
murder, adultery and other crime Dharma
begin. So, the people meet Maghavan Sudarsana/Purusasimha/Madhukrida
together and decide to appoint
Sanatkumara
one man among them to
maintain order in return for a Santi Santi
share of the produce of their Kunthu Kunthu
fields and herds. This, then, was Ara Ara
the first king called
Nandisena/Pundarika/Nisumbha
Mahasammata (‘the great chosen
one’). He receives the title of Subhauma
raja because he pleased the Nandimitra/Datta/Bali
people.[52] The first cakravartin, Malli
Mandhata is sixth in descent
Rama (Padma)/Laksmana/Ravana
from Mahasammata. Mandhata
is followed by a long succession Munisuvrata Padma

of kings – the most famous Nami Harisena

among them include Sudarsana, Jayasena
Sagara, Bharata and Rama
Nemi Balabhadra/Krsna/Jarasandha
Dasarathi (the last three known
to the Brahmanical and Jain Brahmadatta
Traditions). Parsva
Mahavira
In this line was born a king
called Karnika who had two
sons Gautama and Bharadvaja. Bharadvaja ascends the throne after his father's death, but dies without any
issue. On the other hand, two children are born from eggs, which were formed from coagulated blood and
semen of Gautama and hatched by the sun. From one of the eggs comes the famous Iksvaku (Pali
‘Okkaka’), who succeeds Bharadvaja and founds the solar dynasty.[53]

The four sons and four daughters of Iksvaku are exiled to the foothills of the Himalayas due to the
machinations of their stepmother. They intermarry amongst themselves to maintain the purity of their blood
and later establish the towns of Kapilavastu and Koli. Their descendants were called Sakyas.[54] The
famous Prince Visvantara (Pali 'Vessantara') was a near descendant of Okkaka. Later, the Buddha is born in
this dynasty.

Itihasa as a source of actual history

Historian Romila Thapar discusses the problem of associating "major lineages of the early tradition" with
archaeological evidence (e.g. with Painted Grey Ware or Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware), understanding
the Puranic genealogies as "records of a general pattern of settlements and migrations", rather than "factual
information on history and chronology". She tries, however, to associate the chronology of the "obviously
more significant lineages, that of the Puru and the Yadavas" with different archaeological layers. Like
Pargiter, she divides the Puru lineage into three distinct phases, connecting phase I (from Manu to Bharata)
with the Ochre Coloured Pottery, phase II (after a break, from Bharata's "adopted sons" to Kuru) with the
Painted Grey Ware; phase III (starting from Kuru) being terminated by the Mahabharata war. The Yadava
line is associated with the Black and Red ware, the geographical distribution of which is traced in
connection with the different branches and migrations of the Yadava tribe, according to the Puranic sources.
She concludes, however more cautiously ("The attempt to link the Puru and Yadava lineages with certain
archaeological cultures ... has resulted in some echoes of identification, but nothing more definite than that
can be said at this point. The identification remains speculative ..."), by considering the problem of
chronology (archaeological evidence versus "traditional" chronology) and the question of identifying the
Indo-Aryan speakers, phase I (up to Bharata) being understood as a pre-Indo-Aryan lineage, which was
taken over later into the tradition of the Aryan-speaking people.[55]

Influence on classical Indian poetry

The rules of classical Indian poetics prescribe that the themes of the mahakavyas[56][57] (ornate epics) and
natakas[58] (drama) should primarily be selected from the itihasa. In accordance, great mahakavyas such as
Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsa, Kumaradasa’s Janaki-harana, Bhatti's Ravanavadha (or Bhattikavya) have drawn
their themes from the Ramayana, and Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya, Magha’s Sisupalavadha and Sriharsa's
Naisadhiyacarita from the Mahabharata.

See also
Hindu mythology
Buddhist mythology
Jain cosmology
History of India
Hindu epics
Ramayana
Mahabharata
Puranas
 Historicity of the Mahabharata

References

Notes
1. "Itihasa is not fantasy" (https://devdutt.com/articles/itihasa-is-not-fantasy/). Devdutt. 3 June
2017. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
2. Pargiter, F. E. (Frederick Eden) (1922). Ancient Indian historical tradition (http://archive.org/d
etails/cu31924024065504). Cornell University Library. London : Oxford University Press, H.
Milford.
3. Goldman, Robert P. (2018). "Augmenting the Past: Historical and Political Consciousness in
Vālmīki's Uttarakāṇḍa" (http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0257643018772406).
Studies in History. 34 (2): 182–206. doi:10.1177/0257643018772406 (https://doi.org/10.117
7%2F0257643018772406). ISSN 0257-6430 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0257-6430).
S2CID 165668247 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165668247).
4. Satapatha Brahmana, I.8.1
5. Mahabharata, III.185
6. Bhagavata Purana, VIII.24
7. Visnu Purana, IV.5
8. Visnu Purana, IV.6
9. Visnu Purana, IV.7
10. Mahabharata, V.9-18
11. Mahabharata, I.76-93
12. Visnu Purana, IV.10
13. Mahabharata, III.126
14. Visnu Purana, IV.2
15. Visnu Purana, IV.18
16. Mahabharata, I.178
17. Mahabharata, III.115
18. Vayu Purana, 88.78-116
19. Ramayana, I.51-56
20. Ramayana, I.57-60
21. Aitareya Brahmana, VII.15-18
22. Ramayana, I.61-62
23. Mahabharata, XIII.3
24. Aitareya Brahmana, VII.18
25. Ramayana, I.65
26. Mahabharata, III.115-117
27. Visnu Purana, IV.3
28. Mahabharata, XIII.30
29. Ramayana, I.38-41
30. Ramayana, I.42-44
31. Mahabharata, III.50-78
32. Mahabharata, I.62-69
33. Vishnu Purana, IV.19
34. Rigveda, I.112.14; I.116.18
35. Ramayana, I.48
36. Raghuvaṃśa of Kālidāsa - Edited with extracts & Notes etc by Narayan Ram Acharya
Kavyatirtha, Chaukhambha Publishers, Varanasi, 2nd ed (2002)
37. Rigveda, VII.18;VII.83
38. Witzel, Michael. The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and
Political Milieu. Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. Harvard Oriental Series (1997)
39. Mahabharata, I.173-175
40. Visnu Purana, V
41. Brihaddevata, vii,155-7, viii.1-9
42. Mahabharata, XIX
43. Mahabharata, I.40-43
44. Mahabharata, I.49-53
45. Mahabharata, I.13-39
46. Mahabharata, I.54-58
47. Mahabharata, I.60
48. Visnu Purana, IV.21
49. Visnu Purana, IV.23-24
50. Vyasa, Krishna-Dwaipayana. "SECTION CLXXXIX". The Mahabharata of Krishna-
Dwaipayana Vyasa (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03189.htm). Translated by
Mohan Ganguli, Kisari. pp. 390–391. "And when those terrible times will be over, the
creation will begin anew. … the Krita age will begin again. … And commissioned by Time, a
Brahmana of the name of Kalki will take his birth. And he will glorify Vishnu and possess
great energy, great intelligence, and great prowess. … And he will restore order and peace in
this world crowded with creatures and contradictory in its course. … And he will be the
Destroyer of all, and will inaugurate a new Yuga."
51. Visnu Purana, IV.24
52. Collins, Steve. Aggañña sutta. Sahitya Akademi, 2001.
53. Mahavastu, I.
54. Rhys Davids, T.W. Ambattha Sutta, The Sacred Books of the Buddhists Vol II, 1899.
55. Thapar, Romila Puranic Lineages and archaeological cultures in Ancient Indian Social
History: some interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.
56. Dandin, Kavyadarsha, I.15
57. Visvanatha Kaviraja, Sahityadarpana, VI.318
58. Bharata, Natyasastra, XVIII.10

Primary Sources (Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and Tamil)

Vyasa, Mahabharata. See translation at www.sacred-texts.com
Harivamsa
Valmiki, Ramayana. See translation at www.sacred-texts.com
Rigveda
Atharvaveda
Satapatha Brahmana
Puranas
Vishnu Purana
Vayu Purana
Matsya Purana
Devi Bhagavata Purana
Manu Smriti
Tripitaka
Mahavastu
Lalitavistara
Bhagavati Sutra
Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacaritra
Kalidasa
Abhijnanasakuntalam
Raghuvamsa
Vikramorvasiyam
Bhasa
Svapnavasavadatta
Pratijnayaugandharayana
Balacarita
Karnabhara
Dutavakya
Urubhanga
Madhyamavyayoga
Pancaratra
Dutaghatotkacha
Pratimanataka
Abhishekanataka
Sarvasena, Harivijaya
Panini, Jambavativijaya
Ksemendra, Sasivamsa
Mentha, Hayagiva vadha
Bhavabhuti
Mahaviracarita
Uttararamacarita
Bhattanarayana, Venisamhara
Jayadeva, Gitagovinda
Venkatanatha Vedanta Desika, Yadavabhyudaya
Murari, Anargha Raghava
Pratapa Rudra Deva, Yayati Caritra
Rajasekhara, Pracanda Pandava
Damodar Misra, Hanumananataka
Asvaghosa
Buddhacarita
Saudarananda
 Vimala Suri, Pauma cariya
Pravarasena, Setubandha
Silacharya, Caupanna mahapurisa cariya
Jinasena, Harivamsa purana

Further reading
Pargiter, F.E.
Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. Delhi. 1972.
The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age. Oxford. 1913.
Winternitz, M. History of Indian Literature. Vol. I-II. Delhi. 1987.
Rapson, E.J. The Cambridge History of India. Vol. I Cambridge. 1922.
Warder, A.K. Indian Kavya Literature, Vol. I-VII. Delhi. 2004.
Smith, R. Morton Dates and dynasties in earliest India: translation and justification of a
critical text of the Purana dynasties, Shastri, J. L. (ed.). Delhi. Motilal Banarasidass. 1973.
Smith, Mary Carroll The core of India's great Epic. Harvard University. 1972.
Thapar, Romila
"Puranic Lineages and archaeological cultures" in Ancient Indian Social History: some
interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.
"Origin Myths and the early Indian historical tradition" in Ancient Indian Social History:
some interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.
"Genealogy as a source of social history" in Ancient Indian Social History: some
interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.

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