Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mekelle Unversity
Mekelle Unversity
COLLEGE OF
BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
BY : HIKMA ABDU
ADVISOR :JEMAL A.
JUNE,2012
MEKELLE,ETHIOPIA
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page no.
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………..I
Table of content…………………………………………………………………………..ii
List of tables……………………………………………………………………………...iii
Acronomy………………………………………………………………………………..IV
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………v
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………….
CHAPTER THREE
3.2 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER FOUR
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………..
APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………
UNICEF-
WHO-World Health Organization
CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
Safe drinking water is an essential component of primary health care and has a vital role in
poverty alleviation. There is a positive correlation between increased national income and the
proportion of people with access to improved water supply. According to World Bank (1994) a
0.3% increase of investment in household access to safe drinking water generates 1% increase in
GDP. Unreliable supply and shortage of water affects life of human beings in various ways.
According to WHO (2010) progress report on sanitation and drinking of six billion people on
earth, 884million did not get their drinking water from safe sources and almost all of them live in
developing regions. For instance in sub- sharan Africa only 60% of the total population in the
sub-continent is using improved sources of drinking water. Ethiopia like any other developing
countries has many constraints to make potable water easily accessible. Only 38% of the total
population and 26% of the rural population have access to safe and clean water (WHO and
UNICEF, 2010).
In Ethiopia, when we trace back to its establishment, the supply of pure water through pipe was
started during the era of Aste Menelik .In Mekelle, which is the capital city of Tigray region, the
supply of pure water through pipe was started in 1949.since the population of the city is
expanding from time to time, it demands the supply of more pure water. To cope with such an
expanding demand the city established an institution called mekelle water supply and se wage
service .Customers of this institution has been expanding from time to time and reached 29,941
in 2003E.C(MWSSS,2003EC).
The supply of pure water for a household is obtained from a total of twenty water wells. The
major water wells are Aynalem, Dandera, Ashago, Kuya, and Chenfera. When we come to
current demand and supply of water in the city, water demanded for domestic animals,
construction, industrial and drinking purpose approximately equals 43,763m 3 per day. Since the
current supply of water is 28,120m3 per day, the city needs additional 15,343m 3of water daily.
The total coverage of water is 65 % ( Ibid).
As stated above, like other cities in Ethiopia, Mekelle is facing acute shortage of water because
the demand for water is by far larger than its supply. The demand side needs a proper
management to match with the supply. This calls for a demand analysis to identify factors
affecting household water demand in the city. This is helpful for supply augmentation of
expansion of the service among the society.
Access to safe water and sanitation in Ethiopia is among the lowest in sub- sharan Africa and the
entire world. Even if access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still
remains to be done to achieve the MDG’s (Millennium development goals) of halving the share
of people without access to water and sanitation by 2015.In addition to this, effectively spending
the money and ensuring proper operation and maintenances of infrastructure built with these
funds remain a challenge (MOWR, 2004).
Since it is difficult to satisfy the needs of the society by supplying water to all, various methods
have been used by the government for reducing water consumption. Supply augmentation
requires several year of planning and large amount of capital investment before water is
available. In light of such challenge, the governments are opting for strategies that promote water
conservation, particularly with residential consumer (Basina et al, 2008).
In most developing countries like Ethiopia, the quality of data base on residential water
consumption often poses problem in demand estimation. As opposed to developed countries,
where all household obtain water through a pipe network, the market for household water
demand in many developing countries show much variation. Households may have connected to
pipe network and use water exclusively from private tap .But they may also combine piped water
with water from well , public tap or purchase water from venders.Little is known about
households behavior regarding factors driving their choice .As a result ,policy decision are not
very well informed (ibid).
When the water supply one of the cities in Ethiopia, mekelle, is considered, the old boreholes
need rehabilitation pumps and all the pipe lines want replacement .The construction of additional
boreholes is also required to fulfill the current demand .However all these activities need high
capital out lays. The service beneficiaries are required to pay for the improved water
service .Thus to improve the water supply situation of the city, demand side information is
highly required.
Even though varities of studies have been conducted in this area, the city of mekelle is facing
problem in demand management and expanding service levels .This study is destined to analyze
the major determinants of water demand in mekelle city by collecting information from the users
side and suppliers as well .A similar study conducted in this area by Fekadu (2007),explains the
major problem of water in the city by analyzing the supply side only .And concludes that for
equitable usage of water ,the city of mekelle should improve the water distribution means use
and its water management policies .But an improvement in the water use cannot came only due
to better supply of water ,but also problems related with the demand side should be analyzed to
reach at better conclusion.
And also studies have been conducted outside mekelle in analyzing factors affecting households’
water consumption. A study made by Mequanent (1998) shows that the demand for water
increase with population growth, urbanization and high accessibility to a taped water supply .He
did not observe socio economic characteristics like income, household size and educational level
of household head which are major determinants of the demand for water.
But information on the demand side such as household socio economic and demographic
characteristics as well as characteristics on the existing and new supplies of water are believed to
be vital. Like other cities in Ethiopia mekelle is facing major problem of neglecting the demand
of majority of households in the city .Therefore the need to fill the gap of information on demand
side appear to be crucial.
General objectives
The general objective of the study is to investigate the determinant of household water demand
in Mekelle city.
Specific objectives
1.4Methodology
1.4.1Data sources
The study uses both primary and secondary data sources. Primary data is collected through a
questionnaire distributed to the households in the city. A sample of 90 households is taken by
multistage sampling techniques .Since the city is large with a number of kefeleketema s and
kebelle, inorder to make proportionate sample, sample of kefele ketemas will be taken based on
the water supply situation. From selected kefle ketemas a sample of kebelle and household
would be taken with stages. The secondary data is obtained from related literatures and annual
reports of MWSSS.
1.4.2Data analysis
The data obtained from different sources is analyzed in two ways. The first one is by using tables
and percentages. The second one is by using appropriate econometric model explaining the
relationship between water demand and factors affecting it.
This study tries to identify the factors which affect household water demand in the city by
collecting information from the households themselves. Demand analysis is very crucial because
it tries to observe the problems from the users’ side. Besides, this paper initiates other
researchers to contribute their turn on this issue.
The study is limited to the capital city of Tigray region, Mekelle. The analysis is only based on
questionnaire result and background information is used to describe the region. Water
consumption or demand in industrial, institutional and commercial sector is beyond the scope of
the study.
While conducting this researcher a number of obstacles were encountered .The first and most
important one is language. This is a constraint because the study is conducted in an area where
the researcher does not know the language spoken by residents .The second one is a financial
constraint occurring because the researcher is a student. The third one is a time constraint .since
the time given for this study is limited deep analysis is imposible.And lastly the respondent’s
willingness to provide the necessary information will be challenging.
The study is organized into five chapters. The first chapter deals with the introduction part which
contains background of the study, statement of the problem, objective, significance, limitation
and scope of the study. The second chapter is the review of literature including theoretical and
empirical reviews. The third chapter is all about the methodologies used in conducting the
research. The forth chapter contains data analysis and discussion. The last chapter tries to
provide policy conclusion and recommendation.
CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature review
Since the Dublin conference on water and environment, it is generally accepted among
water resource managers that water should be considered as an economic good. Even if the
terminology is the same it has different interpretations. Based on this there are two schools of
thought. The first school maintaining that water should be priced at its economic value. The
market will ensure that the water is allocated to its best uses. The second school interprets” water
as an economic good” to mean the process of integrated decision making on the allocation of
scare resource, which does not necessary involve finical transaction (IWRA,2002)
Water is not divisible into different types or kinds of water. It may be ground water at
some stage, at a later stage it will become surface water. But any use of water affects the entire
water cycle. Since water is a resource vital to life for which there is no substitute, for water no
choice exists between resources. The only choice to be made is how to allocate water and finding
the most efficient way of using it. Water, then, is fundamentally different from other economic
goods. If one needs energy, for instance, one can choose between solar, wind, hydropower,
nuclear power etc. The market mechanism works almost naturally for such goods. With water
that is not the case. One can easily choose another type of goods without tapping the same source
(Ibid).
In sum, the first interpretation of “water as an economic good” has led to considerable
misunderstanding. Many observers fear that the adoption of this principle would lead to
economic pricing of water, which would damage the interest of the poor and make irrigated
agriculture virtually unfeasible. As a result many disclaimers suggest that water is “social good
“and should be affordable to the poor. In the school of thought there is no confusion. Water
economics is understood to deal with how best to meet all human wants making the right choice
about the most sustained uses of water in broad social context. Considering water as an economic
good is about making integrated choices not about determining the right price of water.
Water supply is a, process or an activity by which water is provided for some use example
to home, factory or business. The stringency of requirement that a supply of water must meet
depends on the use to be made of it. The more usual requirement ,however, are that water be free
enough of harmful bacteria ,chemicals and other contamination to be drinkable; free of substance
that make its taste or appearance unpleasant; and if the water is to be used for washing, free of
salts of calcium and magnesium that will interfere with the action of soap.(Colombia,
encyclopedia)
A complete water supply system is often known as a waterworks. Sometimes the term
is specifically applied to pumping station, treatment stations or storage facilities. Storage
facilities are providing to reserve extra water for use when demand is high and, when necessary,
to help maintain water pressure. Treatment stations are places in which water may be filtered to
remove suspended impurities or disinfected with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light or some other
agents that kills harmful bacteria and microorganisms. Salts of iodine and fluorine, which are
considered helpful in preventing goiter and tooth decay, are sometimes added to water in which
they are lacking. (Ibid)
Water management program involves decision about how should be best allocation to receive
the greatest public return from score resources. The full value of water needs to be recognized to
allow informed decision for public policies related to water supply and quality. This is of
particular importance, because these policies can have significant economic consequence for
household communities and industry. If water is allocated to less valued uses, water quality will
decline, ground water basins are over exploited and floods and drought can destroy properly and
take sever toll on life.(Butler and Fayyz, 2006)
In short, demand management aims at achieving desirable demands and desirable uses. It
may include measures aimed at stimulating water demand in sectors where current use is
undesirably low. This is the same thing as making the right choice about water utilization.
Hence, “water as an economic good” is fully compatible with the concept of “demand
management” if well interpreted. (Ibid)
In contrast to the point of view expressed by the first school, water pricing is not an
instrument for water allocation, but rather an instrument to achieve financial
sustainability .Only if the financial costs are recovered can an activity remains sustainable. This
premise is represented by the “free water dilemma”
If water for free, then the water provider does not receive sufficient payment for its service.
consequently ,the provider is not able to maintain the system adequately and ,hence ,the quality
of services will deteriorate .Eventually the system collapse ,people have to drink unsafe water or
pay excessive amount of money to water vender ,while wealthy and influential people receive
piped water directly in to their houses ,at subsidized rate .Thus the water –for –free policy often
results in power full and rich people getting water cheaply while for people by water at excessive
rates or drink unsafe water (IWRA,2002).
The water market would ensure efficient use by defining the optimum use and allocation
among competitive users, if it is perfectly competitive Indeed, in a market that operate under
competitive conditions, the price would be determined by the interaction of demand and supply
to reflect the actual marginal cost of water usage. This price would induce users to purchase the
optimal quality of water. In this context, no exogenous administrative intervention would be
necessary ,as the” invisible hand” would by itself , insure the efficient level of use induced by an
equilibrium price that reflect water cost, further more “invisible hand” would lead to defining the
appropriate investment in order to attain the efficient use of water in the future. However,
perfectly competitive market conditions for water don’t and probably cannot exist in the majority
cases (Desalegn, 2012)
In most cases, the supply of water is a monopoly whose characterize closely resembles
those of a “natural” monopoly specifically, the extremely high infrastructure cost for transporting
treating and delivering water make difficult the operation of multiple water supplies. The
economics characteristics of water sector in combination with the fundamental social perception
that water is socially sensitive good related to human existence and health, led to a strict
administrative framework for the operation of the water supply sector and hence of the water
market.(Ibid)
Water price is an important instrument to break the vicious circle of the free water
dilemma. To determine the price both costs and value of water should be considered. The cost
includes the full supply cost, the full economic cost and the full cost. The full supply cost
includes operational costs and cost of investment (capital charges). The full economic cost on the
other hand contains full supply cost, opportunity cost and economic externalities. The third one
which is the full cost comprises the full economic cost plus the environmental externalities
(Roger et al, 1997).
On the other hand, the valued to the user may be quantified by his/her willingness to pay
but there are additional benefits like benefit from return flows, and the benefit to meeting societal
objectives the later aspect is often neglected by the first school economists, since also here it
can’t always be quantified in monetary terms, but it is essential to the integrated decision
process. If we use the definition that economics is “ about applying reason to choice “ then full
cost and full value should be used for making allocation decision (Ibid).
It is obvious that a certain allocation of water is attractive when full values is higher
than full cost .In economic analysis determining these values and cost is required. Once the
decision has been taken to allocate the water then next is to decide on the financing of the
allocation. According to the first school, price should be the full economic cost or full cost .But
that is not necessary. In principle, if society finds the allocation a good idea, then society may
decide to finance the allocation completely.
-there should be full cost recovery and reservation for future investment.
-It is important to give due attention to equity consideration to prevent that the
weakest people carry too high burden.
-the price should be ‘reasonable’ allowing full cost recovery, but in line with the
ability to pay of consumers.
-those who can pay an economic price should pay a high price and by doing so,
cross subsidize the poor strata of the society.
The cost of supplying water consists to a very large extent of fixed cost (capital and
personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water
consumed (mainly energy and chemicals).The full cost of supplying water in urban areas in
developed countries is about us $1-2 per cubic meter depending on local costs and local water
consumption levels.(www.answers.com/topic/water-supply)
These costs are somewhat lower in developing countries. Throughout the world, only part
of these costs usually billed to consumers, the remainder being financed through direct or
indirect subsidies from local, regional or national government. Besides, subsides water supply
investment are financed through internally generated revenues as well as through debt. Debt
financing can take the form of credits from commercial banks, credits from international
financial institutions such as World Bank and regional development banks and bonds. (Ibid)
Although water covers about 70% of the earth, less than 1% is available as fresh water for
human use. The vast majority of the water is found in the ocean, too salty to drink and unfit for
many other applications. Of the fresh water available on earth about 2/3 rd is frozen in ice capes
and glaceries, which leaves only a small fraction accessible for human use. There are two major
sources of fresh water, surface and ground water. (NAS, 2009)
a) Surface water: - it is a primary source for human which includes river, lake, stream and
fresh water wet land. Surface water is naturally replenished by perception and naturally
lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation and sub-surface seepage. Although the
only natural input to any surface water system is perception within its water shed, the
total quality of water in that system at any given time is dependent on many other factors.
These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs. Human
activities have devastating impact on these factors. They increase storage capacity by
constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wet lands.
b) Ground water- It is the second largest sources of fresh water. This is water that lay
under the surface. It exists almost everywhere in the world. In some places, however
people have to dig much deeper to access it than other places .In some places, it might be
accessible but it might not be healthy for human consumption, if it is not treated. The
level of ground water is supplied, in part, by precipitation when rain falls it sinks down in
to the ground.
It is often collected in aquifers, which are natural water storage compartment formed
between the rocks under the surface.
Water and sanitation tariffs, which are almost always billed together, can take
many different forms where meters are installed; tariffs are typically volumetric,
sometimes combined with small monthly fixed charge. In the absence of meters, flats or
fixed rates which are independent of actual consumption are being charged. In developed
countries tariff are usually the same for different categories of users and for different
levels of consumption.
In developing countries, the situation is often characterized by cross subsidies
with the intent to make water more affordable for residential low-volume users that are
assumed to be poor.
For example, industrial and commercial users are often charged higher tariff than
public or residential users. Also, metered users are often charged higher tariff for higher
levels of consumption. However cross subsidies between residential users do not always
reach their objectives. Given the overall low level of water tariff in developing countries
even at higher levels of consumption, most consumption subsidies benefit the weather
segment of society. Also, high industrial and commercial tariff can provide an incentive
for these users to supply water from other sources than the utility and thus actually erode
the utility’s revenue base.
C. Water metering
Metering of water supply is usually motivated by one or several of four objectives.
First, it provides an incentive to conserve water which protects water resource. Second, it
can postpone costly system expansion and saves energy and chemical costs. Third, it
allows a utility to better locate distribution losses. Forth it allows charging for water
based on use, which is perceived by many as the fairest way to allocate the cost of water
supply to user metering is considered good practice in water supply and is widespread in
developed countries.
Many writers (Meseret, 2012, Teshome, 2007 and Aschalew, 2009) have tried to
identify the factors influencing the amount of household and daily per capital water
consumption. Although none of these writers could give a complete list, the most
frequent variables in all studies are house hold size, income, education, expenditure of a
household, and age and sex of the respond ants.
Analysis and evaluation of these factors will help to identify factors, which either
positively or negatively associates with the rate of capital house hold water consumption.
Thus in the succeeding paragraphs a brief review of available literature pertaining these
components will be provided.
One of the factors, which affect the use of water within each household, is the
physical distance of housing units from the water point. It is widely known that distance
involved in fetching water is inversely related to per capital consumption of water. Large
distance involves considerable energy and time expenditure, which limits the frequency
of fetching and the size of containers and hence reduces the per capital daily water
consumption. (Teshome, 2007)
A study made by Mesert in Simde district in Ethiopia suggest that the per capita
water use is negative and significantly determined by the distance of water source from
the households (i.e. keeping other factors constant, as the distance of water source from a
household increases, the per capita water use significantly decreases. This implies that
water facilities should be accessible to all segments of the population to better satisfy
daily water requirement of residents. It also shows that convience of location of water
source is a significant determinant of water use at household level. This means that
households located nearer to water source are likely to use more than others located
farther away.
In dealing with the demographic factors like age and sex, Dessalegn (2012)
suggest that a one unit increase in age (one year) the daily per capita consumption
decreases. It terms of sex female headed households will have lower per capita daily
water consumption than the male headed households.
2.2.1.2 Socio_ economic factors
Among the enormous socio-economic factor that affect household waters
consumption pattern the most significant one’s are household size, household income,
and level of education, monthly expenditure of a household and profession of a
household head.
Further investigation of data shows that as household size increases, the amount of
water used per day significantly decreases this suggest that, although larger households increase
the frequency of travel per day to water sources, they still are not able to increase the available
water at the house hold enough to satisfy the daily requirement of their individual hose hold
members. The significant decrease in per capita daily water use because of additional household
members might be explained by the fact that available water at house hold level is limited by the
factor such as distance and waiting time at the water source. Thus additional members share this
limited amount, clearly reducing per capital daily water use(Aschlew,2009)
The city of Mekelle, located in northern Ethiopia, is the capital of Tigary region. It is the sixth
largest city in Ethiopia, and located some 783 km from Addis Abeba .It is found within the
circum scribed boundary of enderta woreda which is found in southern zone of Tigray regional
state. Geographically the city is located at about 13 03’ north latitude and 3903’ east longitude.
The altitude of Mekelle varies from 2150 m.a.s.l to 2500 m.a.s.l. which makes it to be
categorized under weyna dega type of agro climate zone. The city has annual average rain fall of
618.3mm out of this the mouth of July and august in combination account for 70.6% of the rain
fall (Fekadu, 2007).
Since its establishment in 1872, Mekelle city has expanded tremendously by engulfing many
surrounding village and towns. In 2006, the areas know as quiha and aynalem were incorporated
with in Mekelle city limits. Villages recently incorporated include adikenfero, felege daero,
endamariam dehan, adi daero, serawat, adiha and others (Castro, 2009).
When we come to the tariff structure, before 1999 the Mwsss has been charging 1.50 per m 3
equally for residents, business firms and governmental organizations. But from 2000-2003E.C
the Mwsss made some adjustment and change of tariff by charging from 2.30-6.10 per m 3 for
residents and 6.10birr per m3 for business firms and governmental organizations. (Ibid)
6-10m3 3.50
11-20m3 4.90
21m3&above 6.10
The water supply in Mekelle doesn’t meet demand. Many households, schools and
health institution often lack water and sanitation facilities which have drastic implication for
public health. The key water supply problems in Mekelle include water losses and non revenue
water. In 2008 water losses in the distribution system amounted to 4,456m3/day. According to
world bank(2007),approximately 30%of the volume produced in cities like Mekelle is not billed
and 25% of what is billed is not paid(Castro,2009).
3.2 Methodology
The data source of the study is both primary and secondary in nature.
To achieve the objectives of the study a field survey using household questionnaire is conducted.
This questionnaire incorporate questions pertaining to socio-economic and demographic aspects,
source of water use, amount of water consumption of household etc.
The secondary data is obtained from sources including the annual reports of Mwsss and related
literatures.
The sample for this study is drawn from three ‘kifle ketemas’ in the city from a total of seven
‘kifle ketemas’. A multistage sampling technique is used because the sample selection involves
three basic stages i.e. selection of sample ‘kefele ketema’ at first stage, a sample ‘kebele’ at the
second stage and a sample household at the third stage which are done randomly.
The main criterion for selection of sample is the water supply situation. Because water supply
disparity exists among ‘kefele ketema’ as well as ‘kebeles’ in the city. Taking the above criteria
into consideration, three ‘kefle ketema’ out of seven will be taken for evaluating the factors
affecting household water demand in the city. It is desirable to have a sample that is
representative of the study population as much as possible but limitations, most importantly, in
time and cost prohibited the sample size to a total of 90 households.
Background information on the water supply and demand situation in the city obtained from
secondary sources.
The primary data is collected by making a household survey in the selected areas by means of
questionnaire.
Most of the models that are employed in residential water demand study in both developed and
developing countries are regression model. They typically use the form q=f(p,z) where p is the
price variable and z are other factors or range of shifters of demand such as income, household
demographic and other characteristics like the weather variables etc.
In countries where complete data set of residential water uses are unavailable from water supply
offices, a cross sectional data that are collected for sample over individual households at a point
in time can be used for estimating water demand of the household. For this particular study the
standard multiple regressions Model is used to analyze factors affecting daily per capita water
consumption of a household. And the method of ordinary least square is applied for estimating
the parameters of MRM.
The standard multiple linear regression Model will be selected because it helps to build belter
models for predicting the dependent variable, it incorporates the general functional relationships
and it is most widely used for empirical analysis (Woodridge)
The b’s are regression coefficients, they are unknown and usually assumed to have a fixed value;
Bo is the intercept coefficient, Bk (k=1....k) are the slope coefficient.
Yi^=Bo^+Bi^x1i+……………+B^kXki……………………………….. (2)
Where yi-the ‘estimated ‘or fitted value of yi
DPC=f (FSHH, SWHH, INHH, EDHH, OWHH, AGHH, WRDS,SXHH) +e………………. (3)
Equation (3) explains the per-capita daily water consumption (DPC) is a function of family size
(FSHH),The type of source of water (SWHH),monthly household income(INHH),educational
status of a house hold head(EDHH),house ownership status(OWHH) and age of a household
head(AGHH) and distance from water source(WRDS).
For estimation purpose equation (3) can be expressed in linear from as;
Dcp=Bo+B1FSHH+B2SWHH+B3INHH+B4EDHH+B5OWHH+B6AGHH+B7WRDS
b8SXHH +U……………………………………………… (4)
U-error term
Even though there are many variables which affect the pre-capita daily water consumption of a
household this study takes in to account the major variables i.e. Based on review of literature
economic theories of residential water demand and knowledge of the researcher
The dependant variable per capital daily water consumption was obtained by asking the total
water consumption of a household for different uses and dividing it by the total number of people
currently living in the family. For house with private piped water connection, the monthly
expenditure on water can be calculated by using the information in the water bill. For those who
did not have such connections, since they use other water sources (from well, river), the
information provided by the bill is not reliable. So for both household , the average daily water
use is estimated by using bucket, clay jars or plastic jars i.e. ‘jerican’ to take water in to the
house.
The impact of independent variables and expected sign of the variables used in this empirical
study is reviewed based on the previous studies available.
FSHH; family size of the household, household water use or the demand for water increase with
an increase in the household size. But per capita consumption of water is inversely related to
family size. As a result a negative sign is expected for B1
SWHH; The type of source of water- The volume of domestic water consumption is expected to
be linearly related to the level of connection that is areas having better level of connection are
expected to consume higher volume of water as they can easily get it within their building or
compound. Similarly better level of connection may imply for better paying capacity that is
families who can afford to have their connection may have better capacity to consume. A dummy
variable one is specified for households who have private meter connection and zero otherwise.
As result a positive sign will be expected for B2.
INHH; the monthly income of a household; Households with higher income have greater ability
to pay and have more water consumption. As a result B3 is expected to be positive.
EDHH; The education level of a household head. Generally the higher the educational level of a
head of a family, the higher the awareness about the benefits that could be gained from water.
And hence educated household heads have preference for higher water consumption. So a
positive sign will be expected for B4.
SXHH; sex of a household head; It is assumed that women are often around the house with a
higher burden of fetching water for domestic use. A dummy variable will be specified as one
for female and zero for male. So a positive sign will be expected for B5.
AGHH; age of a house hold head; it is assumed that a person get older and older, his/her per
capital daily water consumption declines, so a negative sign will be expected for B7.
WRDS; distance from water sourse; It is known that as the distance from the water source
increases, the water consumption of a household declines. So a negative sign will be expected for
B8
The study uses both descriptive and econometric analysis. After obtaining the response of
respondents, the data is described in the form averages and percentages. The statistical software
The education status of the household head figure reveals that 10% are illiterate 2.22%
only read and writes, while 35.5% have attended primary level education. The majority of the
people (25.5%) have attended secondary level education, the same 25.5% have attended higher
education and 1.11% of the household heads have attended other type of educations.
Concerning the employment structure in the area, out of the 452 people in the 90
household, 15.9% are employed in private companies and 12.83% are government employees.
Thought there is income variation the average monthly income of sample household is birr
3153.8. As far as housing condition are concerned, the sample survey indicates that 72.2% are
currently living in their own house 25.5% are rented from private house owners and no person is
found living in kebelle house in the city out of the sample taken.
4.1.2 Water use and related problems in household
1 Well 38 42.2%
3 River 0 0%
4 Lake 0 0%
5 Other 19 21.1%
5 Others 2 2.22%
The sample survey result shows that about 75.5% of the total sample households have private
meter connection where as 5.5% of the households are using water from private vendors. The
other 16.6% & 2.22% are users of public tap and other type of piped water connection. Out of
households having private meter connections insignificant number that is 22.2% are having
water tankers.
On the other hand, households possessing a private connection have a monthly bill
payment. From the sample survey the payment of bill for last three months were obtained. For
the month January an average of 48.87 birr, for February an average of 41.38birrand for March
an average of 47.82 birr is payed by households having private connection. This shows that the
average trend of payment from January to February decreases by 15.3% and from February to
march it increase by 15.5%.
Almost all of the household surveyed( 75.5 %) used piped water as the main source of water for
domestic purposes .Sources of piped water in the survey area include private tap in house and in
compound, tap water from vender and public tap.
Problems related to household water supply system are numerous and they vary from one urban
center to the other .But, in general ,the main problems related to this which affect the household
water consumption are delay in the repair of broken water pipes ,limited number of
wells ,frequent interruption ,lack .of piped water supply ,improper usage of water by the
society ,beurocratic problems, imbalance between the supply and demand for water,
inconvenient time of water supply ,etc……..
Among these problems of urban water supply, 61.1% of the respondents suggest the frequent
interruption of piped water supply as a major one. And 23.3% the households argue that they
are using water sources other than pipe ,because there was no adequate piped water supply in the
city .Where as 6.66% of the respondents replied that the major cause of not using piped water is
the physical distance of housing units from the water point.
The other problem observed in the city is that there are some residents lacking the access to
private meter connection. Various reason have been suggested by the respondents, 36.6% of the
respondents argue that the major cause of this problem is lack of pipe water supply and28.8%
beurocratic problems ,while 7.77% lack of financial capacity to have it.
Here an attempt is made to assess the impact of the factors that have significant
influence on the level of household and per capita water consumption of the communities of
Mekelle.
Household size is one of the significant variables that affect house hold water consumption. As it
is evidenced by various studies, the rate of per capita water consumption decreases with an
increase in the size of house hold members.
In order to assess the relationship between house hold size and the level of water
consumption of the study area, the sample house hold were divided in to five groups according to
the size (table 4)
4 15 60 1000 16.7
5 19 95 1160 12.2
6 14 84 700 8.34
As indicated in the above table, per capita water consumption decreases with an increase in the
household size. The result of the study also shows that the average daily per capital water
consumption in the study area is about 14.22 liter/day/ person. The mean household consumption
of water is 64 liters per day. Based on this information, the average household’s water
consumption per month is 1920liters.
Consistent with the findings of other researches, the result of the sample survey shows that per
capita water consumption decreases with an increase in household size except an interruption in
a movement from six to seven household sizes. Those households with low family size (<3
person) accounts for 24.4 liter of per capita daily water consumption. On the other hand,
households with family size 7 person and above exhibit water consumption (9.48
liter/day/person) lower than that of the lowest family size.
Type of water source for household use urban communities varies from urban center to urban
center. Out of the total household in the sample (42.2%) obtain water from well, 36.6% from
artificial dam and 21.1% from other source.
Table5; The type of pipe water connection and the water consumption
It is evident from the table 5 that families and people who have private meter connection
consume more water per-capita per day (24.2 liter/day/person) than those who are lacking private
connections.
Tap water users from private vendors have better level of per capita daily water consumption
(16.52liter), than that of public tap users (12.97liter) and those using other sources (10.52liter).
901-1800 20 80 1440 18
The lowest income group (<900) have a per capita daily water consumption of 12.23 liters which
is even below the average (12.8). As income increases to 1800 birr per month, the per capita
daily water consumption increases to 18 liters. On the other hand, on moving beyond an income
level of 1800, the per capita daily water consumption faces a fall to 11.44 liters. This occurs
because the respondents are understating their actual income which makes the survey result less
accurate. Beyond an income level of 3500 up to 7500 birr per month, the per capital daily water
consumption shows some improvement.
As can be observed from the table,10% of the sample household head are illiterate , 3.33%can
only read and write,24.4 % have attended primary e ducation,26.6% secondary education and
alsothe same 26.6% have attended higher education the remaining 8.88% attended other forms of
education .
This three educational group satisfy the proposition above which suggests that the per capital
daily water consumption is positively related with educational level of household head.
Table; 8 distribution of household and their daily per capital water consumption by hose owner
ship status
As can be observed from table 7, in the study area mekelle, out of a total of 90 respondents no
person is found living in kebele house but 72.2% of the respondent live in a private house with a
per capital daily water consumption of 11.46 liters and 25.5 percent of the respondent live in a
house rented from private owners having a per capital daily water consumption 17.78 of liters.
In this section the final results of the econometric analysis are presented based on ordinary least square
(OLS) estimation technique. Such presentation helps to examine whether or not the per capita daily
water consumption is related to the explanatory variables.
As it is stated in chapter three there are eight variables which affect the per capital water consumption
of households . but in running thise regression only six of them are taken as explanatory variables .
because the variable income is highly corrleted with total family size with correlation coefficient of
0.8867 (above 0.8). thise demands the regression to avoid multicolinearity. Total family size can not be
dropped because it has a significant contribution to the variation in the daily water consumption of a
household . so the variable income is dropped because consumption of water is a basic need . a person
even with no income should consume water. The other variable not included in this model is the sex of
household head. According to various literature review ed, it is insignificant to affect the water
consumption in household
The result obtained from regression estimation using STATA version 10 is given below;
As explained above in the regression result, the per capita daily water consumption (DPC) is determined
by the total family size (FSHH), the education level of a house hold head (EDHH),age of house hold head
(AGHH),source of water(SWHH),house ownership(OWHH)and distance from the water source (WRDS).In
explaining the model the adjusted R2 Should be interpreted than the normal R2value .Because the
adjusted R2 is more appropriate for small sample sizes. The value of adjusted R2= 0.8488 which shows
that the model explains 84.8% of the variation in the dependant variable. The multiple linear regression
model is statically significant even at 1%.Because it has a prop>F value of 0.000..The constant term in
the model which is equal to 3.3725 shows the predicted value per capita daily water consumption
regardless of the values of all independent variables. This specific econometric model does not face a
problem of both multicolinearty and hetro skedasticity.
From table 7 of the descriptive analysis section it was not possible to identify the trend of water
consumption. But from the coefficient of regression which is 0.0835 for educational status of house hold
head, it is observed that there is a positive relationship. The variable is significant at 10% .As education
level increases by one year; the per capita daily water consumption increase by 0.0835 liters .The
variable education has a positive coefficient as expected.
The test result shows that the variable age is insignificant to affect the per capita daily water
consumption. But the sign of the coefficient is positive (0.00145) as opposed to the expectation. This
may happen because getting older and older may not imply a decrease in water consumpsoin.An old age
person may consume more water than an adult one due to various reasons.
It is found to be statistically significant at 10% because it has a p value of 0.083.This variable has a
negative parameter estimate (-0.1622) as opposed to the expectation. Households having private
connection have 0.1622 liters less water than those who did not have.
The test result shows that this variable is insignificant to affect the per capita daily water consumption.
The sign of the coefficient is positive as expected.
This variable is statistically significant in both 5% and 10% because it has a p value of 0.047.the
coefficient for this variable has a negative sign as expected(-0.000038).this indicates that as distance
from water source increases by one unit, the per capita daily water consumption decreases by 0.000038
liters.
CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
Like most of the urban centers of developing countries mekelle, the capital city
of tigray region, has been experiencing the problem of potable water supply in a adequate
quantity. The city of Mekelle is supplied with water from twenty water wells which in clued
Aynalem, Dander, Kuya, Chenfera and etc. However, the water supply is becoming inadequate
to meet the present water needs of the population of Mekelle.
The major goal of this study is to assess the determinants of house hold water
demand .To accomplish the task; primary as well as secondary data were collected. Primary
data was collected from a total of 90 sample household through questionnaire. Information
obtained from the surrey was analyzed by using descriptive analysis and econometric model.
The descriptive analysis shows that at present the majority of (42.2%) of the
households obtain water from well where as 26.6% of the households receive water from the
artificial dams built in the city. The sample survey result also indicated that about 75.5% of the
total sample households have private meter connection; where as 5.5% of the households is
using water from private venders. The other 16.6% and 2.22% are users of public tap and other
type of piped water connections respectively. The average pre-capital daily water consumption
is 12.85 liters. The mean household consumption of water was 64 liter per day. Based on this
information, the average households’ water consumption per month was 1920 liters.
As for as the problem of water supply is concerned, more than 61.1% of the respondents
mentioned frequent interruption of water supply as the most serious problem . The other
problems are delay in the repair of broken water pipe, limited number of wells and
inconvenient time of water supply.
The econometric analysis indicates that from the six variables, education, total family size
source of water and distance from water sources are statistically significant to affect the per
capita daily water consumption of a household while house ownership and are insignificant.
5.2 RECOMMENDTION
From the preceding chapters it is clear that the yield of the water source and pipeline
network is not enough to satisfy the needs of the community. This and related factors invite
researchers on such topics and help to recommend ways and means of improving water supply
system. Thus, the following measures should be taken in order to improve water consumption
rate of the community of mekelle.
1. One of the problems of mekelle water supply system is its frequent interruption. Thus,
in order to solve the shortage of water, MWSSS should expand sustainable water supply
project.
2. it is better to construct dams as an additional source of water at the time of
interruption. And also the quality of pipelines and boreholes should be rehabilitated
3. One of the causes for low pre-capital water consumption is high price of tap water
from water sellers. Most of the respondents suggest that the price charged by venders is
fluctuating .Thus to provide adequate water to a large number of people at minimum cost,
MWSSA has to install additional public stand pipes.
BIBLOGRAPHY
Andrea Castro (2009). A water and sanitation needs assessment for Mekelle city.
Ethiopia.
Basania, M., ishamb, J.relly, B, (2008). The determinant of water connection and
water consumption; Empirical evidence from a Cambodian household survey.
Butler, D and fayyaz M.,Eds (2006); water demand management; IWA publishing,
lond-and white, S., ED, (1998); wise water management; A demand management.
Dessalegn chaine (2012), factors determining residential water demand in north
western Ethiopia. The case of Merawi. Cornell University. Master’s thesis.
Rogers, p., R. Bhatia and A.huber, 1997 “water as a social and economic good;
How to put the principle in to practice.” TAC background paper number 2. Global
partnership, Stockholm, Sweden.
percapital~n 1.0000
totfamsiz -0.9073 1.0000
sourceofwa~r -0.3224 0.2282 1.0000
income -0.8388 0.8515 0.2923 1.0000
yearsofedu~n -0.3281 0.2900 -0.0778 0.1932 1.0000
sex 0.5142 -0.4444 0.0304 -0.6354 0.0079 1.0000
houseowner~p -0.2321 0.3294 -0.0577 0.1085 -0.0150 -0.1845 1.0000
age 0.0439 0.1535 0.1311 -0.0505 -0.1887 0.1837 0.6698 1.0000
wsordis -0.0523 -0.0596 -0.4523 -0.1298 0.0704 -0.4275 0.0219 -0.4042
tankcap -0.3341 0.5110 -0.0432 0.3740 0.4489 0.0974 0.3733 0.4112
wsordis tankcap
wsordis 1.0000
tankcap -0.4354 1.0000
. estat vif
. estat hettest
chi2(1) = 1.34
Prob > chi2 = 0.2473
income totfam~z
income 1.0000
totfamsiz 0.8667 1.0000
.
. reg percapitalwaterconsumption totfamsiz sourceofwater yearsofeducation houseownership a
> ge wsordis
DEPARTEMENT OF ECONOMICS
This questionnaire is prepared to gather information about the determinants of household water
demand in Mekelle. Its purpose is to prepare a senior essay as a partial fulfillment of the Bachelor of Art
Degree in Economics, in Mekelle University. I kindly request you to give the required information for this
study. The information generated by using this questionnaire will be used only for academic purpose
and all household level information will be confidential. Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
1. Sex
Male Female
2. age
3. Marital status
4. Religion
5. Educational status
From1-6 above12
From river from lake from pond from artificial dam others________
11. If you have access to private pipe, what kind of pipe water service do you use currently?
Others__________
Yes no
Yes no
Other,_________
17. If you use sources of water other than pipe, what is the main reason to do so?
High price of water physical distance of tap water point from your home
18. Mention the average distance at which your source of water is far from your home._______
meter on average.
19. If you fetch water from public stand pipe/private venders, how much are you charged currently?
___________ per baldi/insera (or a twenty –liter bucket)
20. How much water did your household consume per day? _______ Baldi/insera (a twenty-liter
bucket)
21. What is your water bill payment for the last three months?
_____________January
____________February
_____________ March
22.If you did not have private connection now, what is the reason why you did not get private line so
far?
Other, _____________
23. Are there problems of water supply, distribution and consumption in the area?
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
25. Would you like to suggest how to ensure safe and sufficient water supply for a house hold in Mekelle
City?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____