AN APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY with Short Answers & MCQs Intermediate Part-IIPREFACE Like an Approach to Psychology, Inter part-I, this book is sleo a complete English translation of Carvan-e-Nofiar, past-Il.Iehas the advantage that if the students, while reading this book, face any difficulty, they may consult fs Unda vemion. The syllabus of part-ll consists of four diferent branches of Psychology: Developmental Psychology, Psychology of Health, Social Psychology and Guidance and Counselling. In order to facilitate comprehension of the contents, teach branch has been labelled as a section which is further divided into chapters. By the grace of God, with the publication of this book, the fall set comprising text books and pintctical manuals for Inter and Degree classes in Urdu ss well as English has come to completion (the details may be read at the ack title of each book). It is hoped that this book, like other publications of mine, will win your appreciation. Since there is always. oom for improvement, any practicable suggestion to improve this or other hooks of mine would be highly appreciated, May you always find yourself under the aegis of divine protection! Amen! Dated: 20.07.2012 Author 132-Saeed Colony, Abubakar Road, Faisalabad. anyCONTENTS SectionI Ch. No.2 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Scope. Difference between Growth, Development and Maturation Growth, Maturationss. Development The Principles of Growth and Development... Aspects of Development Physical Development... Péychological Development Cognitive Development Social Development. Sensory and Perceptual Development ... Sensory Development. Visual Sense Auditory Sense. Tactile Sense Olfactory Sense Perceptual Development. Subjective Questions SectionI ChsNo. 2 ‘THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. Stages of Cognitive Development... Sensory Motor Stage sisesssesees Pre-operatir nal Stage. Caierete Operational Stage .. Formal Operational Stage .. Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development wyKohiberq’s Theory of Moral Development .. Level - 1 Preconventional, Morality .....ss Level - 2 Conventional Morality. Level - 3 Pastconventional Morality. Evaluation .. Peet The Quran and the Creation of Man Explanation in the Holy Hadith ,. Subjective Questions «ss... Section IX Ch. No. 1 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY .. Definition Goals s Mies Relation between Health Psychology and other Branches Behavioural Factors that Affect Physical Health .. Psychological Factors that Affect Physical Health Mental Health Medical Criterion .. Psychological Criterion Social Criterion .. Islamic Criterion... Adjustment. INS SPS Tar on: Criteria of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour Statistical criterion....scsse.e Medical Criterion Social Approval Criterion Personal Distres: Personal Disability ... Unexpected Behaviour....... Difference between Normal and Abnormal Behaviour A Few Characteristics of Normal Behaviour... Islamic Concept of Mental Health... Muslim Thinkers’ Concept of Mental Health .. Tbn-e-Maskawaih, Ibn-e-Arabi, Zakaria Razi ..... Hazrat Mujaddad Alf Sani . Avicenna Imam Ghazall 7Treatment ..... Panic Disorder. Rar Generalized Anxiety Disordér (GAD) « Causes, Treatment . ‘Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)... Causes Treatment . Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Subjective Questions .. Section I Ch. No.3 — SCHIZOPHRENIA Background ‘Symptoms Positive Symptoms Disorganized Speech.. Delusion. Hallucination Negative Symptom Apathy... Alogia . Anhedonia Flat Affects. Asociabillty ss. Other Symptoms ‘Types of Schizophrenia Paranoid Type of Schizophrenia, Catatonic Type State of Immobility. State of Excitement .. Disorganized Type... Un-differentiated Type ... Residual Type .. wn +tCauses of Schizophrenia Genetic Transmission... Bio-chemical Factor Psycho-social Factors Socio-cultural Factors - Treatment Eating Disorders.. Anorexia Nervosa symptoms... Causes of Low Weight. Other Symptoms... Medical and Physical Symptoms .. Bulimia Nervosa... Diagnosis . Other Symptoms Treatment soon Medical Treatment...... Psychological Treatment... Improving Eating Habits . Factors Affecting Eating Habits. Economic Factors... Social Factors . Mother's influence Environmental Influence. Ready-made Food Peer Influence. a Weather-related and Geographical Factors.. Age Gender Status. Personality Traits. Guidelines for Better Eating Habits Basic Components of Food Medical Advice for Eating, Important Guidelines for Eating... Subjective Questions soc... wySection III Ch, No. 1 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Nature ... Comprehensive Definition Social Interaction .. Socialization. Definition .. Goal Sources of Sacialization. Family. Peer Group Neighbours. a Age-group or Companions . Peers and the Role of Parents .,......++ Training Through Sports sss Functions of Sports... Tolerance: Educational Institutions. Subjective Questions «,,.ss: Section III Ch, No. 2 ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR.. Nature Prejudice Definition and Nature Characteristics . Comprehensive Defi Causes of Prejudice Advantages of Prejudice ... Disadvantages of Prejudice.. Combating Prejudice. Drugs and Smoking Smoking .. Substance Dependence Substance Abuse. . Disadvantages of Drug Addiction .. Remedy... Violence Nature .. co“ Viotence and Aggression. Instrumental Aggression . Emotional Aggressior Legal Aspect .. Types of Violence .. “Theories of Violence and Aggression... Instinctive Theory. ‘Theory of Frustration and Aggression Theory of Social Learning .... Generalized Arousal THEOTy sees Causes. f Physiological Causes Neural Causes..... Biochemical Causes Psychological Causes ..... Environmental Causes Sotio-economlc Causes. Role of Mass Media in Promating Violence. Prevention. Gender Discrimination. Sexual Harassment. Definition Background .... Abuse of Authority. Creating Hostile Environment. Pakistani Women and Sexual Harassment. Modes of Sexual Harassment . Types of Harassers sess Effects of Sexual Harassment. “ects on Social Life... L cts on Education . Effects on Professional Life .. Psychological Effects us... Remedy «. : Subjective Questions .. cySection IIT Ch. No. 3 ATTITUDE... Definition and Nature Comprehensive Definition... Components of an Attitude Formation of Attitudes Functions of Attitudes ... Measurement of Attitudes Attitude Rating Scales... Bogardus Social Distance Scale Guttman’s Cumulative Scale . Method of Equal Appearing Scale... Method of Summated Rating Semantic Differential Scale. Direct Observatio: Content Analysis . Soclometry .. Questionnaire and Survey Cross Cultural Methods .. Experimental Method , Subjective Methods Attitude Change Public Opinion ‘Characteristics of Public Opinion Formation of Public Qpinion....... Leadership... Functions of a Leader.. Leadership Style. Subjective Questions .. Section IV Ch, No. 1 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING. Origin Guide or Counselor .. Counselling... Difference between Guidance and Counseliing.. Difference between Psychotherapy and Guidance and Counselling ... Characteristics of Guidance. Characteristics of Counselling. i){| Goals of Counselling and Guidance ... Vocational Guidance and Its Importance .. Nature and Definition Significance. Salient Goals of Educational Guidance. Educational Guidance Programme... Difference between Primary and Secondary Educational Guidance... Significance of Educational Guidance ............ Islamic Concept of Guidance and Counselling Subjective Questions ............ Section IV Ch. No. 2 TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING, Nature Classical Psychoanalysis Counselling ......... Goal of Psychoanalysis Counselling. Techniques Used in Psychoanalysis Counselling. Analysis of Free Association... Client-centred Technique of Carl Rogers Summary of the Stages of Counselling Salient Features of Client-centred Technique (CCT) . Advantages Rational Emotive Behaviour Counselling Techniques Basic Assumptions of REBT.... Goal a. Significance coe 179 F ‘9 of the Counsellor. : ees 79, C asellor’s Ability 173 Counselling Process... 179 ‘Suggestions Given in REBT 180 Subjective Questions Short Questions and MCQs 181, eiSection I Chapter 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Nature Psychology is concemed with the study of the individual, In this regard, this science also studies the individual's life and various factors operating during its evolution Al aspects of human life fail within the scope of this science, Psychology has expanded into separate branches to study human life comprefiensively You have read about some of these branches in the first year. Developmental psychology is also such a branch The American psychologist GS. Mall introduced developmental psychology at the end of the 20th century. tnitilly this branch was given a number of other jabels but this term is the most popular and suitable one, Scope Developmental psychology becomes relevant the moment when the individual begins his life and this process continues throughout unt the individual leaves this world, having gone through all the stages of Ife The individual's life span is characterized by tha ebb and flow of development; sometimes the developmental process accelerates and sometimes siows down a lot. Development does not mean mere growth; rather the Gevelopmentai process includes all the changes that take place in old age ‘The decline in old age is also included in the study of development Just as the individual's intelligence, ersonality, habits, attitudes and aptitudes are measured so the changes taking place in ‘every stage of ife because of development are examined according to various types of criteria. Developmental psychology has been subdivided into the following branches for the sake of study 1+ Child Psychology 2: Psychology of Adolescence 3+ Adult Psychology 4 Psychology of Ageinga Sn ee as 2_An Approach to Psychology, Inter Part-t Growth and Development / Definition Both these terms are used synonymousiy in everyday language However, they differ technical, Growth Growth refers fo the changes that natural ageing brings about in the individual's physical structure, muscles, organs, the nervous system, glands and bones, etc As 8 result of this process, the child's body grows in size; changes occur not only in his external organs but also intemal system; for example, he gains in height, his skull gets large, nis bones become broad and muscles grow strong, Besides this, his body fats, blood and chemical fluids also undergo a change. All this process does not take place ‘overnight or sifnultaneously rather it goes on gradually and slowly. Growth results in maturation. Generally, development, growth and maturation are used in the same sense. However this is not the case at alt Though maturation occurs in consequence of growth, it (maturation) refers to the particular or minimum strength of ‘muscles affer which learning process can be initiated, eg walking Involves strength in legs and writing entails strong grip of fingers. A new-born baby can be taught neither walking nor writing because its organs do not have the required maturity. Itis the strength that one acquires gradually, and tat leads to the next stage of development or learning. / Development Development means to grow. Development also includes all the changes related with growth, ie. gaining in height, body size, weight, ete. is development. The difference between growth and development lies in the limit For example, height grows until a certain age, bones broaden to a certain limit, and the extent to which muscles can thicken { is also fixed. Though it does have individual differences, this process continues throughout life When this process comes to’an end, growth also stops but the developmental process continues. The individual stops growing in height and the growth ‘of his muscles and tones also comes to an end, In spite of this, the process of change in human body continues. These changes are called development, The process of development goes on until death rather than old age. This definition brings out the difference between growth and development namely the changes that continue up to the natural limit are caused by growth. The process that brings about changes from the beginning to death is called development. Both terms are treated as synonyms in everyday lve, which is wrong, The factors set out below explain development anc growth ‘= Change: Growth and development bring about measurable changes in the \dwvidual's organs. ‘% Capability: Growth and development add to the capabities of the individual, As a person grows older, his capablities gain in efficacy; and when old age sets In they (capabilities) begin to wane.wwelopmental Psychology | 3 ‘@ Functions: The individual is able to perform various functions as a resuit of ‘growth and development, ‘e Organization’ Growth and development enable the individual to bring all his actions into a high degree of organization. The difference between the thinking of children, young men and middle aged people lies in development Ik is development that effects cognitive, social. psychological and physicat changes. Difference between Growth, Development and Maturation! — ast ayia Growth ©! =i hi Growth means the growing of organs to a specific extent. The limi is determined 7 »°”” by the hereditary Jraits inherited from ancestors. The size of the head, bones, muscles and height, ete grows up to a particular age. The process of growth does not continue throughout life, rather I stops after the full growth of organs, In other words, the growth of "e muscles, bones and height stops after it has attained its possible limit. low: l wr Maturation is pased on growth, |e growth is @ prerequisite for maturation ° Maturation refers to the specific strength of muscles after the attainment of which these muscles can be used or the pracess-of lestning.can be initisied. ‘The body of 2 normal child contains all the organs at birth. However all these organs seem to be. devoid of any voluntary movernent. That is why, a child immediately after its birth can neither sit nor walk nor grip anything so much so that it cannot hold even its head in position, but after maturation it can perform all these functions because its backbone becomes strong enough to support sitting, the muscles of its legs become \ 50 strong that it ean stand and walk about and the muscles and joints of its fingers and hands develop enough strength for the child to grip things So itis clear that without maturation human muscles cannot make any voluntary movement. Development ‘The meaning of development is not only diferent from but aiso wider than that of both the concepts mentioned above. Development includes both maturation and growth ‘The process of development is also the process of change and growth but it continues even after the completion of growth. So we can say that development continues from the beginning of an individual's life to its end. After the completion of growth, change continues to occur in cells, tissues and organs because of the developmental process. The formation of new cells occurs along with the breaking up of old cells. Bones become strong during growth but begin to Jo) weaken aftenwarde, the skin becomes loose, muscles contact, wrinkles furrow the face the backbone bends, hair fais or turns grey, and the body gets out of shape, All these changes take place due to the process of development Hence the process of development ends up in death. Development includes physiological as well as cognitive, psychological and behavioural changes. The way the individual conducts himself white———————— a ia) 4__An Approach to Psychology, Inter Partil siting, standing, eating, drinking and speaking, his relationship with others, employment, business, his prejudices, education, constructive and destructive activities, ete. — in short whatever he learns through conventional and. unconventional means. falls under development ‘We can say that the process of growth stops when one attains a certain age, The hereditary traits determine this age, Maturation refers to the period when the organs become strong enough for the learning process to begin. For example, the abilty to grip is necessary for writing; without it one cannot begin ta write Development includes ll types of physielogical, cognitive, behavioural and peychological changes, The process of the degenaration of tissues and all types of lepming process are studied in it. Thetis why, the process of development begins porto birth and continues unti death The Principles of Growth and Development ‘The child psychologist, Or Anita Wootork, has undetined three principles of growh and development whereas -othet —peychdlagists including Brown, Elizabeth Hurock, Friedman. Conger, Skiiner Hewstone, etc, fave mentored many sher principles in this regard. Now we study them one by one 4. People Develop at Different Rates y/ ae This is the principle of development It means that the rate of development varies from person to person, Some children grow fast and their muscles attain strength soon; some children start walking and speaking earlier than others;.some children grow in height soon. The students studying in a class are more or less the same age, but they. differ in their physique and height. Moreover, their mental development does not take place at the same rate, All nese paints indicate verying rate of development. 2- Development is Relatively Orderly ide anlliels The process of development in the whole human race follows @ peculiar patter. Children learn how io walk by the end of lnfancy, they start uttering one or two words. * Children first learn to hold their head in position, then straighten their back, thereafter sit, crawl on all fours, stand up and start to walk. Similarly in regard to language development, children first start babbling and then begin to utter one or two words. Development in all human beings on tne earth has the same pattern. If the development process in a child is affected at some stage because of serious illness, it also affects all the later stages. If, for example, the child is unable to walk about because of cnppled limbs, the rest of its development is also affected 3+ The Developmental Process is Gradual and Durable It takes a lot of time for the individual to go through one developmental stage and enter the next, The individual does not pass through all stages of development in a tew days ot nights, rather the developmental process takes place gradually and step by step. Ttoocura at « alow pace. Having attained the physical maturity of ene atage, the Individual WyDevelopmental Psychology 5 reaches the next stage. Like physical development, cognitive, social and psychological development also occurs step by step. 4 Development is a Continuous Process Development and growth are called @ continuous process because it begins before birth and continues until death, This process may ocour slowly or fast but it stops ‘only when the individual dies, otherwise it goes on non-stop. 5- The Development Process Is Characterized by Difference and Integration Difference and integration is the basic principle of development, The individual Jeamns new things through his personal experiences, He distinguishes between one event and the other. He seeks similanties and differences among many various things. He knits, together similar events and treats dissimilar happenings as unique. In this way, the process of cognitive, social and psychological development continues, and the child ‘acquires power of thinking and reasoning. 6- The Developmental Process Occurs Rapidly During Infancy The pace of development is very fast in two phases of every individual's Ife. The ‘first phase is infancy in which muscular, nervous and physiological changes take place at a very fast pace and the second is adolescence in which the rate of psychological, cognitive and physiological changes Is very fast. 7- The Number of Chromosomes is Fixed in Every Species ‘The number of chromosomes in a living being determines its species, The human species has 46 pairs of chromosomes Afy variation in the number of chromosomes results in the change of species. 8 All Aspects of Development are interrelated ‘The physical development of a child coincides with its psychological, cognitive and social development. All these aspects of development are interrelated. In case of 2 disorder in any aspect or incomplete development, other aspects are also affected. 9- Achievement Motive The developmental process is marked by achievement motive. The individual attains matunty at different stages of development and then gets engaged in achieving the requisite learning, The chiid disiikes being dependent and strives for independence and self - reliance. 410- Development Results from the Interaction of Heredity and Environment Heredity alone does not suffice for development, rather the environment polishes the inherited traits of a person. If @ person has inherited a disease, the environment cannot neutralize its effects outright, Hence the interaction of both plays an important role in development‘An Approach to Psychology, Inter Part. 41+ Development is Oriented Progress ‘AS a matter of fact development tantamounts to making progress. Both progress and development mean to make headway. The individual adds (o his experiences with the passage of lime, This process is what makes for progress, 42+ Psychological Vitamins Affect Development Every child aims at SSS. It means survival, security and sex. IF the child receives unconditional love from its parents, it achieves the goal of survival, security and sex AS. the individual grows older, the nature and the method of achieving this goal undergo a ‘change. Itis called psychological vitamin, for itis the psychological need of the individual, 43- All Stages of Development are Important Every stage of development is important, if the individual does not attain the full development required at a particular stage, he tries to make up for it at the next one. If this deficiency is not overcome for some reasons, developmental crisis takes place. 14- Expectations at Every Stage are Different The individual performs various tasks at every developmental stage. The tasks that suit his developmental stage are appreciated by sociely. The good deeds done by the individual are encouraged. Thus the individual becomes aware of his rights and duties 15: Tho Methods of Satisfaction are Different at Every Developmental Stage The basic and secondary needs of the individual do not change. However their intensity and the method of satisfying them continues changing, The childhood concept of how to get happiness and satisfy motive of social belongingness undergoes a change during adolescence and adulthood, 16- Acquisition of Self-Image The individual acquires selt-image because of development He begins to be better aware of the hidden aspects of his personality. 17- Gender Difference Boys and girls differ witn reference to development. The developmental process in gitls during adolescence is faster than in bays. 18- Individual Ditferences ‘Though the developmental process is uniform, integrated and gradual, it does Contain individual differences, If the development of speaking power is quick in a child, its physical development occurs at a slow pace. Some children make quick psychological ‘and cognitive development but lag behind in power of communication,Developmental Psyehotogy 7 7 vf ‘Aspects of Development Development is an integrated and continuous process. A thorough study of this process involves examination of its various aspects. These aspects are not independent ‘of each other but-are interrelated. We examine them separately only for the sake of study. 4. Physical Development 2 Psychological Development 3% Cognitive Development 4 Social Development 4 Physical Development Physical development includes all the changes that occur as one grows older Man's journey from a single ceil to a full-grown individual is: made possible by physical development. Physical development is the most prominent factor in an individual's life because ‘every post-natal change is observable and measureable, Even a layman can see that the child is growing. Its the physical development that enables a child to sit, walk, run and gain in height and weight The process of physical development continues until the completion of growth, The following perceptible changes occur during this period: u + The child's organs grow to maturation. Consequently. the development of ‘muscies and organs can be observed clearly. fi- ‘There occurs @ marked change in weight and height, the child gains in weight and height lik The ratio of physical proportion remains constnt.~ W- All internat systems grow. These systems include respiratory system, digestive system, blood circulation system and glands system, etc. The stages of physical development are given below. The organism passes through these stages step by step. Prenatal Period Infancy Childhood ‘Adolescence ‘Adulthood Old Age ‘Though the duration of each of these periods is dlfferent, each period has its own importance. Physical development continues in each period. The process of growth goes (on until the middie of youth and thereafter decline and degeneration sets in, lasting until death, SEE ET8 _An Approach to Psychology, fnter Part. 2. Psychological Development ¥ Along with physical development, the individual's behaviour and personality also undergo changes. itis called psychological development. The individual's emotions and feelings develop during this period. Experiences and inclinations invest the individual's personality with uniqueness. His abiliies, ambitions, capabiities and attitudes determi his goal The individual develops varicus trails, eg. sociability, good manners, patriotisen, tolerance, jealousy, hatred, ete. Psychological development enables the individual to 4- Form concepts of right and wrong, 2- Form a cleat self-image. Though psychological development continues the whole life, the individual manages to have a clear self-image by the end of his childhood The individual grows to have more abilities. during adolescence, He 1s able to criicize others as weli as reform himself: During adolescence, this very individual wishes to be less dependent on parents and tries to be setfreliant He is more altracted to friends than to his family during this period of development. The individual remains practically engaged in the fulfiment of his wishes during adulthood. He is inclined towards social welfare rather than to personal gain during this period. Like his behaviour, his thinking also comes to maturity beceuse of psychological development. 3- Cognitive Development Cognition means to know and understand Cognitive development refers to the process of gaining in the ability to know and understand the wotld. In cognitive development, gradual changes occur by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated ‘The brain is responsible for cognitive processes, This is what enables the child to perform simple, complex and most complex functions. All this is possible because of ‘cognitive development Cognitive development is in fact the development of the brain. The growth of the brain occurs along with the physical development, and the control of ali mental processes rests with the brain. Cognitive development begins right after the birt. The child begins to take interest in the external environment immediately after its birth. It tracks objects with its eyes and shifts them (eyes) to look at moving objects. The child is able to identify people at the age of three months. It can recognize closely related persons and the feeding bottle, It displays explicit reactions to parents, people showing love for it and strangers, no matter whether the reactions are pleasant or unpleasant Following infancy, the child tries to understand things in its early childhood. It begins to establish associations between them. As the child develops greeter ability to Utter more words, it gains in cognitive development quickly. Sy the time the child goes to school, ithas buit a large vocabularyDevelopmental Psychology 9 ‘Though it is not capable of logicat reasoning during this period, it asks a lot of questions, The child's simple concepts are very clear by this time but itis not capable of forming abstract concepts, This deficiency is overcome by the end of childhood. It develops reasoning ability while communicating, It gathers a lot of information and ‘acquires the capability to salve problems Cognitive abiity develops further in adolescence and adulthood. The individual's thinking becomes logical, practical and experimental whereas in oid age cognitive abilities like other capabilties begin to decline 4- Social Development When the individual enters into relationships with the peopie around him, this process is called social development. Social development helps the individual to adapt himself to society. Social development is also called socialization, This is what makes for the social training of the individual. These skills acquired through cognitive learning, conditioning or observational leaming make up a successful social ite ‘Though the process of social devetopment continues throughout life, is effects ‘are more pronounced in some periods of life than in others. The individual gradually leams culture, values, traditions, rules and regulations and customs. In this way, he becomes able to lead a successful life in society. Its sociai development that enables a person to be aware of social norms. Since social development depends upon’ socialization, it will be discussed in detail in the chapter “Socialization”. The factors that play an important role in social development include family, peers, games, educationai institutions and mass media ‘These factors impart social training to the individual, and this process continues the whole life, Social development produces the following effects on the individual's life 1 The individual becomes capable of social adjustment. 2- Clear sense of social responsibilty lodges itself in his consciousness. 3 The individual learns to assert his rights as well as to respect the rights of others, 4- The individual forms association with other individuals and groups as a result of social development. 5 Along with learning social behavicur, he adopts the etiquette of various social gatherings. Like other aspects of development, social development aiso begins during infancy. When the child smiles at its mother or returns her smile, (tis a display of social relationship, That is why if we walk away, leaving the child alone, it begins to weep. If we get weeping child on our lap, pat it lovingly or caress it, it stops weeping. These are all instances of social relationship. After infancy, the child begins to imbibe social standards during childhood. It develops habits and makes friends. Its social background becomes fairly broad by the time it starts going to school. Then this canvass continues expanding, Educational institutions and sports expedite social development. The individual receives formal training at educational institutions whereas children learn many social skills during sports.40 _An Approach to Psychology, Inter Pert. The individual's circle of friends widens a lot by the time of adolescence and other aspects of social relations also begin to take a definite shape. Social development helps the individual to meet the demands of friendship and love He becomes a family rman during adulthood, which changes the nature of social refations and responsibilities. Social relations undergo a change in old age. Retirement, illness, death of the life partner, being abandoned by grown-up children ~ all this and other factors of similar kind affect the individual intensely. If the individual has a healthy fife style, he manages (© rngintain social relations even in oid age. Sensory and Perceptual Development It Is not a separate aspect of development, rather it is a part and parcel of physical and cognitive development The individual's sensory organs grow and mature during physical development whereas his perceptual capabilities improve during cognitive development We can study the following kinds of development under this head: § Sensory Development The child's various states are integrated on the whole from its very birth. The sucking and crying of the child are called innately organized behaviour. From the very beginning, the child has all the senses that reach maturation gradually i Visual Sense Visual sense is very important to the child. The child looks at bright objects. Apart from perceiving colours, the child possesses visual acuity, The child looks with interest at ‘objects that are on the move and have designs, and tracks them by shifing its eyes: The child establishes visual contacts with the things that it comes across in the environment It acquires this ability at the age of 5-7 months, Meanwhile, the child's smile also becomes meaningful ile Auditory Sense The child begins to tun its head and eyes towards sounds sone time alter its birth It becomes silent on hearing a loud sound, its heart beat grows faster at a big sound, At the age of six months, the child not only gets used to various kinds of sounds but also begins to differentiate between cheerful and angry voices. Gradually the child ‘acquires the ability to locate a sound source. iv. Tactile Sense This sense is also very important to the child. It can be estimated by the fact that fa three - month old child when cartied into tap or patted with love stops erying. If a child of this age is touched with cold hands, itwinces and starts crying v- Olfactory Sense The child has sense of smell even at the time of birth A very small child turns its head towards a pleasant smell whereas it gives a grimace or turns away at a bad smell Asceven to ten days old child can recognize its mother by the peculiar smell of her body.ee, Priiccsame The child also posse istalory sense. When the child is made to drink a sweet or bitter thing, its facial expressions and different reactions prove this fact vii- Perceptual Development ‘A notmal child has all the senses at birth These senses help the child to perceive the world. Though the child's perception at this level is rudimentary in nature, its reactions give an idea of what its perception is like The child is able to adapt to the environment during infancy as a resuit of physical development It can perceive distance, depth and height and is thus capable of spatial perception Piagot believes that the child lees perception of objects during infancy. The child's perception consists of sensory motor cognition during the first year. The other psychologists maintain that the child perceives the characteristics of things through the visual sense It employs tactile, sensory and visual senses to have awareness of the environment. Getting frightened by @ powerful and terrible sound, looking satisfied on being sung a lullaby and caressed, flashing smiles on being humoured, babbling in Tesponse to being talked to and distinguishing between various voices all indicate the child's sensory and perceptual development. The child's sensations and perceptual ablities sharpen at the close of infancy. The child gains in perceptual ability considerably by the age of five years and its perceptual development reaches completion by the end of childnood Subjective Questions Define development and growth, Also compare them with maturation Write down the Isiamic concept of development and growth Explain physical development ‘What is meant by sensory and perceptual development? Explain Describe in detail the various aspects of development eeene SESSection I Chapter 2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT The theones of development proposed by Piaget, Erikson and Kohlberg are Included in your sytlabus. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget was the first to underline the importance of heredity and environment in his theory. Piaget advanced the theory of cognitive development in 1920. In his theory he explained how a newborn passing through the stage of reflex actions reaches a stage at which it can perform complex actions like an adult. Piaget believes that the stages of development like the rungs of a ladder have continuity. He maintains that the individual goes through the stages of development one at a time just tke a butterfly whose development from larva to pupa to caterpillar occurs in a'way that neither can the ofder of its developmental stages be changed nor can any of these stages be skipped, and moreover every stage is relatively more complex than the previous one, ‘According to Piaget, the infant's thinking is clearly different from an adult's because the infant and the adult are at different stages of development. Hence the thinking of children is diametrically different However they are not idiots. Piaget believes that the child develops cognitively as it grows in age and experience. Piaget expounded his theory with the help of the following concepts Schema oc" aly" ‘Schema refers to the mental image of objects. It can alse be called a concept or reflection, Piaget opines that schemas are the basic units of our information, They form the building black of cognitive development, ‘Schemas are the general concepts that are based on experience. They organize the past experiences and not only serve as a background for future experiences but also build the structures of cognition. Schemas consist of simple or complex concepts of objects. According to Piaget, the child initially conceives simple schema and then radually begins to build complex schema. Operation ‘When the child is able to repeat some schema in its mind, itis called operation or ‘mental process. Here operation means mental activity. 1”14_ An: ich to Psychology, Inter Parte ‘The two processes complementary to schema are called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation When the child incorporates new information into the already existing schema, it is called assimilation: In other words the already formed schema expands in terms of meaning. New experiences expedite this process Accommodation ‘When the existing schema is modified because of new information, it is called accommodation The process of modifying the previous schema is known as accommodation Both these processes facilitate the mental representation of the environment. ‘Whatever you are reading about psychology is being assimitated into the schema of psychology. This process is an instance of assimilation Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget has described four stages of cognitive development These stages always occur in the same order. No stage can be skipped nor its order can be altered. Moreover, every stage is more complex than the previous one because it is based on the previcus, slage. These stages can be described with reference to infancy and childhood. 4- Sensory Motor Stage abject febmanaitee barges This stage lasts from bith to two years. That is why itis also aalled the stage of infancy. The mental activity of the newborn is confined to only sensory motor actions at this stage. The early schemas of the child consist of sensory and motor aclions. The child is capable of only reflex actions in the beginning Gradually it begins to perform voluntary actions. The child repeats these actions only for the sake of pleasure, By the end of this stage, the child repeats its actions to see what they resul in or what effect they produce During infancy the cild forms schema of only those objects that fall within the range of its sense organs. The child cannot build schema of the objects that are not in view because it cannot interact with what is out of sight In other words, schema is possible only of those objects thal the child can intaract with. At this age, the child is not capable of conceiving the mental image of objects or actions that cannot be seen. At this stage, thinking for the child is doing, The child becomes capabie of forming image of out-of-sight objects by the end of this stage. Piaget calls this stage object permanence When this stage ends, the child is able to understand that the object that goes out of view does not disappear or becomes non-existent, rather it remains in existence, Hence when the child starts looking for its toys or other things, itis called object permanence.Theories of Development _15 felt b peted egoarilisbcism 2 Pre-opStational Stage This stage lasts from two to seven years of age. Hence it is also known as the stage of early childhood, The child has leamt object permanence by the time the previous stage ends ‘Thereatter the child begins to understand that objects relain their identity despite various ‘changes to them. Thus children leam the concepts of conservation and reversibilily. For example, the child comes to know that if one glass of water is poured into a jug or a big container, it does not get less in quantity and changes in shape only. This concept is called conservation. The child also comes to understand that things can be brought back to their previous state. This concept is known as reversibility, Le, if the water in the jug is poured back into the glass, the glass will be refilled If a piece of paper shaped into a plane is shown to the child, it is surprised. If the paper is unfolded, it shows surprise When it manages to learn how to fold and unfold the paper or understands the concept, it 's known as conservation and reversibility ‘The child begins to comprehend symbols at this stage. It becomes capable of drawing, making excuses and taking. It can repeat past experiences and imitate others Children play games in which they pretend to be thieves, policemen, teachers, doctors, patients, etc. These games reflect this concept At this stage, the child while classifying things takes only one quality or aspect of them into account. Piaget terms it centration, e.g, the child calls everything moving on wheels a vehicle. Since the child at this stage cannot make allowance for others’ point of view, it approaches. or recegnizes eveything with reference to lis own self. Plagot calls this process egocentrism nisevion . ote f : + coeroenee Consetvatian ~Aavesse biti This stage lasts from seven to eleven years of age. It can also be referred to as middle childhood By the age of seven years children begin to view things from two or ‘more prospects. It is referred to as decentration, ie. milk is sweet, cold and delicious as well A toy may be hard, big, red and heavy. To put it differently the child learns to blend concepts like volume, bulk and length The child does not need all stimuli to think at this stage. Children can argue about the things that are in view or out of sight However they employ only simple reasoning. Children begin to comprehend concepts by the end of this stage, e.g. above, below, bigger than, biggest of all, etc 4- Formal Operational Stage. —>- abstecel tisk 4 This stage begins at the age of 12 years. It can be termed late childhood as welt ‘The child can think in terms of abstractions and symbols. It can reason and argue in a better way. It develops the »billy to form concepts. It faces no difficulty in arguing about Suppositions like what is possible and what can be possible. This last stage of cognitive development comes to completion before aduithood.16 _An, ich to Psychol ter Partll Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Like the theories of Fraud, Piaget, and Kohtborg, Enikson's theory also consists of different stages. Erikson has mentioned eight stages or phases He opines that the individual has to face a crisis at every stage. The individual tries to cope with this crisis in some way or other so that he may adapt. The methods adopted by the individual to adapt, and overcome the crisis affect the next stage, According to Erikson, what a person. ‘experiences at one stage does not end then and there, rather at least some of its effects last til the last stage Erikson has described eight stages of the individual's psychosocial development 4+ Basic Trust Vs Mistrust This is the first stage. It lasts from birth to one year and a half It is the stage at which the child is entirely dependent upon its parents and it needs complete and good. care. If this need of the child is fulfled properly, it grows into a person who has trust in himself as well as others. If the child does not receive proper care and parental love and affection, it develops mistrust In such a case, the individual loses self-confidence: it cannot bear sharing love with others. The effects (good or bad) of this stage are transmitted to the next. & 2 Autonomy Ve Shame and Doubt Oo This stage lasts till three years of age. The most enttical crisis or problem of this stage is toilet training. IF the child receives proper training in this regard, it(child) develops autonomy. Consequently, the child begins to put its energy into learning other skills. It leams to overcame problems and bide its time to futfl desires. If the child receives. no attention during this period or if the parents are overprotective towards the chic, it develops diffdence and doubt, Freud has also thoroughly described toilet tainting and its effects 3+ Initiative Vs Gi This stage lasts from three to six years of age, The developmental crisis of this period is to get freedom. It is a period during which the child wants to have things its own way, The child tries to impose its own will it wants to have a finger in every pie; it wants. to carry out every experiment itseif. Ifthe child is encouraged during this period, it (child) acquires the ability to take initiative, If it is scolded and reprimanded into silence or fs discouraged a lot, it falis victim to a sense of guilt (ifthe indivigual initates a task himself and accepts responsibilty for it, itis called initiative). 4- Industry Vs Inferiority This stage lasts between six and tweive years of age. The child's social relations expand a Jot during this period. The child begins going to school. It forms relationships. with peers, school fellows and neighbors, eta The child has to wark very hard during this, period of its life. It has to leam curricular and co-curcular skils at some educational institution, it has to revise them at home so as to have a command of them. Besides this, ‘making friends with others, taking part in games and leaming rules and regulations ofTheories of Development _47 sports are the skills that are learnt during this penod. Coping with the environment at the educational institution is the crisis of this stage (ifthe child does not go to school, it has to cope with the environment of the place where itis spending its time) ‘The child needs proper training and encouragement during this period. If along ‘with educational instruction, it is provided guidance in games and other actrvties, the child feels inspired to work hard and devotedly. If the child does not receive proper training, guidance, cooperation and encouragement during this period, it develops inferiority complex. The child begins to feel inferior to others, it shuns others’ company and shirks hard work, This stage lasts til childhood, 5: Identity Vs Role Confusion This stage consists of adulthood. The crisis of this peried is to establish relation- ships with peers. The individual undergoes rapid physiological and social changes The individual experiences much difficulty in adapting fo these changes. Peers are of great importance during this period, The individual likes to spend much of his time in their ‘company. He tries to model himself on them, He even gets into differences with his parents for the sake of his friends, The individual harbours a strong desire for personal identity during this period. He wants to have complete independence. He wants to make his mark. If the individual is granted proper independence, he manages to establish his personal identity, He has a positive impression about nis own self If the individual falls to build his personat identity during this period, he develops role confusion. He cannot take: effective measures according to the situation. His power to make decision falters and he Jaces difficulty in adapting ja the environment. Oe tntensey Ve tssiaten This stage consists of adulthood. The individual is in the bioom of youth during this period, He draws up a variety of plans. He wants to accomplish a lot of things practically. He chooses a profession, He becomes a family man, He enters upon a fully- fiedged practical life. He has an intense desire for love in this period, He establishes intimate relationships with friends and desires passionate association. If the individual fails to consummate his emotional attachment in this period, he feels worthless. He finds life devoid of any purpose. Consequently, he falls victim to loneliness, Strong relationships with peers and opposite sex during this period foster affection but poor relationships reduce the affected person to loneliness or isolation, 7- Generativity Vs Stagnation The individual enters this stage when youth has waned. He reaches middle age. The effects of the plans made in youth are strikingly felt in this period. He comes to ‘occupy the roie of 2 parent of teacher He remains busy satisfying himself and his kids He takes on domestic responsibilities. If ne leads a fuffling le, generativity improves namely the individual uses his abilities far nis own as well as others’ welfare. As a result of it, he has pleasant social relationships and leads a peaceful Ife18 _An Approach io! yj Inter Part Ifthe individual does not get’ah opportunity or fails to do so, he feels that he &s 8 dead tseue. He is reduced to rauogression and stagnation: His talents come to ‘nothing. ‘Consequently, his social life becomes stagnant 8- Ego Integrity Vs Despair Thin i the jast stage of psychosocial development 8s ‘expounded by Erikson. Mis the period of reirement and old age. ts characterized by dacioe, ‘The individual accepts the focis of ls and remains busy analyzing his past during thi period, ine individual has done effective planning in the earlier period ‘sotified and proud. It iu been a failure, he is afflicted with regret and remorse, hopelessness, and awaits death, Kohiberg's Theory of Moral Development Morality Morality refers to 2 system of Dalles and values that is invoked fo determine bat i Agu and wha ls wong, Morally means thatthe mélvidual should discharge his oaial fesponsibiliies without encreaching upon others’ freedom and eghts: ‘Moral Development Moral davefopment is a part of social, cognitive and psychological development. Mora) developmant requites the individual to understand social values and mould his behaviour accordingly. Newiy-bom children are unaware of any immoral beings, They Know nathing about ech develop, their concepts af right and wrong underge 3 five-yesr old child would reply that is wrong to quarrel, 10 lie, to sieal and to hurt others. However the mearing of these statements gradually bagins to change They come to learn what falls and what does not fall uncer lying. They prow to understand how stealing is diferent from borrowing. Thay know tat hurting someone on purpose ‘and accidentally ‘are two different matters. Children’s. moral statements @écord wth their cognitive development older cehidren have better understanding tran amalier children. Children's cognitive Gavelopment relates to their moray In whieh the concept of right and wrong holds a truco! postion. Parents and peers exer a formative influence /n ‘his regard, The person that the child follows or takes: as his: model plays @ Key rola in the cognitive development of the child, ‘Jean Piaget talked of raral reasoning fox the fst tm in 1932, He told them ciffernt stories and asked them to derive moral lessons fram fey characters: Lawrence Kohibery analyzed moral reasoning proposed by Piaget; he further developed Piaget's vrerk ond included in his regeardh adolescents and adufs slang With children in order to Tot aut moral resus. Kohiberg presented the theory of moral development for the first tine in 1988, However he reviged it many times later on.Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development Each level has two stages. Moral reasoning has been interpreted differently in each stage. He believes that the individual seeks different justification for moral reasoning. According to Kohiberg, people lake fecourse to any one of these six stages for moral reasoning. He opines that there aiso exists the seventh stage but very few people reach that stage, In order to evaluate the moral level of the individual, Kohlberg confronted him with a situation that allows of the application of various moral principles. He described the situation to the individual and sought his reply and justification. The arguments furnished by the individual determine his moral level Kohiberg put forward four postulates in his theory: i- Every individual goes through these stages step by step. jie “These stages are common to almost ail cultures. lie Every stage is more complex and comprehensive than the previous one. iv- The individual can be at one stage of these levels at a time. ‘According to Kohlberg, a child with average cognitive development passes through three stages by the age of 13 years, Zimbardo maintains that even a number of adults fall to reach the fourth stage and very few people go beyond it. It should be noted here that the attainment of higher levels depends upon cognitive development rather than age. Kohiberg's Table of Moral Levels Reason for Moral Behaviour Stages Levels Obeys rules to avoid punishment, Stage 1: Level 1: Conforms to ebtain reward, to have favours | Punishment Orientation reconvene retumed, ‘Stage 2: ore Reward Orientation Conforme to avoid disapproval of others. | Stage 2: Level 2: Uphods lana and social rules to avod | Good Chis etn | Garwatonel Cantu of sues and feelngs 90 | sany4 jeralty about not doing one’s duty. Law and Order Orientation “To promote the society's welfare. To uphold | Stage &' Lovel 3: the principle to retain respect of peers and | socisl Contract Orientation | Post- conventional thus self-respect. Morality Action guided by selt-chosen ethical | $°9°5 principles (that usually value justice, dignity, | Ethical Principles Orientation ‘and equality) Principles upteld 10 avoid self-condamnation To be true to universal principles and fee! | Stage 7: nese part of @ cosmic direction that | Cosmic Orientation Iranscends social norms20_An 1ch to Psychology, Inter Part-tt The levels postulated in Kofiberg's theory are elaborated below: Level-t Precenventienal Morality Itis the first level of moral development. The child does not take moral values: into account at this fevel. It tries to fulfil its imputses by hook or by crook. Stage 1- Punishment Orientation ‘The first stage ofthis level is called punishment orientation. Morality at this stage refers to conformity to what is ordained by the authority. The individual's thinking is based ‘on his own viewpoint during this period, He is egocentric. The individual believes that others feel and think the same as he thinks. All of his deeds at this stage are gukied by punishment obedience orientation. The individual feels that he will receive punishment if the does not show obedience. At this stage the individual abides by rules and regulations to avoid punishment. This is what determines good and bad deeds. in other words, children judge their actions by whether they let them escape punishment or not Stage 2- Reward Orientation This stage relates to reward orientation Here morality means what suits the subject. During this period, the child begins to understand that others have different viewpoints, In spite of this, the child cannot think vicariously and hence cannot understand others’ point of view At this stage the individual resorts to morality to achieve his ai. Children follow rules of cooperate with peers conditionally. They ask what they will get in retum. A sense of personal interest forms the basis of this stage. In other words, the child develops a ‘sense of loss and profit The children between seven and ten years of age draw upon this stage. Level-2 Conventional Morality ‘After ten, the child increasingly begins to act in conformity with conventional ‘morality. While classifying their actions, children give priority to creating a good impression before others. They argue that the action that wins them the high opinion of others is good. ‘thirteen years old child tries to seek answer to a number of ethical questions so. ‘hat it may solve moral issues. At this level, the child begins to have @ clearer concept of rules and regulations, standard behaviour, approval and disapproval of others, expectations, conventional values, social laws and loyalty to the country, and regards them as moral values, Stage 3- Good Child Orientation ‘The good child orientation is consolidated at this stage. The child performs only ‘such actions as are approved by the society.Theories of Development _21 A situation and the environment are viewed In ‘elation to each other The individual begins to fea! that selfishness is bas He prefers mutual agreements to personal interest. Here the individual is mainly concerned with developing conformity with others. It is known as interpersonal conformity in social ¢elations. The individual follows what is considered good by people. He abides by rules and regulations in order to win appreciation by others The support, cooperation and assistance extended by others is considered desirable at this stage ‘Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation The individual develops a clear concept af right. wrong end law at this fourth stage of level two. He begins to realize that right relates to social values. ‘The individual gives importance to fulfiling his duty at this stage. He considers it right to respect authority and conform to social organization According to Kohiberg, many people fail to go beyond this stage of the second level. At this stage, the individual thinks law to be what cannot be violated. He likes obeying authority and compiying with the social system, The individual believes that everyone should follow traditions, norms and customs and social values, He thinks alt of them are legitimate and acts upon them, The individual obeys law very sincerely at this stage of development He performs his duties devotedly, He considers law to be above everything else and expects conformity to Jew on the part of others, v s Level-3 ¢ Vs Postconventional Morality According to Kohlberg, this is the last and highest stage of moral development. This stage occurs when the individual begins to formulate abstract and moral laws. At this level, the individual develops the ability to rise above social traditions, values, race, friendship, enmity, religion and social stratification. Apart from rule of law, he takes into account human valles, others’ rights and their status. Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation Human righls are accorded precedence over laws at this stage Here good means, “the criterion of everybody's rights is consensus by all: The individual thinks that all people in a social system are important Hence decisions should be made on the basis of collective interest Collective interest means the interest of every group and class The individual believes all people should have ‘equal rights irrespective of whal creed they profess, for law is meant for human betterment. The moral development of the individual demands at this stage that human rights should be upheld. Maintaining social system, respecting law, safeguarding human rghts and upholding human freedom are the distinctive characleristics of this stage, The behaviour thal causes harm to sociely-no matler whether itis legal-is considered wrong by the individual y y22 _An Approach to Psychology. Inter Part! Stage 6- Ethical Principle Orientation The individual's moralty comes to be associated with his conscience at th stage. He makes good or bad decisions according to his conscience, The individual more stress on justice, respect for humanity and equality, At this stage, the individ considers others warthy of respect and honour in accordance with the criterion of rig and justice, ‘The individual who reaches this stage upholds his self-made principles based justice and human dignity. In this way, he thinks highly of his own self as well as other ‘who support this morality, tation Stage 7- Cosmic 01 ‘According to Kohlberg, these six stages are followed by the seventh stag characterized by cosmic or universal orientation, Very few people manage to reach thi stage. The individual at this stage thinks that the universal rules of morality transcent every kind of law and boundary. Everyone should have access to justice, honour ani basic needs, irrespective of what colour and creed he may belong to. Evaluation Kohiberg has based this theory of moral development on the reasonit employed by children. He has given children the status of a philosopher who formulat his own values. He maintains that children while framing their moral standards at importance to argumentation with their peers, apart from their parents and soci environment. Other psychologists have raised objections to Kohiberg’s theory, arguing that the! distinction between right and wrong cannot be made merely on the basis of cognit development. The critics maintain that chidren’s morally is determined by the way the; follow their parents, and reward and admonition they receive for showing good and bat behaviour Besides this, the moral standards that they read in books, watch on TV ani see their peers following also help to foster the moral development of the child. The critics also object that Kohiberg’s theory is based only on moral thinking and approach, He has not enforced moral behaviour practically nor has he seen it being practi actually. It means that Kohlberg has based his theory on what wes reported by subjects or individuals He has not seen the practical demonstration of their statement Maybe individuals in their practical lfe display a behaviour that runs counter to thelr thoughts. ‘The Quran and the Creation of Man The holy Quran has comprehensively touched on the creation of man more than seventy tines. The present day anatomy and physiology bear out what was said fourteen: hundred years ago 1- Man was created from clay 2. Man was created from: sounding clay 3. Man was created from water, 4 Man was created from a single person.Theories of Development 23 5- Man was created from (a drop of) detestable fluid. 6 Man has been brought forth from the womb, 7 Man has been brought into existence from mother’s womb, 8 Man has been created from a drop of blood 9% Manis born weak. 10- Man.has been produced in a pleasing form 11- Man innately tends to be too hasty (in acting). The holy Quran has described the development of man very pithily in a few verses. God says in Surah Al-mu'minun (verse 12-15): "We created man from the extract of clay. Then We placed him as a sperm drop in a secure place {mother’s womb), Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood, then of that clot We made a lump (foetus), then We made out of that lump bones and clothed the bones with fiesh; then We developed out of it another creature. So blessed be ALLAH, the Best of creators.” In verses 20-13 of Surah Al-Mursalat God says, “Have We not created you from a fluid (held) despicable? Then We placed it in a secure place (mothers womb) for a determined period (of gestation) Then We determined time periods. And how excellently We determined!” The following Quranic verse also mentions prenatal stages as well as other stages of development: Surah Al-Haij (verse-5} *O mankind! If you have a doubt about the Resurrection, (consider) that We created you out of dust, then out of sperm, then out of a leech like clot, then out of a morsel of flesh, partly formed and partly unformed, in order that We may manifest (our power) to you; and We cause whorn We wil {0 rest in the wombs for an appointed term, then We bring you out as infants, then (foster you) that you may reach your age of full strength; and some of you are called to die, and some are sent back to the feeblest old ‘age, so that they know nothing after having known (much). Explanation in the Holy Hadith Hazrat Abduilah Bin Masood narrates that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said, “Every one of you remains in mother’s womb for 40 days, then it becomes (eile) After another forty days, it becomes {~m) then after another forty days, God sends an angel who infuses soul into it. He (the angel) is ordained to inscribe four things: (man’s) means of subsistence, his time of death, his deeds and his good fortune and misfortune.”24 An Approach to Psychology, Inter Part-lt ‘Subjective Questions 4- Describe Piaget's theory of cognitive development 2. Write down Erikson's theory of psychasociel development 3+ Write a note on Kohiberg’s theory of moral development 4 Explain Quranie view about the creation of manich fo Psychology, Inter Partll ‘Subjective Questions 4 Describe Piagat’s theory of cognitive development 2. Write down Eriksan’s theory of psychosocial development 3+ Write a note on Kohiberg's theory of moral development 4. Explain Quranic view about the creation of manSection II Chapter 1 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Definition, Health refers to the general robust and strong state of the mind and body. We can say that health means the coordinated functioning of different parts of body in a correct way rather than the absence of injury of disease Health means using one's abilities fully and vigorously. Being active, robust and cheerfulls a sign of health. Health Psychology There is a strong and well-defined relation between the body and tne mind Physical and psychological factors play a key role in buoyant health. Health psychology eais with such factors as are of vital importance to human health. Taylor (1992) says, “This department of psychology studies the psychological effects on human health, It tries to find out how people can remain heathy, wiy they fall ill and what reaction they show when they are il.” Matarazzo is of the opinion that health psychology is a retatively new term but its concept dates back to ancient times For thousands of years, it has been the belief throughout the world in various cultures that people's mental state, behaviour and health are interrelated. Matarazzo maintains thal health psychologists also consult other branches of psychology in order to study other behavioural and psychological factors related to health and disease, Goats Psychologists describe the following goals of health psychology 4+ Maintenance and improvement of Health Psychologists exolain which ways of living ere healthful, For this purpose, they recommend regular exercise, better and baianced diet, brushing of teeth, regular medical check-up, and vaccination of children {As for improvement of health, psychologists study stress in particular. examining how it affects health and what measures can be adopted lo avoid stress and foster healthy behaviour. In this regard, they also look into the psychological factors lying behind physical diseases, for psychological and physioiogicat pressure due to stress affects health, Research indicates that weak health has causal fink with absence of exercise, poor diet, smoking and addiction of other types, 25pproach to Psychology, inter Partil We cannot escape death in any way. However we can avoid untimely death ara least delay it by acting upon the recorwmencations of experts, This is what experts & 2- Control and Prevention of Diseases Paycholgists have not only recommended caution to avoid diseases but & tighlighted the harms arising fom carebss atiitude. In this regard, they msist garbage and refuse should be disposed of properly so as to keep the anvirenmant 3+ Dissemination of Information about Health Psychologists try to change system and methodology for this purpose Mores they try to convey the information about health to people through various means example, transmitting different programmes through the mass media, setting up Me camps, organizing awareness programmes for the people and conducting doore survey are a part of this goal. 4- Preventive Measures ‘Advising on a healthy way of life, experts ask people to fasten safety belts | prevent accident, to avoid smoking ‘and to follow their physician's instructions in letter: spint Experts warn that many people's way of if is fatally unhealthy because tl ot abstain from such things as research has proved to be harmful to the health, they suffer from different diseases. Relation between Health Psychology and other Branch Healthy psychology is closely related to clinical psychology and behav medicine ehaviour medicine and healthy psychology pursue the same goals ie. tox awareness about health and disease. Both these branches are gaining popularity ‘America, because the etiology of diseases has changed a lot in the present age Pneumonia, TB, chicken-pox and influenza caused most of deaths until th middie of the 20th century. Now cancer, diabetes and disorders of liver, heart, Kid and lungs are considered to be the major causes of death. However today's dise have produced dezp psychological eHfecis on human Ife: they have not only a people's way of ifte deeply but also changed it altogether Both healtn psychology and behaviour mecicine advise people on how they 3 improve their health to live a long Hfe, Behavioural Factors that Affect Physical Health Health psychology studies behavioural factors in detail because researches hav proved that |. Change in behaviour exacerbates some chronic diseases it Positive changes in behaviour alleviate some diseases.Health Psychology _ 27 lil. Bringing about behavioural hange is a lot easier and safer than treating diseases iv Behavioural treatment is cheaper in any case, Psychological Factors that Affect Physical Health Adler Matthews raises the question whether the aspects of personality and physical heath are interrelated, whether psychological analysis of an individual can help us to predict what psychological or physiological diseases he is likely to suffer from, why atter all some individuals are prone to diseases, why alter ail some people generally remain healthy and some il. ‘Adler Matthews says that the answers to these questions are neilher positive nor negative. However, the relation between personality traits and physical health can be proved Adler Malthows opines that one can avoid diseases by adopting healthy habits Health psychologists maintain that apart from the individual's personality traits, beliefs, attitudes and values, these habits aiso relate to the habits of friends and family members, for they form most immediate environment for the individual Experts believe that psychological factors play a key role in many serious physical diseases such as cancer, paralysis, heart disorders, high blood pressure, migraine, backache, astiima, diabeles and overeating Friedman studied 101 medical research papers and came to the conclusion that the individual's having cardiac disorders also suffer from depression, anxiety, anger of rage. Besides this, the patients of asthma, ulcer, arthritis and headache have these behavioural trats. Rosenman et al (1975) have proved through their research that diseases and behavioural trails are closely interrelated. They say neart patients have personality traits of type-A. Friedman and Booth Kenly nave also established relations between heart problems and Typo-As ‘The National Health Institute of the US has announced that type-A behaviour is dangerously liable to cardiac problems. Itmay be noted that the people with type—A behaviour ere competitive, impatient hhighly excitable and have strong achievement motive, Researches have proved that behavioural traits like anger, pessimism, ‘depression and despondency are related to physical diseases Some psychologists maintain that there is no essential difference between the personalities of type-A and type-B individuals. This difference arises when they experience a stress situation. Under stressful conditions or a crisis, the blood pressure and heartbeat have been noted to increase considerably. In ather words, the behavioural traits of type -A individuals invite diseaseInter Parts Mental Health We use the term mental neatth many times in our everyday life. "Mental refers to that menial state of the individual which gives him a sense of physical intelligence ang abiities in 2 better way, ne leads a happy and cheerful ite The individual who shows suitable reactions to the demands of the envi ‘and uses his capabilities for the benefit of humanity is mentally healthy. Mental health is 2 subjective state, The absence of mental health means illness. Hence the person who is not mentaily il possesses mental health The various criteria have been set out to study mental health + Medical Criterion ii- Psychological Criterion ii Social Criterion iv- Islamic Criterion i: Medical Criterion Medical criterion means to examiné the individual's mental health from rh point of view. Medically speaking, mental nealth relers to that state of the individual contains no symptoms of mental disorder The individual is: also physically ft in. According to this criterion, the symptoms of mental disorder are not found in py health. If the individual's mind is functioning property, it means that his brain is healthy. The nervous system forms the basis of mental processes. Without this fis mental processes cannot occur. Hence peopie relate mental health to. physical Geclaring that a healthy body contains a heathy mind, lis Psychological Criterion Psychologically, mental health means that state of the individual in which behaviour and reaction reflect physical and mental health, the individual faces difficulty in adapting to the environment and is able to use his abiities vigorously for welfare of humanity. Normal individuals have the ability to make a realisiic appraisal of th environment. According to the psychological criterion, a mentally healthy person normal; ne is aware of his own self, has controf over his actions and can choose j profession of his own choice. It, however, does nat mean that a normal individual neve faces any worry oF failure. Normal individuals also show worty, restlessness and anxiety but this reaclion of theirs is momentary Moreover, if normal individuals have to fac failure and deprivation, they get out of this situation soon i- Social Criterion When the individual's mental health is analyzed with reference to social vai and attitudes, it is calied social criterion. According to this enterion, the individual wha follows social values is possessed of mental health The individual thinks positively in heathy society. Besides this, a society also contains healthy competition, envy, a228 _An Approach to Peycholoi Mental Health ‘We use the term mental heaith many times in cur everyday Iife. "Mental fs refers to that mental state of the individual which gives him a sense of physical mental well-being Such an individual adapts to the environment easily, he utlizes intelligence and abilities in a better way, ne leads a happy and cheerfut life.” The individual who snows suitable reactions to the demands of the enviro and uses his capabilities for the benefit of humanity is mentally heaithy. Mental health is a subjective state. The absence of mental health means ilness. Hence the person who is not mentally il possesses mental health The various criteria have been set out to study mental nealthy Medical Criterion ji Psychological Criterion. Social Criterion ive Islamic Criterion ie Medical Criterion Medical criterion means to examine the individual's mental health from point of view Medically speaking, mental health refers to that stete of the individual contains no symptoms of mental disorder The individual is also physically ft in I ‘According {0 this criterion, the symptoms of mental disarder are not found in phy: health. If the individual's mind is functionng properiy, it means that his brain is, als healthy. The nervous system forms the basis of mental processes, Without this basi mental processes cannot occur. Hence people relate mental health to physical declaring that a healtny body contains a heatiny mind ii Psychological Criterion Psychologically, mental health means that state of the individual in which behaviour and reaction refiect physical and mental health, the individual faces difficulty in adapting to the environment and is able fo use his abilties vigorousiy for welfare of humarity Normal individuals have the abity to make a realistic appraisal of environment According to the psychological criterion, a mentally healthy person normal; he is aware of his own self, has control over his actions and can choose: profession of his own choice. It, however, does not mean that a normal individual neve faces any worry or failure, Normal individuals also show worry, restlessness and anxiety but this reaction of theirs is momentary Moreover, if novmal individuals have to tacq failure and deprivation, they get out of this situation scon i- Social Criterion When the individual's mental health is analyzed with reference to social vaiue and attitudes, it is called social criterion, According to this criterion, the individual who} follows social values is possessed of mental health The indiwiduai thinks positively in heathy society Besides this, a society also contains healthy competition, envy, arHealth Psychology _ 29 atmosphere of mutual cooperation, sincerity, and control over head and heart and good habits Regard for 2 person's self-esteem, constructive use of various social sklls, safeguards against social repression and superstitions are signs cf meatal healtn Since every society has different values, the criteria of mental health vary (rom ‘one society to the other. Every healthy society helps to realize the creative potential of its members. It leads to ever-new inventions and a variety of creative activity n the society. The feeling of mental health is subjective However its realization at collective level is as necessary. Healthy peopie constitute a healthy society An unhealthy society does not have the ability to adapt to the environment and thus its members fail to realize their potential 5 1, eavestile, cre ‘Accarding te this criterion, the individual's mental health is determined by how lose to oF distant from God he is in the light of the Quran and Hadith. & mentally heathy individual is one who obeys God and His prophet and acts in order to win their approval and favour. The individual will be considered mentally unhealthy in proportion to how blatantly he acts in defiance of these injunctions Islam prescnbes contentment submission, patience and thankfulness for mental health. !slam forbids asceticism and lays stress on duty to God and fellow beings Islam does not prohibit pursuit of worldly comforts and riches earned through lawful means. However it enjoins the spending of surplus money on the welfare of humanity. Isiam is a religion in accord with what is natural, Hence it does not impose anyting that is unnatural iv. Islamic Criterion : Adjustment ‘The real factor behind rhentel and physical health is adjustment On the one hand, adjustment relates to the individual and his needs and on the other, to his environment. With reference to mental and physical health, the coricept of adjustment is very old, important and holds a key position. It ts adjustment that provides a basis for Darwin's world-famous theory of evolution Darwin asserts that the life and survival of organisms depends on adjustment to the environment. The organism or its whole species would be wiped out in case of maladjustment. ‘The second point asserted by Denwin |s the struggle for existence. This struggle is also waged fo make adjustment to the environment Agjusiment to the environment involves changing and moulding the environment the way one likes or changing one's thinking and behaviour and adjusting it to the environment According to Woodwerth, there can be three ways to deal with the environment i+ Conforming to the environment i+ Coping with the environment ‘Turning the environment to one’s advantage30_An Approach to Psychology, tnter Part i+ Conforming to the environment means submiting to the environmental ‘and participating in them. To follow rules and regulations or obey the off tantamounts to conforming to the environment ii: To cope with the environment means to change it The people who have regard for ruies or violate college ciscipline do not conform to the environ ‘Such people join the efforts to change the environment ik Turing the environment to one’s advantage means to make the most physical or social elements of the environment, for exemple ingratiating onsite with a high ranking officer in a bid to win some favours, fullling one's needs hook or by crook, etc |All these methods have the same goal, lle. to adjust to the enviro Moulding the environment the way one wishes is also included in it ‘Adjustment does not merely mean being in harmony with the environment |n th regatd, the individual must have harmony. within his wn sail The individual remal engaged in achieving adjustment throughout his life Ralph H. Tindall has enumerated seven signs of the behaviour having adjustment He maintains that the individual who has attained adjustment possesses {he following qualities: 1 He is consistent 2 He fulfils social demands. 3+ He is realistic in his approach. 4. He possesses harmony in his personality 5 He displays his emotional behaviour in @ proper way. 6- He gains in maturity as he grows older 7- He promotes personal and social welfare with his performance ‘According lo Lazarus, the individuals suffering from maladjusiment have following traits 4. Such an individual is @ victim of psychological dissatisfaction 2 He shows cognitive incompetence and decline + There are obvious shortcomings in his behaviour and actions. Such an individual shows abnormal or deviant behaviour. ‘The process of adjustment is affected when the individual encounters obstacle inthe way of satisfying his wishes: and motes. These obstacles vary in their ral ‘Sometimes they selate to the individual himseif and sometimes to the physical and-socs environment. So the individual keeping in view. the nature of obstacles adopts vara ways for adjustmentHeaith Psychology _31 Criteria of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour Nature The average behaviour of ordinary people is held to be normal. The individual who deviates from this behaviour is termed abnormal. Literally, normal means usual standard and abnormal means deviation from what is normal. In other words, the individual who acts differenty from what is normal is called abnormal The examination of normal and abnormai behaviour involves determining what is meant by normal and which behaviour is to be considered notmal. In this regard, a final criterion that is agreed on by alls yet to be determined The abnormal behaviour is as multidimensional as the normal one Hence the presence or absence of ane or twa signs cannot suffice to declare who is normal and ‘who is abnormal Psychologists generally draw on the following criteria to decide on normal and abnormal behaviour. These criteria are neither completely standard nor free of flaws. ‘That is why they are subjected to criticism. However, by studying them we can have a clearer concept of normal behaviour. ‘The criteria laid down in this regard are as foilows: 1+ Statistical Criterion 2: Medical Criterion 3 Social Approvai Criterion 4. Personal Distress i pax Cx 5- Personal Disability 6 Unexpected Behaviour 1- Statistical criterion means the average behaviour of the majority. According to this criterion, the behaviour of the majority is norma, ie. the behaviour displayed by most of the people in a society would be normal and the behaviour encountered rarely would be called abnormal ri This criterion cannot be considered correct According to it, one who acts differently from the majority ‘s abnormal However, it has been observed that deviant behaviour is not always abnormal The behaviour of intelligent, creative and artstic people is nat in conformity with that of the majority. Aren't these peopie normal? These people have exceptional mental abilities as compared to common people and use their talent to serve the country and the nation ‘The second main objection to statistical criterion is that behaviour of the majority differs or can differ from society to society, Hence their ofiterion of normality and abnormality should be different whereas itis notychology, Inter Part.jt 2 Medical Criterion According to this criterion, the individual who does not have symptoms of, disorder would be called normal Obsession, hallucination, anxigly, fear, restlessn symptoms willbe termed abnormal Criticism etc, but they cannot be called abnormal Mere presence of tiese symptoms makes m difference, rather the intensity and recurrence lies behind the individuals being labelle normal or abnormal, If these symploms persist wth much intensity and more or less invariably, such a person wal be termed abnormal 3. Social Approval Criterion This criterion was established in response to the chjections raised to t statistical criterion, According to this oriterion, the behaviour approved by the society be considered normal, namely the behaviour that people usually adopt ar wan! ta adopt normal and socially undesirable behaviour is abnormal According to this chiterion, a normal incividuat should dispose of all his social responsibiilies efficently. If a person shows regard for the rights of the people around him, he will be called normal Criticism Every. society nas its own standard of approval Islam does not lock 0 asceticism with favour whereas Christianity holds itn great esteem or at least people d think so. Besides this, the behaviour that is acceptable al one time becomes inadmissibiel after some time. Deviation from the social criterion may be undesirable but not abnormal For example, the dress of today’s young was nat thought well of until some time ago is very popular nowadays, Similarly, long “kames'. tight pants, sometimes shawl “du "8 and sometimes no ‘aupatta’ at all, skirts andi miniskirts — all these are chang crite. . of approval in diferent societies; they cannot be set as criteria of normal and abnormal behaviour. 4- Personal Distress According to psychologists, abnormal peopie-suffer from acute restlessness and anxiety, Their behaviour is characterized by a lot of complications. This criterion can b applied to patients of anxiety and depression but rol to many other disorders. personality. For a person suffering from bipolar disorder feels depressed! 28 well as fait cheerful, Similarly, this criterion is inapplicable to atients of catatonic schizophreni because such patients show no depression and istlessniess whatever These patie go about laughing, though the’ laughters are holon,Hestth Psychology 33 Criticism Even if there are explicit symptoms of anxiety and agitation, it cannot be labelled abnormal behaviour For example, ifthe train with our friends in it meets an accident or the town or city where cur relatives live is hit by a flood and we receive no information about their safety, we are bound to feel extremely anxious. Such anxiety or worry wil be normal, not abnormal Some medicines may also cause anxiety, even if for a short while. Hence this criterion also cannot be considered final 5 Personal Disability In this criterion, the disability to adopt a certain behaviour or to carry out a specific activity is regarded as a sign of abnormal behaviour Martin maintains that abnormal individuals cannot carry out mental processes and psychological activities efficiently Criticism Because of natural cisabilty the individual sometimes cannot adopt a specific behaviour. Hence the faluré to show some particular behaviour cannot be called abnormality. The failure and worries of daily fife sometimes bring about a chaotic anc disorganized sitvation, but its not considered abnormal ‘Neale and Davison believe that abnormal individuals show disability with reference to some particular ‘ield of life, e.g professional incompetence, failure to ‘establish social relations, etc 6- Unexpected Behaviour ‘The person who, in an ordinary situation, show a behaviour that is extravagant ‘and runs countar to the environmental demands will be called abnormal. In other words, the behaviour of normal people meets expectations whereas that of abnormal people does not fitin with expectations Criticism The frequent recurrence of improper behaviour is objectionable, but occasional occurrence of such a reaction cannot be called abnormai Normal people also sometimes display unexpected behaviour to surprise others However they generally adapt themselves to the situation and snow befitting behaviour ‘according to the occasion Every criterion mentioned avove is open to some sort of objection. Man being the crown of creation exhibits varied and complex behaviour Hence it is very difficult to lay down a final criterion for normal and abnormal behaviour34_An Approach to Psychology, intor Part-it Difference between Normal and Abnormal Behaviour ‘The individual who is mentally healthy and has altained adjustment is label normal ‘Abnormal means one who deviates from what is normal. In other words, thi person who has achieved adjustment is normal and the person who lacks the ability adjustment is abnormal In this regard, it is important to note that the concept of being normal an abnormal is not like the two sides of a coin, ie heads or tails, rather a number-of habit and traits may be common to both normal and abnormal behaviours, Sometimes, tt have the same problems and complications. Normal people try to solve these problet and complications and manage to find out some sort of solution whereas abnormal people are overwhelmed by problems and difficulties and they neither try to dispose: them nor are they capable of doing so. The symptoms of deviant behaviour in abnormal individuals are severe an‘ relatively permanent while the characteristics of normal behaviour in them are few or né to nothing A Few Characteristics of Normal Behaviour 4 A normal individual Keeps examining his abilties realistically and is generally self-aware. 2. Normat ingividuals remain engaged in constructivé activities and desist fi destructive acts 3 Normal peopie stay away from muddled thinkmg and are capable of making rational decisions ‘These persons steer clear cf supersiitions end false beliefs. Keeping in view the objective factors, they adopt realistic approach 5 Such people are flexible in their attitude That is why, they adapt lo every type of environment & Normal individuals possess strong wil-power, healthy approach, ability to take practical steps, and profound insight 7- Normal people when faced with adverse circumstances are not reduced to disappointment and despair, rather they make efforts to tackle them. 8- Such people follow rules and regulations and are loyal to their country and nation 9+ These people pursue personal and social welfare 10- Normal people use their talent cheerfully and prove useful for themselves as well as others 411= Such people have unity of behaviour and show consistency 12-These people maintain balance between their behaviour, beliefs and social demands, and are better able to adapt to theit environment 13- They fulfil their needs in a legitimate way, and do not encroach upon others’ rights.—a et Health Psychology _35 44- Normal individuals maintain balance in the expression of their emotions They neither suppress their emotions nor let themselves be carried away by them 15- Such people discharge their social responsibilities productively. They establish positive relationships with their group and society. Islamic Concept of Mental Health The Islamic criterion of mental heath |s nearness to God, The person who fulfils his duty to God and fellow beings is mentally nealtny. In Islam, man is the crown of creation and the one before whom angels prostrated themselves. He has been sent to the earth as vicegerent of God Hence he possesses countless talents; he is a sovereign being, not a mere puppet. He has the ability to distinguish between good and evil as well as the freedom lo follow a course of his own choice, In view of the foregoing, we can say that mentally healthy is the person who maintains balance between his wishes, emotions and natura! inclinalions, subordinates his freedom to reason and exercises sestraint and moderation Muslim ulema have prescribed ways 10 achieve this goal, (e. the individual ‘should act upon the teachings of Isiam sincerely The person who does not follow Islamic injunctions deviates from the right patn. Such individuals insteed of showing equity, magnanimous favour (‘ehsaan’}, care for relatives (si-e-rehmi) succumb to evis lke arrogance, cruelty and sell-secking Such evils harm mental health According to religious scholars, contentment and repentance help us to avoid mental worries: pe, Muslim Thinkers’ Cénict ot Mental HEH” (Note: only the theories of mental neath presented by a few Muslim thinkers have been briefly discussed below. The other services rendered by them need not be mentioned here ) Ibn-e-Maskawaih He mentioned that man is a combination of soul and body. If the soul achieves dominance, man will remain mentally nealthy, for the soul relates to reason, In other words, the dominance exerted by the scul refiects mentat health tbn-e-Arabi He believes that the culmination of mental health dies in the annihilation of human seifin the divine self if man lets himself be submerged in the divine sel, he will not suffer ‘rom mental disorder, Zakariya Razi imam Razi holds that emolionai attachment to material things and then parting ‘with them causes mental disorder. ‘ ‘When the individual grows too much attached to material things, their loss causes mental liness. If the individual nurtures strong love for worldly, material and ephemeral things and makes frantic efforts to get them then the failute to have them is